Abstract
Research has uncovered substantial consequences of shift work on health outcomes through disruption of sleep and circadian rhythms. Less explored is how the effects of shift work on sleep and circadian rhythms can facilitate interpersonal aggression and violence within the home (i.e., intimate partner violence, child abuse). Given challenges in direct studies on this topic, integration across related literature is critical. In this narrative review, we identify compounding variables centered around sleep and circadian rhythms that place shift workers at an increased risk of perpetrating interpersonal violence. Shift workers have impaired sleep and altered circadian rhythms. Associated alternations in executive functioning, stress, and alcohol use provide pathways to increase risk for interpersonal violence. A model of interactions facilitating the relationship between shift work and interpersonal violence is proposed to promote prevention efforts and motivate policy change.
1. Introduction
Interpersonal violence (IPV) is the intentional use of physical force or power against others via physical, psychological, sexual, or neglectful means (Mercy et al., ). Experiencing violence within the household has detrimental long-lasting impacts. Between 17% and 39% of the population experience physical IPV each year (Capaldi et al., ) and IPV is a leading cause of death among young adults (Plummer et al., ). Child maltreatment occurs at a rate of 8.1 out of every 1,000 children, most frequently in the form of neglect or physical abuse (Mulder et al., ). Given the high prevalence of IPV, understanding risk factors for perpetrating IPV is essential.
One particular risk for IPV may be shift work. Shift work refers to the rotation of workers to ensure 24-h coverage (Costa, ), resulting in many employees with irregular work arrangements (permanent night shifts, consistent unstructured work hours; Åkerstedt, ). Over 25% of the working population in the United States and 15–20% in Europe is involved in shift work with about 7% engaged in regular night work (Straif et al., ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (CDC) and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, (NIOSH), ; Costa, ).
The nature of shift work exposes these individuals to poor sleep, high stress (Marquié et al., ), and strain on personal relationships in marriages and families (Presser, ; Davis et al., ; Skoufi et al., ), all of which may put one at risk for committing IPV. Existing studies have reported on the relationship between sleep and violence (Paiva and Canas-Simião, ); the association between poor sleep and high subjective stress and aggression (Demichelis et al., ); occupational violence victimization and sleep problems (Magnavita et al., ); hostility as a predictor of sleep quality and quantity (Granö et al., ); the correlation between poor sleep and aggression or violence (Kamphuis et al., , ); intensified anger following sleep restriction (Krizan and Hisler, ); and how sleep problems contribute to aggression (Krizan and Herlache, ). Missing from this research are the effects of misaligned circadian rhythms and socioeconomic status on violence and anger. This review expands on existing literature, providing a novel perspective. Specifically, the purpose of this review is to distill evidence that shift workers are at an increased risk of perpetration of IPV given compounding factors related to sleep and circadian disruption. Given the difficulty of studies directly on perpetration of violence, it is essential to draw from this literature on related topics, as reviewed here. A summary of reviewed literature appears in Table 1.
Table 1
| Reference | n | Theme | Sub-theme(s) | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acheson et al. () | 20 | Sleep deprivation | Impulsive behavior | One night of sleep deprivation caused a significant increase in impulsive responses among women, but not among men |
| Bani-Issa et al. () | 335 | Shift work | Stress, cortisol, sleep quality | Night shift work and a shift lasting longer than 8 h were significantly associated with impaired morning and bedtime levels of cortisol among female healthcare professionals |
| Barker et al. () | 95, 141 | Sleep | Aggression | Male prisoners reported greater reactive and proactive aggression if they perceived themselves to have poor sleep |
| Brum et al. () | 36 | Shift work | Cortisol, melatonin, circadian rhythm | Night shift workers demonstrated reduced levels of salivary cortisol during their shifts and on off-days |
| Cannizzaro et al. () | 90 | Shift work | Cortisol, stress | Cortisol levels were significantly altered among a sample of security guards on the night shift, showing increases before and after their shift |
| Chang () | 132 | Shift work | Sleep quality, cortisol, stress | Type of shift influenced sleep quality and cortisol levels, with evening and night shift nurses experiencing the greatest impacts |
| Charles et al. () | 319 | Shift work | Cortisol, stress | Police officers working primarily night shifts showed a significantly shallower slope of salivary cortisol |
| Davis et al. () | 1,166 | Shift work | Stress, family satisfaction | Night shift work was associated with greater reported levels of marital instability and work spillover into family time |
| Eyy et al. () | 166 | Sleep | Risk-taking | Higher sleep need perception predicted more risk taking among habitual sleepers of short duration |
| Ganesan et al. () | 52 | Shift work | Sleep, melatonin, alertness | A lack of circadian adaptation to night work led to impaired alertness and performance. Working during peak urinary melatonin secretion was associated with greater subjective sleepiness and impairment |
| Garefelt et al. () | 3,706 | Sleep, stress | Insomnia symptoms | Perceived and occupational stressors predicted reported issues in initiation and maintenance of sleep, while trouble maintaining sleep was associated with increased levels of perceived and occupational stress |
| Grandner et al. () | 4,081 | Sleep | Sociodemographic traits, socioeconomic status | Self-reported sleep symptoms were associated with different respective sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics |
| Granö et al. () | 5,433 | Sleep | Hostility | Greater hostility was associated with increased sleep disturbances and may contribute to shorter sleep duration |
| Hafner et al. () | 62,000 | Sleep | Economic cost | Data from OECD nations indicated substantial economic losses due to inadequate sleep. Poor sleep is both a public health and economic issue. |
| Han et al. () | 38 | Shift work | Intervention, naps | Nurses allowed a scheduled nap during a 12-hour shift reported less fatigue and provided a higher level of clinical care |
| Haynes et al. () | 23 | Sleep, aggression | Substance use, intervention | Aggressive ideation and self-reported aggressive acts were reduced following a behavioral sleep intervention among adolescents using substances |
| Hoshino et al. () | 83 | Sleep | Domestic violence, aggression | Women experiencing domestic violence reported more sleep symptoms. Half of respondents reported greater aggressiveness in their partner following a poor night's sleep |
| Kadiani et al. () | 50 | Domestic violence | Profile of perpetrators | Domestic violence perpetrators reported suffering from an average of 4 adverse childhood experiences, being alcohol-dependent, and symptoms of anxiety/depression |
| Kamphuis et al. () | 96 | Sleep | Aggression, impulsivity | Poorer sleep quality and more insomnia symptoms were associated with higher self-reported impulsivity and aggression in forensic psychiatric patients |
| Kim et al. () | 827 | Shift work | Psychological wellbeing | Shift workers reported greater stress, more insomnia symptoms, poorer quality of life, and more anxiety compared to non-shift workers |
| Koshy et al. () | 11 | Shift work | Circadian rhythms | Police officers working the night shift demonstrated disrupted peripheral circadian rhythms |
| Krizan and Hisler () | 142 | Sleep | Anger, affect | Sleep restriction over 2 days increased feelings of anger and resulted in negative affect |
| Lammers-van der Holst et al. () | 29 | Shift work, circadian rhythm | Intervention | A bright-light exposure treatment mediated circadian disruption in a laboratory-simulated night shift work routine |
| Li et al. () | 70 | Shift work | Cortisol | Shift work altered diurnal cortisol secretion among junior physicians, predicting subsequent increased cortisol release |
| Marquié et al. () | 3,232 | Shift work | Cognition, long-term impact | Chronic shift work incurred a dose-dependent negative impact on cognition capacity |
| Pakyurek et al. () | 2 | Sleep disorders | Aggression | Two inpatient children demonstrated significant reduced aggression following treatment of their moderate sleep and breathing disorders |
| Plescia et al. () | 392 | Shift work | Alcohol, insomnia | Night-shift workers were more likely to consume alcohol, particularly binge-drinking, compared to day-shift workers |
| Presser () | 3,467 | Shift work | Family stability | The impact of shift work on family relations was dependent upon the presence of children in the household. |
| Rajaratnam et al. () | 4,957 | Sleep, sleep disorders | Shift work, police officers | Police officers assigned to the night shift frequently met criteria for a sleep disorder |
| Rauer and El-Sheikh () | 430 | Intimate partner violence | Sleep | Psychological intimate partner violence was strongly associated with sleep quality in both men and women. Sleep problems predicted future perpetration of intimate partner violence |
| Razavi et al. () | 130 | Shift work | Melatonin | Chronotypes and schedule of rotating shift influenced levels of melatonin |
| Shin et al. () | 4,695 | Trait anger | Sleep | Sleep disturbance and disruptions were associated with high levels of trait anger |
| Skoufi et al. () | 91 | Shift work | Quality of life, work-life conflict | Nurses reported higher rates of burnout and conflict between family and work life, regardless of shift work status, compared to non-nurses |
| Sladek et al. () | 61 | Stress, rumination | Sleep | Higher daily stress levels were correlated with shorter sleep duration and higher cortisol levels upon waking |
| Smith et al. () | 15 | Sleep | Cognition | Chronic sleep restriction over 6-weeks suggested restriction led to accumulation of sleep debt and a small to moderate negative impact on cognition |
| Swanson et al. () | 22 | Night-shift work, circadian misalignment | Alcohol-related health problems | Night shift workers may be at an increased risk of health issues from alcohol use because of central circadian misalignment |
| Turchi et al. () | 197 | Night-shift work | Quality of life | Nurses working night-shift reported significantly poorer health-related quality of life than general public |
| Vaughn et al. () | 2,499 | Sleep | Aggression | Poor sleep was associated with reactive violence among African-Americans |
| Watanabe et al. () | 49 | Night-shift work | Interventions to reduce sleepiness symptoms | Night shift workers who took a nap of ≥ 90 min exhibited lower drowsiness following nap breaks and less fatigue at the end of night shift compared to those with shorter naps. |
| Wilson et al. () | 86 | Short sleep duration | Inflammation, interpersonal responses | When both partners experienced short sleep duration, couples were more hostile to each other |
| Wright et al. () | 17 | Sleep deprivation, circadian misalignment | Cortisol levels | Total sleep deprivation and chronic circadian misalignment appeared to influence cortisol levels |
| Yong et al. () | 6,338 | Shift work | Sleep problems | Short sleep duration, poor sleep quality, and insomnia were commonly reported by night shift workers |
| Zhang and Lei () | 455 | Aggression | Sleep quality | A causal relationship between subjective sleep quality and aggressive behavior was supported |
| Zhang et al. () | 435 | Shift work | Cortisol, sleep disorders, neural mechanisms | Shift work is associated with the higher levels of cortisol and a greater risk of sleep disorders |
Summary of research articles in review.
2. Shift work on sleep and circadian rhythms
Sleep is theorized to be regulated by two independent yet complementary processes: an endogenous circadian clock and a homeostatic sleep mechanism (Borbély et al., ). Timing of sleep is highly moderated by circadian rhythms, akin to a pacemaker, while homeostatic mechanisms control sleep depth and maintenance (Deboer, ). Sleep is optimized when an individual sleeps in accordance with their circadian rhythm and with an appropriately high level of sleep pressure.
Sleep deprivation and disruption are the most recognized health outcomes of shift work. Boivin and Boudreau () reported that shift employees experience reduced sleep time, reduced sleep quality and symptoms of insomnia. Poor sleep is greatest in night shift workers (Yong et al., ). To compensate for an inability to sleep during typical sleeping hours overnight, many shift workers adopt a biphasic sleeping schedule, supplementing an inadequate sleep period with a nap >1 h. However, complete compensation for lost sleep is difficult in situations of chronic sleep restriction (Boivin et al., ).
The shift in the circadian timing of sleep can change sleep quality as well. Sleeping outside one's optimal circadian schedule can further reduce sleep quantity and change the architecture (physiological stages) of sleep. Night shift workers have daytime sleep duration 1–4 h shorter than other shift workers' nighttime sleep (Pilcher and Coplen, ). Early morning shift workers also experience reduction in sleep duration and excessive sleepiness upon waking (Åkerstedt and Wright, ). Related changes in sleep architecture include increased stage 1 non-REM sleep while stage 2 and REM sleep are reduced (Åkerstedt, ).
Shift workers commonly turn to alcohol before bed under the belief it will induce sleep (Shriane et al., ) when, instead, alcohol may yield further sleep disruptions. Approximately 90% of shift workers consume alcohol regularly (Kivimaki et al., ) and 17% of night shift workers use alcohol specifically to relieve insomnia (Brown et al., ). In comparison to day workers, rotating and night shift workers are more likely to utilize alcohol as a sleep aid (Richter et al., ). Counter to the colloquial belief, alcohol disrupts sleep architecture and promotes insomnia (He et al., ). While alcohol can reduce sleep onset time, sleep is heavily disrupted particularly in the second half of night (Thakkar et al., ). Alcohol delays REM sleep onset and reduces REM sleep time in a dose-dependent manner. Tolerance can develop within three nights, thus requiring higher doses to incur both sedative (reduced sleep onset) and sleep stage alteration effects (Roehrs and Roth, ). As such, alcohol use begets dependence, which begets sleep disruption, motivating further alcohol ingestion. Alcohol withdrawal also disrupts sleep, making this cycle difficult to stop (Thakkar et al., ).
Socioeconomic contexts may further exacerbate sleep problems in shift working populations. Many shift-work jobs are low-paying and do not require advanced education (with some notable exceptions, e.g., doctors and pilots). Most night shift workers earn <$31,500 per year (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, ). Sleep inequalities are prevalent in low socioeconomic status (SES) populations (Grandner et al., , ; Jehan et al., ), including shift workers. Low SES is associated with shorter sleep time, high sleep fragmentation and wake after sleep onset (Etindele Sosso et al., ). Low SES neighborhoods predispose residents to poor sleep via physical environmental factors (i.e., ambient noise, artificial light) and social environmental factors (i.e., neighborhood violence, lack of social cohesion) which negatively impact sleep (Kim et al., ).
Often neglected are the negative outcomes of shift work due to circadian misalignment. Circadian misalignment refers to the desynchronization between circadian clocks and the environment (Boivin et al., ). Non-standard work hours and shift work require swift alterations in sleep-wake routines, and sleep-wake rhythms out of sync with the light-dark cycle. Stable circadian rhythms allow the body to optimize efficiency of behaviors by aligning physiological functions with behavioral demands (Arendt, ). Thus, circadian desynchrony has numerous detrimental consequences including sleep disruptions (described above), metabolic disorders, poor mental health, cognitive impairments, and cancer risk.
Night-time light and a lack of daytime light exposure are the primary causes of circadian misalignment in night shift workers (Smolensky et al., ). Night work necessitates exposure to nocturnal artificial light, directly disrupting circadian rhythms regulating sleep. Melatonin release is inhibited by light and triggered by darkness (Arendt, ) which is critical to the stabilization of circadian rhythms (Pévet, ). Night shift workers were found to have a 15% reduction in salivary melatonin levels compared to day workers (Daugaard et al., ; Wei et al., ). Likewise, night-shift nurses have smaller nadir melatonin levels, delayed nadir onset, and lower melatonin overall (Razavi et al., ). The peak of melatonin release will typically occur during work for night shift employees. This results in sleepiness on the job and the reduction of sleep quality during the daytime sleep period (Ganesan et al., ; Boivin et al., ).
Cortisol release is also regulated by the circadian clock and is dysregulated in shift workers. Cortisol secretion typically peaks around waking and reaches nadir early in the night. Lower cortisol levels are conducive to sleep but occur during working hours of many shift workers (Boivin and Boudreau, ; Boivin et al., ). Night shift work may reduce the magnitude of cortisol secretion (Koshy et al., ; Boivin et al., ). However, other studies find increased cortisol from shift work (Li et al., ; Cannizzaro et al., ; Zhang et al., ). Cortisol aids in the entrainment of peripheral circadian clocks and may regulate behavioral adaptation to shift in circadian phase (Lo Martire et al., ).
Finally, sleeping out of phase with the circadian rhythm also alters sleep architecture. Stage two non-REM sleep and REM sleep are reduced in all shift workers (Åkerstedt, ; Åkerstedt and Wright, ). Cortisol may contribute to this, as infusions of cortisol are shown to decrease REM sleep (Kim et al., ; Lo Martire et al., ). Importantly, reduced REM sleep duration is associated with impaired mood and emotional dysregulation (Cartwright, ; Naiman, ).
Overall, there are clear sleep and circadian disruptions from shift work, particularly night shift work. The nature of shift work also provides exacerbating factors such as alcohol use and nighttime light exposure which contribute to physiological changes in sleep and hormone secretion. We next turn to the behavioral implications of disrupted sleep and circadian rhythms, particularly violence-related behaviors.
3. Effects of disrupted sleep and circadian rhythms on violence-related behaviors
Sleep and circadian desynchronization have been connected to anger, aggressive behavior and violence. Shorter sleep duration and lower sleep quality are associated with higher anger and aggression (Krizan and Hisler, ; Van Veen et al., , ). Unethical behavior is also positively related to poor sleep (Barnes et al., ). For example, police officers with a chronic sleep disorder were more likely to show maladaptive work-related behavior (e.g., uncontrolled anger toward others; Rajaratnam et al., ). Sleep problems or disturbance have been directly associated with interpersonal conflict and aggression. Rauer and El-Sheikh () examined the reciprocal pathways between interpersonal conflict (e.g., psychological aggression) and sleep, finding significant correlations between sleep problems in men and women and perpetration of psychological interpersonal conflict.
Conversely, when aggressive and violent behaviors are observed, they are often associated with poor sleep. For example, adults engaged in fist-fights were more prone to high dissatisfaction with their sleep (Vaughn et al., ). Likewise, men who commit domestic violence are more likely to be sleep deprived and demonstrate increased aggression after a night of poor sleep (Hoshino et al., ). Moreover, forensic psychiatric patients with chronic insomnia are more hostile and aggressive (Kamphuis et al., ).
Anger, aggression, and IPV may be more likely in shift workers due to heightened stress (Kim et al., ; Brown et al., ). Many shift workers face a confluence of psychosocial stressors and may have an impaired ability to handle these stressors (Arlinghaus et al., ; Fischer et al., ). Shift work is associated with reduced quality of life, high work-life conflict, and a negative impact on social and family life (Skoufi et al., ; Turchi et al., ). Shift work also causes social jet lag, the discrepancy in sleep time typically for weekdays vs. weekends, but, more broadly, for workdays vs. non-workdays. This stress manifests itself as poor sleep and highly variable sleep times in this population (Arlinghaus et al., ; Fischer et al., ).
Sleep deprivation and restriction are themselves stressful, which underlies a reciprocal relation between sleep and stress (Medic et al., ; Garefelt et al., ). Acute episodes of sleep restriction and stress both increase cortisol including in shift workers (Demichelis et al., ; Grosser et al., ). Chronic stress generally has the opposite effect, decreasing the cortisol response to stress (Thau et al., ). As such, long-term shift workers may suffer from chronic stress and thus reduced levels of cortisol. For example, studies in female healthcare professionals found 36% of night-shift workers had reduced morning cortisol levels (Bani-Issa et al., ). Night and evening shift workers had a lower cortisol awakening response compared to day shift workers (Chang, ). Likewise, police officers frequently working the night shift displayed impaired cortisol slopes (Charles et al., ). Importantly, low cortisol is associated with aggressive behavior and some research has found a negative correlation between cortisol and aggression (Bronsard and Bartolomei, ).
Alcohol intake to “treat” impaired sleep and relieve stress in shift workers (Richter et al., ) presents another risk for violent behavior. Several studies note a higher frequency of binge or heavy drinking behavior in nurses and industrial shift workers. Night shift workers, who use alcohol more frequently than day shift workers (Plescia et al., ), may experience greater impacts from alcohol use (Swanson et al., ). Alcohol can promote interpersonal animosity and raise the potential for violence (Sontate et al., ). Assaults tend to be more violent when alcohol is involved. Based on samples of IPV perpetrators, a majority regularly consume alcohol or are alcohol dependent (Hoshino et al., ; Kadiani et al., ). There is an increased risk of IPV occurrences when either or both partner(s) uses any psychoactive substance (Trezza and Popp, ). Thus, increased alcohol use due to the nature of shift work can increase levels of aggression by reducing inhibitory control and heightening emotional reaction.
Executive functioning is also directly impaired in chronic sleep restriction such as that experienced by shift workers (Lowe et al., ). Sleep loss is negatively correlated with behavioral inhibition (Satterfield and Killgore, ) and impulsivity (Anderson and Platten, ). Persistent short sleep is associated with risky decision-making (Eyy et al., ). Mechanistically, sleep restriction has a detrimental impact on prefrontal cortex functioning (Owens and Weiss, ; Smith et al., ), which shows diminished metabolic activity after sleep deprivation (Satterfield and Killgore, ). Negativity bias is stronger following sleep loss which increases impulsive reactions to negative stimuli (Acheson et al., ; Anderson and Platten, ). The heightened arousal elicited by perceived threats is compounded by the lack of inhibitory control induced by insufficient sleep.
Regulation of emotions also becomes more difficult with restricted sleep. Emotional instability manifests as a short temper, greater irritability and anger (Shin et al., ; Granö et al., ; Kamphuis et al., ; Krizan and Hisler, ). Disrupted sleep enhances feelings of depression, anxiety and suicidality (Satterfield and Killgore, ). Insomniacs consistently reply with greater anger to hypothetical provocative situations compared to healthy sleepers (Kamphuis et al., ). Greater levels of aggression and hostility are predicted by a shorter sleep duration (Van Veen et al., ), restricted sleep (Shin et al., ), reduced sleep quality and insomnia (Kamphuis et al., ). This lack of emotion regulation, plus a reduced ability to recognize others' emotions, increases inflammatory responses to interpersonal conflicts (Wilson et al., ; Satterfield and Killgore, ). Given these factors, persistent sleep deficits in shift workers put them at risk for emotional outbursts and violent behavior toward those around them.
Finally, risk of violence may be increased with more time awake at night. Coming and going from a night shift and being more awake at night on days off may put night shift workers at greater risk of committing violence for several reasons. First, circadian influences on emotionality. For instance Tucker et al. () found that emotional reactivity was greatest at off-peak (relative to their chronotype) times of day. Other studies point to circadian and chrontype-related changes in violent behavior as further evidence that perpetration of violence may be association with circadian disruption (Hood and Amir, ).
4. Discussion
Interpersonal violence is a global issue affecting millions of individuals and families, the prevalence of which is likely much higher than any recorded statistics due to lack of reporting. The harm caused by IPV necessitates investigation into all possible angles of prevention and intervention. Beyond economic benefits (Costa, ; Hafner et al., ), policies that reduce sleep and circadian disruption in shift workers may prevent or reduce the risk for perpetrating IPV.
Together, the reviewed research points to the risk of perpetration of IPV in shift workers. Shift workers experience sleep and circadian disruption and are also susceptible to the compounding factors of sleep loss and stress which amplify anger, aggression and violence. Disrupted circadian rhythms and chronic sleep restriction raise stress levels, increase alcohol use, and impair executive functioning. Low sleep efficiency, shorter total sleep time, and circadian dysruption are associated with violence-related behaviors (Van Veen et al., , ), which may manifest in interpersonal relationships and potentially cause violence (Kamphuis et al., ).
Krizan and Herlache () proposed a three-path model linking sleep loss to aggression. By this account, sleep loss: (1) increases negativity bias, (2) increases perceived hostility, and (3) lowers inhibitory abilities. We provide an expanded model specific to shift workers (Figure 1), illustrating the complex factors in the relationship between shift work and violence and aggression. This cycle exacerbates stress (Kim et al., ; Brown et al., ) and alcohol use (Richter et al., ) while impairing executive function (Marquié et al., ) and generating angry feelings (Krizan and Herlache, ; Krizan and Hisler, ).
Figure 1
Interventions aimed at improving sleep and circadian rhythms have been shown to reduce anger and violent outbursts. For instance, children with breathing-related sleep disorders demonstrated reduction in aggressive and violent behavior following treatment (Pakyurek et al., ). Likewise, improvement in sleep time in adolescents treated for substance use was likewise associated with lower aggressive ideation and action (Haynes et al., ). Thus, improving sleep and circadian health in shift workers is likely to be effective in reducing risk for IPV.
Common approaches to sleep and circadian health of shift workers have focused on optimizing shift schedules. Permanent night shift and rotating 12-h shift workers show the greatest impairment in sleep quality, sleep duration and the most social jet lag (Casjens et al., ) with a clockwise rotational schedule providing more favorable outcomes (Burgess, ). Other approaches include light exposure treatment (Lammers-van der Holst et al., ) and allowing naps on shifts (Han et al., ; Patterson et al., ; Watanabe et al., ). Other potential interventions include the use of exogeneous melatonin and education on sleep habits (Åkerstedt and Wright, ). Targeting other aspects of risk, including alcohol use, also shows promise for reducing violence (Laslett et al., ).
Importantly, not all shift workers will commit acts of anger and violence. However, given the severity and potential for these outcomes and the difficulty in studying them, the proposed model provides multiple avenues toward intervening on workers at great risk of violent outcomes. Moreover, although such research is difficult, this review points for a greater need for data on shifts of employment (not just location of employment) for perpetrators.
Statements
Author contributions
RF developed the initial concept and literature review and writing of the paper. RS contributed to the further conceptual development and writing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author(s) RS declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
1
ÅkerstedtT. (1990). Psychological and psychophysiological effects of shift work. Scandin. J. Work Environ. Health16, 67–73.
2
ÅkerstedtT. (1998). Shift work and disturbed sleep/wakefulness. Sleep Med. Rev.2, 117–128. 10.1016/S1087-0792(98)90004-1
3
ÅkerstedtT.WrightK. P. (2009). Sleep loss and fatigue in shift work and shift work disorder. Sleep Med. Clin. 4:2, 257–271. 10.1016/j.jsmc.03001
4
AchesonA.RichardsJ. B.de WitH. (2007). Effects of sleep deprivation on impulsive behaviors in men and women. Physiol. Behav. 91:5, 579–587. 10.1016/j.physbeh.03020
5
AndersonC.PlattenC. R. (2011). Sleep deprivation lowers inhibition and enhances impulsivity to negative stimuli. Behav. Brain Res.217, 463–466. 10.1016/j.bbr.09020
6
ArendtJ. (2010). Shift work: coping with the biological clock. Occup. Med.60, 10–20. 10.1093/occmed/kqp162
7
ArlinghausA.BohleP.Iskra-GolecI.JansenN.JayS.RotenbergL. (2019). Working Time Society consensus statements: evidence-based effects of shift work and non-standard working hours on workers, family and community. Indust. Health57, 184–200. 10.2486/indhealth.SW-4
8
Bani-IssaW.RadwanH.Al MarzooqF.Al AwarS.Al-ShujairiA. M.SamsudinA. R.et al. (2020). Salivary cortisol, subjective stress and quality of sleep among female healthcare professionals. J. Multidiscip. Healthcare13, 125–140. 10.2147/JMDH.S229396
9
BarkerL. F.IrelandJ. L.ChuS.IrelandC. A. (2016). Sleep and its association with aggression among prisoners: quantity or quality?Int. J. Law Psych.47, 115–121. 10.1016/j.ijlp.02014
10
BarnesC. M.SchaubroeckJ.HuthM.GhummanS. (2011). Lack of sleep and unethical conduct. Org. Behav. Human Dec. Proc.115, 169–180. 10.1016/j.obhdp.01009
11
BoivinD. B.BoudreauP. (2014). Impacts of shift work on sleep and circadian rhythms. Pathol. Biol.62, 292–301. 10.1016/j.patbio.08001
12
BoivinD. B.BoudreauP.KosmadopoulosA. (2022). Disturbance of the circadian system in shift work and its health impact. J. Biol. Rhyt37, 3–28. 10.1177/07487304211064218
13
BorbélyA. A.DaanS.Wirz-JusticeA.DeboerT. (2016). The two-process model of sleep regulation: a reappraisal. J. Sleep Res.25, 131–143. 10.1111/jsr.12371
14
BronsardG.BartolomeiF. (2013). Rhythms, rhythmicity and aggression. J. Physiol. Paris107, 327–334. 10.1016/j.jphysparis.03002
15
BrownJ. P.MartinD.NagariaZ.VercelesA. C.JobeS. L.WickwireE. M. (2020). Mental health consequences of shift work: an updated review. Cur. Psych. Rep.22, 7. 10.1007/s11920-020-1131-z
16
BrumM. C. B.SengerM. B.SchnorrC. C.EhlertL. R.da RodriguesT. (2022). Effect of night-shift work on cortisol circadian rhythm and melatonin levels. Sleep Sci.15, 143–148. 10.5935/1984-0063.20220034
17
BurgessP. A. (2007). Optimal shift duration and sequence: recommended approach for short-term emergency response activations for public health and emergency management. Am. J. Public Health97, S88–S92. 10.2105/AJPH.2005.078782
18
CannizzaroE.CirrincioneL.MazzuccoW.ScorciapinoA.CatalanoC.RamaciT.et al. (2020). Night-time shift work and related stress responses: a study on security guards. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health17, 562. 10.3390/ijerph17020562
19
CapaldiD. M.KnobleN. B.ShorttJ. W.KimH.K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse3, 231. 10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231
20
CartwrightR. (2005). “Chapter 45—Dreaming as a mood regulation system,” in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine (Fourth Edition), eds M.H. Kryger, T. Roth, and W.C. Dement (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders), 565–572. 10.1016./B0-72-160797-7/50052-5
21
CasjensS.BrenscheidtF.TischA.BeermannB.BrüningT.BehrensT.et al. (2022). Social jetlag and sleep debts are altered in different rosters of night shift work. PLoS ONE17, e0262049. 10.1371/journal.pone.0262049
22
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). (2015). Unadjusted Prevalence of Work Organization Characteristics (NHIS 2015) Among Workers (NHIS-OHS). Available online at: wwwn.cdc.gov/NIOSH-WHC/chart/ohs-workorg?OU=*andT=OUandV=R (accessed November 28, 2022).
23
ChangW. P. (2018). Influence of shift type on sleep quality of female nurses working monthly rotating shifts with cortisol awakening response as mediating variable. Chronobiol. Int.35, 1503–1512. 10.1080/07420181493491
24
CharlesL. E.FekedulegnD.BurchfielC. M.HartleyT. A.AndrewM. E.ViolantiJ. M.et al. (2016). Shiftwork and diurnal salivary cortisol patterns among police officers. J. Occup. Environ. Med.58, 542–549. 10.1097/JOM.0000000000000729
25
CostaG. (2016). “Introduction to problems of shift work,” in Social and Family Issues in Shift Work and Non Standard Working Hours, eds I. Iskra-Golec, J. Barnes-Farrell, and P. (Bohle Cham: Springer International Publishing), 19–35. 10.1007./978-3-319-42286-2_2
26
DaugaardS.GardeA. H.BondeJ. P. E.ChristoffersenJ.HansenÄ. M.MarkvartJ.et al. (2017). Night work, light exposure and melatonin on work days and days off. Chronobiol. Int. 34, 942–955. 10.1080/07420528.2017.1327867
27
DavisK. D.Benjamin GoodmanW.PirrettiA. E.AlmeidaD. M. (2008). Nonstandard work schedules, perceived family well-being, and daily stressors. J. Marriage Fam.70, 991–1003. 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00541.x
28
DeboerT. (2018). Sleep homeostasis and the circadian clock: do the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat influence each others functioning?Neurobiol. Sleep Circad. Rhyth.5, 68–77. 10.1016/j.nbscr.02003
29
DemichelisO. P.GraingerS. A.McKayK. T.BourdaniotisX. E.ChurchillE. G. (2022). Sleep, stress and aggression: meta-analyses investigating associations and causality. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.139, 104732. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104732
30
Etindele SossoF. A.HolmesS. D.WeinsteinA. A. (2021). Influence of socioeconomic status on objective sleep measurement: a systematic review and meta-analysis of actigraphy studies. Sleep Health7, 417–428. 10.1016/j.sleh.05005
31
EyyL.MlW. B. R.YcL.YkW.ChT.TmcL. (2019). The coupling of short sleep duration and high sleep need predicts riskier decision making. Psychol. Health34, 10. 10.1080/08870446.2019.1594807
32
FischerF. M.Silva-CostaA.GriepR. H.SmolenskyM. H.BohlePRotenbergL. (2019). Working Time Society consensus statements: psychosocial stressors relevant to the health and wellbeing of night and shift workers. Indus. Health57, 175–183. 10.2486/indhealth.SW-3
33
GanesanS.MageeM.StoneJ. E.MulhallM. D.CollinsA.HowardM. E.et al. (2019). The impact of shift work on sleep, alertness and performance in healthcare workers. Sci. Rep.9, 4635. 10.1038/s41598-019-40914-x
34
GarefeltJ.PlattsL. G.HydeM.Magnusson HansonL. L.WesterlundH.ÅkerstedtT. (2020). Reciprocal relations between work stress and insomnia symptoms: a prospective study. J. Sleep Res.29, e12949. 10.1111/jsr.12949
35
GrandnerM. A.PetrovM. E. R.RattanaumpawanP.JacksonN.PlattA.PatelN.P. (2013). Sleep symptoms, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic position. J. Clin. Sleep Med.09, 897–905. 10.5664/jcsm.2990
36
GrandnerM. A.WilliamsN. J.KnutsonK. L.RobertsD.Jean-LouisG. (2016). Sleep disparity, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic position. Sleep Med.18, 7–18. 10.1016/j.slee01020
37
GranöN.VahteraJ.VirtanenM.Keltikangas-JärvinenL.KivimäkiM. (2008). Association of hostility with sleep duration and sleep disturbances in an employee population. Int. J. Behav. Med. 15:2, 73–80. 10.1080/10705500801929510
38
GrosserL.KnayfatiS.YatesC.DorrianJ.BanksS. (2022). Cortisol and shiftwork: a scoping review. Sleep Med. Rev.64, 101581. 10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101581
39
HafnerM.StepanekM.TaylorJ.TroxelW. M.van StolkC. (2017). Why sleep matters—The economic costs of insufficient sleep. Rand Health Quart. 6, 11. Available online at: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ab6f37796d4552fa2bfe700/t/5c82b3848165f52baf336a3d/1552069511134/RAND_Why+Sleep+Matters_The+Economic+Costs+of+Insuffient+Sleep.pdf
40
HanK.HwangH.LimE.JungM.LeeJ.LimE.et al. (2021). Scheduled naps improve drowsiness and quality of nursing care among 12-hour shift nurses. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health18, 891. 10.3390/ijerph18030891
41
HaynesP.BootzinR.SmithL.CousinsJ.CameronM.StevensS. (2006). Sleep and aggression in substance-abusing adolescents: results from an integrative behavioral sleep-treatment pilot program. Sleep29, 512–20. 10.1093/sleep/29.4.512
42
HeS.HaslerB. P.ChakravortyS. (2019). Alcohol and sleep-related problems. Curr. Opin. Psychol.30, 117–122. 10.1016/j.copsyc.03007
43
HoodS.AmirS. (2018). Biological clocks and rhythms of anger and aggression. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 12, 4. 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00004
44
HoshinoK.PasqualiniJ. C.D'OliveiraÉ. P.SilvaC. P. d. a.ModestoÂ. E.SilveiraR.S.M. (2009). Is sleep deprivation involved in domestic violence?. Sleep Sci.2, 14–20.
45
JehanS.MyersA. K.ZiziF.Pandi-PerumalS. R.Jean-LouisG.SinghN.et al. (2018). Sleep health disparity: the putative role of race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Sleep Med. Disord. Int. J.2, 127–133.
46
KadianiA.ChaudhuryS.SaldanhaD.PandeN.MenonP. (2020). Psychosocial profile of male perpetrators of domestic violence: a population-based study. Indus. Psych. J.29, 134. 10.4103/ipj.ipj_78_18
47
KamphuisJ.MeerloP.KoolhaasJ. M.LancelM. (2012). Poor sleep as a potential causal factor in aggression and violence. Sleep Med. 13:4, 327–334. 10.1016/j.sleep.12006
48
KamphuisJ.DijkD-. J.SpreenM.LancelM. (2014). The relation between poor sleep, impulsivity and aggression in forensic psychiatric patients. Physiol. Behav.123, 168–173. 10.1016/j.physbeh.10015
49
KimB.BranasC. C.RudolphK. E.MorrisonC. N.ChaixB.TroxelW. M.et al. (2022). Neighborhoods and sleep health among adults: a systematic review. Sleep Health8, 322–333. 10.1016/j.sleh.03005
50
KimT. W.JeongJ. H.HongS. C. (2015). The impact of sleep and circadian disturbance on hormones and metabolism. Int. H. Endocrinol.2015, e591729. 10.1155/2015/591729
51
KimY. G.YoonD. Y.KimJ. I.ChaeC. H.HongY. S.YangC. G.et al. (2019). Effects of health on shift-work: general and psychological health, sleep, stress, quality of life. Korean J. Occup. Environ. Med.14, 247–256. 10.35371/kjoem.143.247
52
KivimakiM.KuismaP.VirtanenM.ElovainioM. (2010). Does shift work lead to poorer health habits? A comparison between women who had always done shift work with those who had never done shift work. Work Stress15, 3–13. 10.1080/02678370118685
53
KoshyA.CuestaM.BoudreauP.CermakianN.BoivinD.B. (2019). Disruption of central and peripheral circadian clocks in police officers working at night. FASEB33, 6789–6800. 10.1096/fj.201801889R
54
KrizanZ.HerlacheA. D. (2016). Sleep disruption and aggression: implications for violence and its prevention. Psychol. Viol.6, 542–552. 10.1037/vio0000018
55
KrizanZ.HislerG. (2019). Sleepy anger: Restricted sleep amplifies angry feelings. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen.148, 1239–1250. 10.1037/xge0000522
56
Lammers-van der HolstH.M.WyattJ.K.HorowitzT.S.WiseJ.C.WangW.RondaJ.M.et al. (2021). Efficacy of intermittent exposure to bright light for treating maladaptation to night work on a counterclockwise shift work rotation. Scandinavian J. Work Environ. Health47, 356–366. 10.5271/sjweh.3953
57
LaslettA. M.EdwardsN.AllsopS.PonickiW.ChikritzhsT. (2022). Community-level alcohol availability and child maltreatment: a statewide panel analysis over 13 years. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs83, 849–856. 10.15288/jsad.20-00400
58
LiJ.BidlingmaierM.PetruR.Pedrosa GilF.LoerbroksA.AngererP. (2018). Impact of shift work on the diurnal cortisol rhythm: a one-year longitudinal study in junior physicians. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol.13, 23. 10.1186/s12995-018-0204-y
59
Lo MartireV.CarusoD.PalaginiL.ZoccoliG.BastianiniS. (2020). Stress and sleep: a relationship lasting a lifetime. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.117, 65–77. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.08024
60
LoweC. J.SafatiA.HallP. A. (2017). The neurocognitive consequences of sleep restriction: a meta-analytic review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.80, 586–604. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.07010
61
MagnavitaN.StasioD. i.CapitanelliE.LopsI.ChiricoE. A. F.GarbarinoS. (2019). Sleep problems and workplace violence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Neurosci. 13. 10.3389./fnins.2019.00997
62
MarquiéJ. C.TuckerP.FolkardS.GentilC.AnsiauD. (2015). Chronic effects of shift work on cognition: findings from the VISAT longitudinal study. Occup. Environ. Med.72, 258–264. 10.1136/oemed-2013-101993
63
MedicG.WilleM.HemelsM. E. (2017). Short- and long-term health consequences of sleep disruption. Nat. Sci. Sleep9, 151–161. 10.2147/NSS.S134864
64
MercyJ. A.HillisS. D.ButchartA.BellisM. A.WardC. L.FangX.et al. (2017). “Interpersonal violence: Global impact and paths to prevention,” in Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd edn., eds C. N. Mock, R. Nugent, O. Kobusingye, and K. R. Smith (Washington (DC): The World Bank (Disease Control Priorities)).
65
MulderT. M.KuiperK. C.van der PutC. E.StamsG-. J. J. M. (2018). Risk factors for child neglect: a meta-analytic review. Child Abuse Neg.77, 198–210. 10.1016/j.chiabu.01006
66
NaimanR. (2017). Dreamless: the silent epidemic of REM sleep loss. Ann. New York Acad. Sci.1, 77–85. 10.1111/nyas.13447
67
OwensJ. A.WeissM. R. (2017). Insufficient sleep in adolescents: causes and consequences. Minerva Pediat.69, 326–336. 10.23736/s0026-4946.17.04914-3
68
PaivaT.Canas-SimiãoH. (2022). Sleep and violence perpetration: a review of biological and environmental substrates. J. Sleep Res. 31, e13547. 10.1111/jsr.13547
69
PakyurekM.GutkovichZ.WeintraubS. (2002). Reduced aggression in two inpatient children with the treatment of their sleep disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adoles. Psychiatry41, 1025. 10.1097/00004583-200209000-00001
70
PattersonP. D.LiszkaM. K.McilvaineQ. S.NongL.WeaverM. D.TurnerR. L.et al. (2021). Does the evidence support brief (≤ 30-mins), moderate (31–60-mins), or long duration naps (61+ mins) on the night shift? A systematic review. Sleep Med. Rev.59, 101509. 10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101509
71
PévetP. (2002). Melatonin. Dial. Clin. Neurosci.4, 57–72. 10.31887/DCNS.4,1./ppevet
72
PilcherJ. J.CoplenM. K. (2000). Work/rest cycles in railroad operations: effects of shorter than 24-h shift work schedules and on-call schedules on sleep. Ergonomics43, 573–588. 10.1080/001401300184260
73
PlesciaF.CirrincioneL.MartoranaD.LeddaC.RapisardaV.CastelliV.et al. (2021). Alcohol abuse and insomnia disorder: Focus on a group of night and day workers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health18, 13196. 10.3390/ijerph182413196
74
PlummerM. L.BaltagV.StrongK.DickB.RossD. (2017). Global Accelerated Action for Health of Adolescents: Guidance to Support Country Implementation. World Health Organization. Available online at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-FWC-MCA-17.05
75
PresserH. B. (2000). Non-standard work schedules and marital instability. J. Marr. Family62, 93–110. 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00093.x
76
RajaratnamS. M. W.BargerL. K.LockleyS. W.SheaS. A.WangW.LandriganC. P.et al. (2011). Sleep disorders, health, and safety in police officers. JAMA306, 2567–2578. 10.1001/jama.2011.1851
77
RauerA. J.El-SheikhM. (2012). Reciprocal pathways between intimate partner violence and sleep in men and women. J. Family Psychol.26, 470–477. 10.1037/a0027828
78
RazaviP.DevoreE. E.BajajA.LockleyS. W.FigueiroM. G.RicchiutiV.et al. (2019). Shift work, chronotype, and melatonin rhythm in nurses. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prevent.28, 1177–1186. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-18-1018
79
RichterK.PeterL.RodenbeckA.WeessH. G.Riedel-HellerS. G.HillemacherT. (2021). Shiftwork and alcohol consumption: a systematic review of the literature. Eur. Addict. Res.27, 9–15. 10.1159/000507573
80
RoehrsT.RothT. (2001). Sleep, sleepiness, and alcohol use. Alcohol Res. Health25, 101–109.
81
SatterfieldB.KillgoreW. (2019). “Sleep loss, executive function, and decision-making,” in Sleep and Health, ed M. A. Grandner (Academic Press), 339–358. 10.1053/smrv.2001.0162
82
ShinC.KimJ.YiH.LeeH.LeeJ.ShinK. (2005). Relationship between trait-anger and sleep disturbances in middle-aged men and women. J. Psychosom. Res.58, 183–189. 10.1016/j.jpsychores.07002
83
ShrianeA. E.FergusonS. A.JayS. M.VincentG. E. (2020). Sleep hygiene in shift workers: a systematic literature review. Sleep Med. Rev.53, 101336. 10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101336
84
SkoufiG. I.LialiosG. A.PapakostaS.ConstantinidisT. C.GalanisP.NenaE. (2017). Shift work and quality of personal, professional, and family life among health care workers in a rehabilitation center in Greece. Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med. 21:3, 115–120. 10.4103/ijoem.IJOEM_74_17
85
SladekM. R.DoaneL. D.BreitensteinR. S. (2020). Daily rumination about stress, sleep, and diurnal cortisol activity. Cogn. Emot. 34:2, 188–200. 10.1080/02699931.2019.1601617
86
SmithM. G.WuskG. C.NasriniJ.BaskinP.DingesD. F.RomaP. G.et al. (2021). Effects of six weeks of chronic sleep restriction with weekend recovery on cognitive performance and wellbeing in high-performing adults. Sleep 44, zsab051. 10.1093/sleep/zsab051
87
SmolenskyM. H.Sackett-LundeenL. L.PortaluppiF. (2015). Nocturnal light pollution and underexposure to daytime sunlight: Complementary mechanisms of circadian disruption and related diseases. Chronobiol. Int.32, 1029–1048. 10.3109/07420151072002
88
SontateK. V.Rahim KamaluddinM.Naina MohamedI.MohamedR. M. P.ShaikhM. F.KamalH.et al. (2021). Alcohol, aggression, and violence: from public health to neuroscience. Front. Psychol.12, 699726. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699726
89
StraifK.BaanR.GrosseY.SecretanB.GhissassiF. E.BouvardV.et al. (2007). Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. Lancet Oncol.8, 1065–1066. 10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X
90
SwansonG. R.GorenzA.ShaikhM.DesaiV.KaminskyT.Van Den BergJ.et al. (2016). Night workers with circadian misalignment are susceptible to alcohol-induced intestinal hyperpermeability with social drinking. Am. J. Physiol. Gastroint. Liver Physiol.311, G192–G201. 10.1152/ajpgi.00087.2016
91
ThakkarM. M.SharmaR.SahotaP. (2015). Alcohol disrupts sleep homeostasis. Alcohol,49, 299–310. 10.1016/j.alcohol.07019
92
ThauL.GandhiJ.SharmaS. (2022). Physiology, Cortisol. StatPearls Publishing. Available online at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538239/ (accessed March 30, 2023).
93
TrezzaG. R.PoppS. M. (2000). The substance user at risk of harm to self or others: Assessment and treatment issues. J. Clin. Psychol.56, 1193–1205. 10.1002/1097-4679(200009)56:9<1193::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-G
94
TuckerA. M.FeuersteinR.Mende-SiedleckiP.OchsnerK.SternY. (2012). Double dissociation: circadian off-peak times increase emotional reactivity; aging impairs emotion regulation via reappraisal. Emotion12, 869–874. 10.1037/a0028207
95
TurchiV.VerzuriA.NanteN.NapolitaniM.BugnoliG.SeveriF. M.et al. (2019). Night work and quality of life. A study on the health of nurses. Ann. dellIst. Super. Di Sanita55, 161–169. 10.4415/ANN_19_02_08
96
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019). Workers by Shift Usually Worked and Selected Characteristics, Averages for the Period 2017-2018. Available online at: https://www.bls.gov/news.release/flex2.t07.htm
97
Van VeenM. M.LancelM.BeijerE.RemmelzwaalS.RuttersF. (2021). The association of sleep quality and aggression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Sleep Med. Rev.59, 101500. 10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101500
98
Van VeenM. M.LancelM.SenerO.VerkesR. J.BoumanE. J.RuttersF. (2022). Observational and experimental studies on sleep duration and aggression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med. Rev.64, 101661. 10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101661
99
VaughnM. G.Salas-WrightC. P.WhiteN. A.KremerK. P. (2015). Poor sleep and reactive aggression: Results from a national sample of African American adults. J. Psych. Res. 66–67, 54–59. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.04015
100
WatanabeK.SugimuraN.ShishidoI.KonyaI.YamaguchiS.YanoR. (2022). Effects of 90 min napping on fatigue and associated environmental factors among nurses working long night shifts: a longitudinal observational study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health19, 9429. 10.3390/ijerph19159429
101
WeiT.LiC.HengY.GaoX.ZhangG.WangH.et al. (2020). Association between night-shift work and level of melatonin: systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med.75, 502–509. 10.1016/j.sleep.09018
102
WilsonS. J.JaremkaL. M.FagundesC. P.AndridgeR.PengJ.MalarkeyW. B.et al. (2017). Shortened sleep fuels inflammatory responses to marital conflict: emotion regulation matters. Psychoneuroendocrinology79, 74–83. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.02_015
103
WrightK. P.DrakeA. L.FreyD. J.FleshnerM.DesouzaC. A.GronfierC.et al. (2015). Influence of sleep deprivation and circadian misalignment on cortisol, inflammatory markers, and cytokine balance. Brain Behav. Immun.47, 24–34. 10.1016/j.bbi.01004
104
YongL. C.LiJ.CalvertG.M. (2017). Sleep-related problems in the US working population: prevalence and association with shiftwork status. Occupat. Environ. Med.74, 93–104. 10.1136/oemed-2016-103638
105
ZhangH.LeiX. (2023). Effect of subjective sleep quality on aggression: a 2-year longitudinal and fMRI pilot study. Biol. Psychol.176, 108454. 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108454
106
ZhangY.ShenJ.ZhouZ.SangL.ZhuangX.ChuM.et al. (2020). Relationships among shift work, hair cortisol concentration and sleep disorders: a cross-sectional study in China. BMJ Open10, e038786. 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038786
Summary
Keywords
stress, alcohol, circadian rhythm, aggression, anger
Citation
Flinn RB and Spencer RMC (2023) Associations between sleep and circadian disruption in shift work and perpetration of interpersonal violence. Front. Sleep 2:1220056. doi: 10.3389/frsle.2023.1220056
Received
10 May 2023
Accepted
06 September 2023
Published
19 October 2023
Volume
2 - 2023
Edited by
Michelle Perfect, University of Arizona, United States
Reviewed by
Claudia Roberta de Castro Moreno, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Updates
Copyright
© 2023 Flinn and Spencer.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Rebecca M. C. Spencer rspencer@umass.edu
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.