Most of our knowledge about drug use, abuse and dependence comes from studies that have been conducted in industrial world. As a result, our knowledge about epidemiology and consequences of illicit drug use in developing countries is very limited. We call for researchers to submit their works related to epidemiology and consequences of illicit drug use, abuse and dependence among populations in low and middle income countries. Clinical and community based studies are both welcomed. Manuscripts that provide nationally representative sample are in priority. All types of papers including original, review, methods, commentary, editorial, perspective, opinion, case study, and hypothesis and theory are accepted. A list of low and middle income countries is available here: http://www.gfmag.com/tools/global-database/economic-data/12066-countries-by-income-group.html#axzz2cQ3q1OxA

Albert Einstein College of Medicine

Frontiers in Psychiatry

Addictive Disorders

Epidemiology and consequences of illicit drug use in developing countries

Background: Although needle and syringe sharing is one of the main routs of transmission of HIV in several countries in the middle east, very little is known about how socio-economic status of injecting drug users (IDUs) is linked to the receptive syringe sharing behaviors in these countries.Aim: To study socio-economic correlates of receptive needle and syringe sharing among IDUs in Iran.Methods: The study used data from the Unhide Risk Study, a national survey of IDUs. This study sampled 636 IDUs (91% male) via snowball sampling from eight provinces in Iran in 2009. Socio-demographic and drug use characteristics were collected. We used a logistic regression to determine factors associated with receptive needle and syringe sharing during the past 6 months.Results: From 636 IDUs enrolled in this study, 68% (n = 434) reported receptive needle and syringe sharing behaviors in the past 6 months. Odds of receptive needle and syringe sharing in the past 6 months was lower among IDUs who were male [odds ratios (OR) = 0.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.12–0.70], had higher education (OR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.64–0.86) but higher among those who were unemployed (OR = 4.05, 95% CI = 1.50–10.94), and were single (OR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.02–2.11).Conclusion: This study presented factors associated with risk of receptive needle and syringe sharing among Iranian IDUs. This information may be used for HIV prevention and harm reduction purposes. Socio-economic status of Iranian IDUs may be closely linked to high-risk injecting behaviors among them.

Background: Although needle and syringe sharing is one of the main routs of transmission of HIV in several countries in the middle east, very little is known about how socio-economic status of injecting drug users (IDUs) is linked to the receptive syringe sharing behaviors in these countries.
 Aim: To study socio-economic correlates of receptive needle and syringe sharing among IDUs in Iran.
 Methods: The study used data from the Unhide Risk Study, a national survey of IDUs. This study sampled 636 IDUs (91% male) via snowball sampling from eight provinces in Iran in 2009. Socio-demographic and drug use characteristics were collected. We used a logistic regression to determine factors associated with receptive needle and syringe sharing during the past 6 months.
 Results: From 636 IDUs enrolled in this study, 68% (n = 434) reported receptive needle and syringe sharing behaviors in the past 6 months. Odds of receptive needle and syringe sharing in the past 6 months was lower among IDUs who were male [odds ratios (OR) = 0.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.12–0.70], had higher education (OR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.64–0.86) but higher among those who were unemployed (OR = 4.05, 95% CI = 1.50–10.94), and were single (OR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.02–2.11).
 Conclusion: This study presented factors associated with risk of receptive needle and syringe sharing among Iranian IDUs. This information may be used for HIV prevention and harm reduction purposes. Socio-economic status of Iranian IDUs may be closely linked to high-risk injecting behaviors among them.

Socio-Economic Status Determines Risk of Receptive Syringe Sharing Behaviors among Iranian Drug Injectors; A National Study

Background: Transmission of HIV from intra-venous drug users (IDUs) to the community occurs predominantly through high-risk sexual behaviors. Limited information exists regarding the high-risk sexual behaviors of IDUs in Iran.Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and factors associated with having multiple sexual partners among Iranian IDUs.Methods: This is a national survey on drug-dependent adults. Participants were sampled from medical centers, prisons, and streets of capitals of 29 provinces in Iran between May 2007 and February 2008. We analyzed data of 1416 current IDUs. Socio-demographics and drug use characteristics were entered into a binary logistic regression model to determine predictors of having multiple sexual partners.Results: Having multiple sexual partners in the past or at the time of survey was reported by 56.4% of Iranian IDUs. Multivariate analysis showed that the likelihood of having multiple sexual partners in IDUs decreased by being married [odds ratio (OR), 0.38; P < 0.001] and increased by female gender (OR, 13.44; P = 0.02), having illegal income (OR, 1.72; P = 0.003), higher monthly family income (OR, 1.01; P = 0.003), pleasure, curiosity, and recreation as cause of first drug use (OR, 1.37; P = 0.04), ruins as usual place for injection (OR, 1.89; P = 0.001) and history of syringe sharing (OR, 1.50; P = 0.02).Conclusion: Having multiple sexual partners was reported by majority of Iranian IDUs, and this was linked to socio-demographics, initiation data, and other risk behaviors. This information should be considered in prevention efforts to reduce sexual transmission of HIV infection in Iran.

Background: Transmission of HIV from intra-venous drug users (IDUs) to the community occurs predominantly through high-risk sexual behaviors. Limited information exists regarding the high-risk sexual behaviors of IDUs in Iran.Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and factors associated with having multiple sexual partners among Iranian IDUs.Methods: This is a national survey on drug-dependent adults. Participants were sampled from medical centers, prisons, and streets of capitals of 29 provinces in Iran between May 2007 and February 2008. We analyzed data of 1416 current IDUs. Socio-demographics and drug use characteristics were entered into a binary logistic regression model to determine predictors of having multiple sexual partners.Results: Having multiple sexual partners in the past or at the time of survey was reported by 56.4% of Iranian IDUs. Multivariate analysis showed that the likelihood of having multiple sexual partners in IDUs decreased by being married [odds ratio (OR), 0.38; P &lt; 0.001] and increased by female gender (OR, 13.44; P = 0.02), having illegal income (OR, 1.72; P = 0.003), higher monthly family income (OR, 1.01; P = 0.003), pleasure, curiosity, and recreation as cause of first drug use (OR, 1.37; P = 0.04), ruins as usual place for injection (OR, 1.89; P = 0.001) and history of syringe sharing (OR, 1.50; P = 0.02).Conclusion: Having multiple sexual partners was reported by majority of Iranian IDUs, and this was linked to socio-demographics, initiation data, and other risk behaviors. This information should be considered in prevention efforts to reduce sexual transmission of HIV infection in Iran.

Having Multiple Sexual Partners among Iranian Intra-Venous Drug Users

Background: Although the problem of substance use among drivers is not limited to certain parts of the world, most epidemiological reports on this topic have been published from industrial world.Aim: To investigate pattern of drug use among Iranian drivers who were involved in fatal road accidents.Methods: This study enrolled 51 Iranian adults who were involved in fatal vehicle accidents and were imprisoned thereafter. Data came from a national survey of drug abuse that was done among Iranian prisoners. The survey collected data at the entry to seven prisons in different regions of the country during a 4-month period in 2008. Self-reported lifetime, last year, and last month drug use was measured. Commercial substance screening tests were applied to detect recent substance use (opioids, cannabinoids, methamphetamines, and benzodiazepines).Results: The commercial substance screening test showed three distinct patterns of recent illicit drug use: opioids (37.3%), cannabinoids (2.0%), opioids and cannabinoids (13.7%). 29.4% were also positive for benzodiazepines. The substance use screening test detected 23.5% of participants who had used drugs but did not disclose any substance use.Conclusion: Opioids are the most common illicit drugs being used by Iranian drivers who are involved in fatal car accidents. The high rate of substance use prior to fatal car accidents in Iran advocates for the need for drug use control policies and programs as major strategies for injury prevention in Iran. There is also a need for substance screening among all drivers involved in fatal car accidents in Iran, as more than 20% of users may not disclose substance use.

Background: Although the problem of substance use among drivers is not limited to certain parts of the world, most epidemiological reports on this topic have been published from industrial world.
 Aim: To investigate pattern of drug use among Iranian drivers who were involved in fatal road accidents.
 Methods: This study enrolled 51 Iranian adults who were involved in fatal vehicle accidents and were imprisoned thereafter. Data came from a national survey of drug abuse that was done among Iranian prisoners. The survey collected data at the entry to seven prisons in different regions of the country during a 4-month period in 2008. Self-reported lifetime, last year, and last month drug use was measured. Commercial substance screening tests were applied to detect recent substance use (opioids, cannabinoids, methamphetamines, and benzodiazepines).
 Results: The commercial substance screening test showed three distinct patterns of recent illicit drug use: opioids (37.3%), cannabinoids (2.0%), opioids and cannabinoids (13.7%). 29.4% were also positive for benzodiazepines. The substance use screening test detected 23.5% of participants who had used drugs but did not disclose any substance use.
 Conclusion: Opioids are the most common illicit drugs being used by Iranian drivers who are involved in fatal car accidents. The high rate of substance use prior to fatal car accidents in Iran advocates for the need for drug use control policies and programs as major strategies for injury prevention in Iran. There is also a need for substance screening among all drivers involved in fatal car accidents in Iran, as more than 20% of users may not disclose substance use.

Drug Use among Iranian Drivers Involved in Fatal Car Accidents

For almost all injecting drug users (IDUs), the first site of injection is the arm. Years after injection, IDUs may shift to using other sites for intravenous (IV) access. Although injection to sites other than the arm is associated with higher risks, literature is limited regarding this behavior. We aimed to determine the prevalence and associated factors of using IV access points other than the arm among a national sample of IDUs in Iran. Data came from the National Drug Dependence Survey, 2007, which had enrolled 863 IDUs with at least one daily injection. Data on socio-demographics, pattern of drug use, and injection-related behaviors were entered into a logistic regression to determine predictors of injection to sites other than the arm. From all participants, 54.8% reported current injection sites in areas other than the arm. The other injection sites were the femoral venous sinus (17.0%), followed by the groin (14.5%) and neck (11.5%). Logistic regression revealed that living alone [odds ratio (OR) = 1.789, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.218–2.629], being Sunni (OR = 3.475, 95% CI = 1.775–6.801), having higher family income (OR = 1.002, 95% CI = 1.001–1.003), higher age at first drug use (OR = 1.039, 95% CI = 1.009–1.069), longer injection duration (OR = 1.071, 95% CI = 1.041–1.102), and more injection frequency (OR = 1.255, 95% CI = 1.072–1.471) were associated with higher likelihood of using injection sites other than the arm. Using sites other than the arm for IV injection is linked to socio-demographics, drug use data, and injection-related characteristics that can be used by policy makers. This information can be used for harm reduction planning.

For almost all injecting drug users (IDUs), the first site of injection is the arm. Years after injection, IDUs may shift to using other sites for intravenous (IV) access. Although injection to sites other than the arm is associated with higher risks, literature is limited regarding this behavior. We aimed to determine the prevalence and associated factors of using IV access points other than the arm among a national sample of IDUs in Iran. Data came from the National Drug Dependence Survey, 2007, which had enrolled 863 IDUs with at least one daily injection. Data on socio-demographics, pattern of drug use, and injection-related behaviors were entered into a logistic regression to determine predictors of injection to sites other than the arm. From all participants, 54.8% reported current injection sites in areas other than the arm. The other injection sites were the femoral venous sinus (17.0%), followed by the groin (14.5%) and neck (11.5%). Logistic regression revealed that living alone [odds ratio (OR) = 1.789, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.218&#x2013;2.629], being Sunni (OR = 3.475, 95% CI = 1.775&#x2013;6.801), having higher family income (OR = 1.002, 95% CI = 1.001&#x2013;1.003), higher age at first drug use (OR = 1.039, 95% CI = 1.009&#x2013;1.069), longer injection duration (OR = 1.071, 95% CI = 1.041&#x2013;1.102), and more injection frequency (OR = 1.255, 95% CI = 1.072&#x2013;1.471) were associated with higher likelihood of using injection sites other than the arm. Using sites other than the arm for IV injection is linked to socio-demographics, drug use data, and injection-related characteristics that can be used by policy makers. This information can be used for harm reduction planning.

Drug Injection to Sites other than Arm: A Study of Iranian Heroin Injectors

Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and associated factors of inconsistent condom use among Iranian male injecting drug users (IDUs).Materials and Methods: Data came from the national Iranian behavioral survey of drug dependence, which sampled 7743 individuals with drug dependence, from medical centers, prisons, and streets in 29 provinces in Iran, in 2007. This study included all individuals who were male, IDUs, and were sexually active (n = 1131). The main outcome was inconsistent condom use which was assessed using a single item. A logistic regression was used to determine the association between socio-economic data, drug use data, and high risk injection behaviors with inconsistent condom use.Result: 83.3% of sexually active IDUs (n = 965) reported inconsistent condom use. Based on the logistic regression, likelihood of inconsistent condom use was higher among those with a history of syringe sharing [Odds Ratio (OR); 1.63, 95% Confidence Interval (CI); 1.13–2.34], but lower among those with higher education levels (OR; 0.34, 95% CI; 0.14–0.82), those who mostly inject at home (OR; 0.09, 95% CI; 0.02–0.47), and those with a history of treatment (OR; 0.54, 95% CI; 0.31–0.94).Conclusion: Because of the link between unsafe sex and risky injecting behaviors among Iranian IDUs, combined programs targeting both sexual and injection behavior may be more appropriate than programs that target sexual or injection behavior. The efficacy of combined programs should be, however, compared with traditional programs that only target sexual or injection behavior of IDUs.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and associated factors of inconsistent condom use among Iranian male injecting drug users (IDUs).Materials and Methods: Data came from the national Iranian behavioral survey of drug dependence, which sampled 7743 individuals with drug dependence, from medical centers, prisons, and streets in 29 provinces in Iran, in 2007. This study included all individuals who were male, IDUs, and were sexually active (n = 1131). The main outcome was inconsistent condom use which was assessed using a single item. A logistic regression was used to determine the association between socio-economic data, drug use data, and high risk injection behaviors with inconsistent condom use.Result: 83.3% of sexually active IDUs (n = 965) reported inconsistent condom use. Based on the logistic regression, likelihood of inconsistent condom use was higher among those with a history of syringe sharing [Odds Ratio (OR); 1.63, 95% Confidence Interval (CI); 1.13–2.34], but lower among those with higher education levels (OR; 0.34, 95% CI; 0.14–0.82), those who mostly inject at home (OR; 0.09, 95% CI; 0.02–0.47), and those with a history of treatment (OR; 0.54, 95% CI; 0.31–0.94).Conclusion: Because of the link between unsafe sex and risky injecting behaviors among Iranian IDUs, combined programs targeting both sexual and injection behavior may be more appropriate than programs that target sexual or injection behavior. The efficacy of combined programs should be, however, compared with traditional programs that only target sexual or injection behavior of IDUs.