The Crossroads of Tradition and Modern Technology: Integrative Approaches to Studying Carnivores in Low Density Ecosystems Provisionally Accepted

Genevieve E. Finerty^{1, 2, 3, 4*} Natalia Borrego^{1, 4, 5*} Sky K. Alibhai^{6, 7} Zoe C. Jewell^{6, 7} Philippe Tschanz^{8, 9} Trevor Balone³ Tebelelo Gabaikanye³ Moisapodi Gana³ Supula Monnaanoka³ Mosepele Mamou³ Sokwa Pudidaroma³ Meno Tshiama³ Mpho Tshiama³ Alessandro Araldi³ Margaret C. Crofoot^{4, 10} Steve Henley³ Pogiso ‘. Ithuteng³ Monika Schiess-Meier³

• ¹University of Konstanz, Germany
• ²Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, Mathematical, Physical and Life Sciences Division, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
• ³Leopard Ecology & Conservation, Botswana
• ⁴Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Germany
• ⁵Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, United States
• ⁶JMP Statistical Discovery LLC, United States
• ⁷Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, United States
• ⁸Agroscope (Switzerland), Switzerland
• ⁹ETH Zürich, Switzerland
• ¹⁰Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, Germany

The study of large carnivores in semi-arid ecosystems presents inherent challenges due to their low densities, extensive home ranges, and elusive nature. We explore the potential for the synthesis of traditional knowledge (i.e. art of tracking) and modern technology to address challenges in conservation and wildlife research in these challenging environments. Our research focuses on the African lion (Panthera leo) in the Central Kalahari region of Botswana as a model system to demonstrate the potential of this integrative approach. Combining GPS tracking and traditional San trackers' expertise, we present two case studies: (1) the individual identification of lions via a combination of tracking and footprint analysis and (2) the monitoring of territorial behavior through a combination of GPS technology (i.e. GPS collars and handheld GPS devices) and non-invasive tracking. These approaches enhance our understanding of carnivore ecology as well as support conservation efforts by offering a non-invasive, cost-effective, and highly accurate means of monitoring populations. Our findings underscore the value of merging traditional tracking skills with contemporary analytical and technological developments to offer new insights into the ecology of carnivores in challenging environments. This approach not only improves data collection accuracy and efficiency but also fosters a deeper understanding of wildlife, ensuring the conservation and sustainable management of these species. Our work advocates for the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in conservation science, highlighting its relevance and applicability across various disciplines, thereby broadening the methodologies used to study wildlife, monitor populations, and inform conservation strategies.