Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), hold great promise for both cognitive enhancement and therapeutic interventions. However, a persistent challenge in the field is the high variability and inconsistency of results across studies, coupled with typically small effect sizes. These limitations have significantly hindered the clinical translation of NIBS protocols.

One promising avenue to overcome these barriers is the investigation of state-dependent mechanisms underlying NIBS efficacy. Accumulating evidence suggests that the effects of NIBS are not fixed but dynamically interact with the ongoing cognitive, affective, and neurophysiological state of the individual at the time of stimulation. For instance, cognitive processes such as working memory, attentional focus, and learning have emerged as critical modulators of NIBS outcomes, underscoring the need to account for these variables in both experimental and clinical settings. Understanding and operationalizing these state-dependent effects could pave the way toward more robust, reliable, and personalized NIBS applications.

This Research Topic aims to gather contributions that advance our understanding of how cognitive, affective, and neurophysiological states modulate the outcomes of NIBS over the adult lifespan. We particularly welcome studies that integrate behavioral assessments, neuroimaging, electrophysiology (e.g., EEG, MEG), and computational modeling to explore these interactions. Experimental, theoretical, and methodological contributions are all encouraged. In addition, we welcome studies involving clinical populations as well as studies encompassing the entire adult lifespan, including older adults.

Topics of interest include:
- Bidirectional state-dependent modulation between NIBS and cognitive processes: how cognitive states influence NIBS effects and, conversely, how NIBS modulates cognitive functions
- The role of cognitive task engagement and cognitive load in shaping NIBS effects
- The role of brain state fluctuations in shaping NIBS outcomes
- Interactions between affective states (e.g., stress, mood) and stimulation efficacy
- Neurophysiological predictors of NIBS responsiveness
- Closed-loop and adaptive NIBS protocols tailored to individual states
- Computational models of state-dependent plasticity in NIBS
- Implications for clinical applications and personalized medicine

By bringing together multidisciplinary perspectives, this Research Topic aims to promote a paradigm shift from static to dynamic, individualized approaches in NIBS research and applications.

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Cognitive, Affective, and Neurophysiological State-Dependency in Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation: Implications for Individualized Protocol Design