REVIEW article

Front. Physiol., 30 June 2017

Sec. Exercise Physiology

Volume 8 - 2017 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00423

Effectiveness of Traditional Strength vs. Power Training on Muscle Strength, Power and Speed with Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

  • 1. School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John's, NL, Canada

  • 2. Tunisian Research Laboratory “Sport Performance Optimisation”, National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports Tunis, Tunisia

  • 3. Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology Auckland, New Zealand

  • 4. Division of Training and Movement Sciences, Research Focus Cognition Sciences, University of Potsdam Potsdam, Germany

Abstract

Numerous national associations and multiple reviews have documented the safety and efficacy of strength training for children and adolescents. The literature highlights the significant training-induced increases in strength associated with youth strength training. However, the effectiveness of youth strength training programs to improve power measures is not as clear. This discrepancy may be related to training and testing specificity. Most prior youth strength training programs emphasized lower intensity resistance with relatively slow movements. Since power activities typically involve higher intensity, explosive-like contractions with higher angular velocities (e.g., plyometrics), there is a conflict between the training medium and testing measures. This meta-analysis compared strength (e.g., training with resistance or body mass) and power training programs (e.g., plyometric training) on proxies of muscle strength, power, and speed. A systematic literature search using a Boolean Search Strategy was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, SPORT Discus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar and revealed 652 hits. After perusal of title, abstract, and full text, 107 studies were eligible for inclusion in this systematic review and meta-analysis. The meta-analysis showed small to moderate magnitude changes for training specificity with jump measures. In other words, power training was more effective than strength training for improving youth jump height. For sprint measures, strength training was more effective than power training with youth. Furthermore, strength training exhibited consistently large magnitude changes to lower body strength measures, which contrasted with the generally trivial, small and moderate magnitude training improvements of power training upon lower body strength, sprint and jump measures, respectively. Maturity related inadequacies in eccentric strength and balance might influence the lack of training specificity with the unilateral landings and propulsions associated with sprinting. Based on this meta-analysis, strength training should be incorporated prior to power training in order to establish an adequate foundation of strength for power training activities.

Introduction

In contrast to the prior myths of health concerns regarding resistance training (RT) for children (Rians et al., 1987; Blimkie, 1992, 1993; Faigenbaum and Kang, 2005), the contemporary research emphasizes the beneficial effect of youth RT for health, strength, and athletic performance (Sale, 1989; Webb, 1990; Faigenbaum et al., 1996, 2009; Falk and Tenenbaum, 1996; Payne et al., 1997; Golan et al., 1998; Hass et al., 2001; McNeely and Armstrong, 2002; Falk and Eliakim, 2003; American College of Sports Medicine, 2006; Faigenbaum, 2006; Malina, 2006; Behm et al., 2008; Granacher et al., 2016). With a properly implemented youth RT program, muscular strength and endurance can increase significantly beyond normal growth and maturation (Pfeiffer and Francis, 1986; Weltman et al., 1986; Sailors and Berg, 1987; Blimkie, 1989; Ramsay et al., 1990; Faigenbaum et al., 1996, 1999, 2001, 2002). Falk and Tenenbaum (1996) conducted a meta-analysis and reported RT-induced strength increases of 13–30% in pre-adolescent children following RT programs of 8–20 weeks. The Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology (CSEP) position stand (Behm et al., 2008) indicated that the literature provided a clear positive effect for improving muscle strength. In contrast, there were far fewer RT studies that measured power capacities, which only provided small effects for adolescents and unclear effects of RT on improving power for children (Weltman et al., 1986; Faigenbaum et al., 1993, 2002, 2007b, 1996; Lillegard et al., 1997; Christou et al., 2006; Granacher et al., 2016).

The small or unclear effects of traditional strength/RT on measures of power in children in the Behm et al. (2008) review could be attributed to the few studies published up to that year that monitored proxies of power. The recent Granacher et al. (2016) review cited only three studies with girls as participants compared to 27 studies with boys but still reported small to barely moderate effects of RT on muscular power. Other factors contributing to smaller effects of traditional strength/RT on measures of power in children could be the lack of training mode specificity (Sale and MacDougall, 1981; Behm and Sale, 1993; Behm, 1995) or perhaps maturation-related physiological limitations upon power training adaptations in children. The typical strength RT protocol for children involves training 2–3 times per week (Malina, 2006), with moderate loads (e.g., 50–60% of 1RM) and higher repetitions (e.g., 15–20 reps) (Faigenbaum et al., 1996, 2009; Lillegard et al., 1997; Christou et al., 2006; Faigenbaum, 2006; Benson et al., 2007; Behm et al., 2008). According to the concept of training specificity, an effective transfer of training adaptations occurs when the training matches the task (e.g., testing, competition) (Sale and MacDougall, 1981; Behm and Sale, 1993; Behm, 1995). Since high power outputs involve explosive contractions with forces exerted at higher velocities, RT programs using low to moderate loads at slower velocities would not match power characteristics. However, recently there are a number of publications that have implemented power training programs (e.g., plyometric training) for children that would adhere to the training specificity principle. Plyometric exercises involve jumping, hopping, and bounding exercises and throws that are performed quickly and explosively (Behm, 1993; Behm et al., 2008; Cappa and Behm, 2011, 2013). With plyometric training adaptations, the neuromuscular system is conditioned to react more rapidly to the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). Plyometric training can be safe and may improve a child's ability to increase movement speed and power production provided that appropriate training and guidelines are followed (Brown et al., 1986; Diallo et al., 2001; Matavulj et al., 2001; Lephart et al., 2005; Marginson et al., 2005; Kotzamanidis, 2006; Behm et al., 2008). Johnson et al. (2011) published a meta-analysis that only included seven studies that they judged to be of low quality. They suggested that plyometric training had a large positive effect on running, jumping, kicking distance, balance, and agility with children. Hence, further analysis is needed with a greater number of power training studies involving children and/or adolescents.

While many power activities involve shorter duration, higher intensity, explosive type contractions (anaerobic emphasis), children are reported to possess reduced anaerobic capacities (Behm et al., 2008; Murphy et al., 2014) with a lower reliance on glycolysis (Ratel et al., 2006, 2015), and lower power outputs (Falk and Dotan, 2006) compared to adults. In the recently published scoping review (Granacher et al., 2016), Granacher and colleagues were able to show small effect sizes following RT on measures of power in child athletes and moderate effect sizes in adolescent athletes. However, these authors looked at general RT effects only and did not differentiate between strength and power training programs. Moreover, only studies conducted with youth athletes were analyzed.

Thus, it was the objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate whether there are different effects following strength vs. power training on measures of muscle strength, power, and speed in trained and untrained children and adolescents. It is hypothesized that in accordance with the concept of training specificity, power training programs will provide more substantial improvements in power and speed measures than traditional strength programs with youth. Furthermore, since trained individuals would have a greater foundation of strength, we expected greater power training related effects in trained compared to untrained youth.

Methods

Search strategy and inclusion/exclusion criteria

This review included randomized controlled trials and controlled trials that implemented either traditional strength/resistance training or power training in youth. A literature search was performed by four co-authors separately and independently using PubMed, SPORT Discus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases. The topic was systematically searched using a Boolean search strategy with the operators AND, OR, NOT and a combination of the following keywords: (“strength training” OR “resistance training” OR “weight training” OR “power training” OR “plyometric training” OR “complex training” OR “compound training” OR “weight-bearing exercise”) AND (child OR children OR adolescent OR adolescents OR youth OR puberty OR prepuberal* OR kids OR kid OR teen* OR girl* OR boy OR boys) NOT (patient OR patients OR adults OR adult OR man OR men OR woman OR women). All references from the selected articles were also crosschecked manually by the authors to identify relevant studies that might have been missed in the systematic search and to eliminate duplicates.

Inclusion criteria (study selection)

Studies investigating traditional strength/resistance training or power training in youth were included in the review if they fulfilled the following selection criteria: the study (1) was a randomized controlled trial or a controlled trial; (2) measured pre- and post-training strength [e.g., maximal loads (i.e., 1 repetition maximum: 1RM) or forces with squats, leg extension or flexion, isokinetic maximal measures], power-related [e.g., countermovement jump (CMJ), horizontal or standing long jump (SLJ)] or speed-related (e.g., 10-m sprint time) dependent variables; (3) training duration was greater than 4 weeks; (4) used healthy, untrained (i.e., physical education classes and/or no specific sport) or trained (i.e., youth athletes from different sports) youth participants under the age of 18 years; (5) was written in English and published prior to January 2017; and (6) was published in a peer-reviewed journal (abstracts and unpublished studies were excluded). Studies were excluded if precise means and standard deviations, or effect sizes were not available or if the training study combined both strength and power exercises. Our initial search resulted in 652 applicable studies (see flow chart: Figure 1).

Figure 1

Statistical analyses

For statistical analyses, within-subject standardized mean differences of the each intervention group were calculated [SMD = (mean post-value intervention group—mean pre-value intervention group)/pooled standard deviation]. Subsequently, SMDs were adjusted for the respective sample size by using the term (1-(3/(4N-9))) (Hedges, 1985). Meta-analytic comparisons were computed using Review Manager software V.5.3.4 (Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2008). Included studies were weighted according to the magnitude of the respective standard error using a random-effects model. A random effect model was used because the relative weight assigned to each of the studies has less impact on computed combined effect size. In other words, in the fixed effect model, one or two studies with relatively high weight can shift the combined effect size and associated confidence intervals in one particular direction, whereas in a random effect model this issue is moderated.

Further, we used Review Manager for subgroup analyses: computing a weight for each subgroup (e.g., trained vs. untrained), aggregating SMD values of specific subgroups, and comparing subgroup effect sizes with respect to differences in intervention effects across subgroups. To improve readability, we reported positive SMDs if superiority of post values compared with pre-values was found. Heterogeneity was assessed using I2 and χ2 statistics. SMDs were calculated to evaluate the magnitude of the difference between traditional resistance and plyometric training according to the criterion of 0.80 large; 0.50 medium and 0.20 small (Cohen, 1988).

Results

Training program prescriptions

The descriptive statistics for the strength and power training program prescriptions are illustrated in Table 1. There were 28.5% more strength training studies within the literature review likely due to the fact that power training experiments for children began more recently (power: 1999 vs. strength: 1986 with one pediatric strength study published in 1958). Strength training studies on average had younger participants (~12 vs. 13 years), 45.2% longer duration training programs (~8 vs. 12 weeks) and implemented approximately 1 less exercise per training session. There were substantially more untrained or physical education student participants in the strength studies (i.e., strength studies with physical education and untrained: 31 vs. power studies with physical education and untrained: 6 with soccer athletes used most often (strength: 9 studies and power: 20 studies). Details of all studies in the review are depicted in Tables 2A,B.

Table 1

No. of StudiesNo. of studies with all male subjectsNo. of studies with all female subjectsNo. of studies with male and female subjectsAge (years)Training frequency (sessions per week)Training WeeksSetsNo. of Exerc.Reps
Strength 63 (1958, and 1986–2016)3213012.37 ± 0.732.2 ± 0.5212.45 ± 14.042.76 ± 1.166.15 ± 2.949.83 ± 4.08
Power 52 (1999–2016)3811313.5 ± 0.862.27 ± 0.588.57 ± 4.342.15 ± 1.817.69 ± 4.949.94 ± 7.91

Training participants and program characteristics.

reps, repetitions; Exerc, exercises. Values provided in first four columns are sums, whereas the last six columns are means and standard deviations.

Number of studies: Strength participants: Physical Education: 15 studies, Untrained: 16 studies.

Sports: Soccer: 9 studies, Rugby: 4, Gymnasts: 2, Basketball, 2, Baseball: 2, Football: 2, Swimming, Handball, American Rowing, Judo, Wrestling, and assorted other sports or trained states.

Power participants: Physical Education: 3 studies, Untrained: 3 studies.

Sports: Soccer: 20 studies, Rugby: 4, Gymnasts: 2, Basketball, 6, Swimming: 2, Volleyball: 2, Baseball, American Football, Handball, Rowing, Judo, Wrestling, Rowing, Track, Field hockey, Tennis, and assorted other sports or trained states.

Table 2A

ArticleTrSexAgeNFreqWksSetsExRepsIntStrengthPreSDPostSD%ΔPowerPreSDPostSD%Δ
Assuncao et al., 2016UMFLow rep.: 13.8 ± 0.91729284–64–6 RMLow rep.:
High rep.: 13.7 ± 0.716292812–1512–15 RM1 RM chest pressEffect sizes only
1 RM squatEffect sizes only
High rep.:
1 RM chest pressEffect sizes only
1 RM squatEffect sizes only
Benson et al., 2007PEMF12.3 ± 1.332282118RPE 15–18Bench press29.68.241.19.538.9
Bench press/kg0.50.10.70.240.0
Leg press109.239.1152.143.439.3
Leg press/kg1.90.42.60.736.8
Blimkie, 1989M10.4 ± 0.8143103–5610–12EF MVIC 100°14.75.318.04.822.4
Channell and Barfield, 2008TM15.9 ± 1.221383–52–43–2060–100%Squat144.041.6161.629.312.2CMJ0.60.70.60.43.4
Power clean72.617.884.315.616.1
Squat132.630.9160.926.021.3CMJ0.50.90.50.92.1
Power clean69.217.870.112.91.3
Chelly et al., 2009TM17.0 ± 0.31128312-480–90%Squat105.014.0142.015.035.2SJ0.30.00.40.09.4
CMJ0.30.00.40.05.9
5 Long jump10.60.311.10.24.7
5 m Velocity m/s3.50.23.80.17.1
40 m Max velocity m/s7.80.58.80.411.9
Christou et al., 2006TM13.8 ± 0.492162–3108–1555–80%Leg press102.82.5163.97.459.4SJ0.30.00.30.012.0
Bench press36.01.655.03.152.8CMJ0.30.00.40.020.0
10 m Sprint2.20.12.10.03.2
30 m Sprint5.10.24.90.12.6
Contreras et al., 2017TM15.5 ± 1.213212146–126–12 RMFront squat77.612.483.113.87.1CMJ0.60.10.60.83.6
THip thrustLong jump2.30.22.40.216.3
10 m Sprint1.80.11.70.11.1
20 m Sprint3.10.13.10.11.9
15.5 ± 0.711Front squat75.010.584.610.012.9CMJ0.50.10.60.17.7
Front squatLong jump2.30.22.30.31.8
10 m Sprint1.80.11.80.10.6
20 m Sprint3.20.13.10.2–0.6
Coskun and Sahin, 2014UMF18262810–1210 RMLeg press27.18.642.712.657.6
Dalamitros et al., 2015TM14.8 ± 0.5112244KE PT 60 R196.661.6209.845.86.7
KE PT 60 L188.547.0206.444.29.5
KF PT 60 R102.828.7108.529.05.5
KF PT 60 L100.728.6107.529.76.8
Dorgo et al., 2009PEMF16.0 ± 1.26331812–2810–14Push up9.71.112.61.129.9
Pull up7.60.912.10.959.2
dos Santos Cunha et al., 2015UM10.4 ± 0.5312376–1560–80%EF 1 RM kg6.40.810.60.965.6
EF 1 RM kg/FFM2.60.34.30.665.4
EF Isok 304.91.26.11.324.5
EF Isok 904.40.85.20.818.2
EF Isom 454.41.46.01.136.4
EF Isom 907.71.99.31.820.8
KE 1 RM kg10.81.618.72.073.1
KE 1 RM kg/FFM1.10.12.00.181.8
KE Isok 307.61.19.61.326.3
KE Isok 906.50.58.30.727.7
KE Isom 458.51.69.51.211.8
KE Isom 909.81.511.81.720.4
KE PT 60 R196.661.6209.845.86.7
KE PT 60 L188.547.0206.444.29.5
KF PT 60 R102.828.7108.529.05.5
KF PT 60 L100.728.6107.529.76.8
Overhead press 10 RM7.52.514.13.187.0
Faigenbaum et al., 1996UMF10.8 ± 0.415282–3568 RMLeg extension 6 RM18.01.828.04.655.6CMJ23.51.424.91.56.0
Chest press 6 RM21.82.230.14.638.1
Faigenbaum et al., 1999UMF7.8 ± 1.415281116–8FailChest press24.55.925.86.45.3
Leg extension18.47.024.17.631.0
8.5 ± 1.61613–15FailChest press25.79.129.99.716.3
Leg extension19.39.027.210.940.9
Faigenbaum et al., 2001UMF8.1 ± 1.64428116–8Heavy load chest press24.55.925.86.45.3
13-15Moderate load chest press25.79.129.99.716.3
Heavy med ball chest press23.84.327.84.116.8
Med ball chest press24.13.925.83.87.1
Faigenbaum et al., 2002UMF9.7 ± 1.4202811210–1510–15 RMChest press21.77.024.27.711.5Long jump129.55.6139.515.67.7
Leg press56.924.071.127.525.0CMJ22.83.924.94.59.2
Grip strength35.86.938.27.46.7
Faigenbaum et al., 2007aPEMF13.9 ± 0.4222939712–15 RMSquat 10 RM56.915.067.615.418.8Med ball throw356.555.1368.359.13.3
Bench press 10 RM41.19.447.410.515.3CMJ48.96.651.18.64.5
Faigenbaum et al., 2014PEMF7.5 ± 0.32128257–10Pull up7.60.910.30.935.5Long jump111.911.2116.411.64.0
Push up1.92.531.6
Faigenbaum et al., 2015PEMF9.5 ± 0.3202811330–45 SecPush up11.50.915.91.838.3Long jump121.25.4130.26.37.4
Faigenbaum et al., 2007bTM13.6 ± 0.714263610–1212 RMCMJ48.210.749.610.12.9
Long jump190.023.1192.225.41.2
Ball toss321.758.0339.485.25.5
Falk and Mor, 1996MF6.4 ± 0.414212341515 RMLong jump101.013.0115.018.013.9
Ball put233.028.0244.043.04.7
Ferrete et al., 2014TMF9.3 ± 0.3112262–466–10CMJ22.30.723.84.36.7
Flanagan et al., 2002TMF8.8 ± 0.5142111–3810–15Med ball (resisted)321.829.9336.026.04.0
T8.6 ± 0.524211Var5VarLong jump (resisted)134.332.8148.725.99.0
Med ball (BW)234.334.5267.939.212.0
Long jump (BW)138.521.8144.816.44.0
Funato et al., 1986PEMF11.0 ± 0.320312213100% MVICEF MVIC5.7
EE MVIC17.5
Gonzalez-Badillo et al., 2015TMU16: 14.9 ± 0.3172262–475–10 and 20 m40-105%CMJ (U16)35.43.939.14.910.5
U18: 17.8 ± 0.4162262–475–10 and 20 m40–105%CMJ (U18)38.43.041.34.57.6
Gorostiaga et al., 1999TM15.1 ± 0.79264540–90%KE force208.029.1235.841.113.4Throwing velocity71.76.774.07.03.2
SJ32.23.233.33.33.4
T15.1 ± 0.5KF force100.012.2109.015.49.0CMJ34.13.135.23.63.2
Granacher et al., 2010PEMF8.6 ± 0.5172103510–1270–80%Isok KE 6040.18.647.88.719.2CMJ21.52.622.22.73.3
Isok KF 6032.85.237.17.113.1
Isok KE 18033.15.438.36.615.7
Isok KF 18028.73.632.14.211.8
Granacher et al., 2011bPEMF16.7 ± 0.61428471030–40%KE MVIC150140416323048.7CMJ27.44.529.54.97.7
Ballistic
Granacher et al., 2011aPEMF8.6 ± 0.5172103710–1270–80%Iso KE 6040.18.647.88.719.2CMJ21.52.622.22.73.3
Isok KF 6032.85.237.17.113.1
Isok KE 18033.15.438.36.615.7
Granacher et al., 2014TMF13.7 ± 0.613263340–50 s or 20–25CSTS ventral TMS65.537.074.739.314.0CSTS long jump187.647.4189.639.01.1
13.8 ± 0.914263340–50 s or 20–25CSTS dorsal TMS152.298.0214.832.841.1
CSTS lateral right TMS46.918.951.118.39.0
CSTS lateral left TMS46.520.851.418.710.5CSTU long jump201.120.0207.118.83.0
CSTU ventral TMS67.934.183.128.722.4
CSTU dorsal TMS129.955.0173.320.433.4
CSTU lateral right TMS46.712.150.414.77.9
CSTU lateral left TMS201.110.351.410.68.0
Hammami et al., 2016bTMBPT: 12.7 ± 0.31238258–15MaxIsok KF 18028.73.623.14.2−19.5BPT CMJ25.54.029.22.914.5
PBT: 12.5 ± 0.31238258–15MaxPBT CMJ24.72.426.81.88.5
BPT long jump186.015.9220.710.318.7
PBT long jump177.111.6206.813.916.8
Bench press throw87.916.997.521.210.9
Harries et al., 2016TM16.8 ± 1.08261–6103–1060–90%Squat127.926.4171.241.233.9
Bench press87.916.997.521.210.9
Hettinger, 1958NRMF<2.9: 12.6 ± 3.891–28–23121MaxLower arm flexors (boys maturity <2.9)10.91.713.02.119.3
>3.0: 12.7 ± 2.315Lower arm flexors (girls maturity <2.9)9.41.310.71.513.8
Lower arm extensors (boys maturity <2.9)7.71.010.82.440.3
Lower arm extensors (girls maturity <2.9)6.31.38.71.338.1
Lower Arm Flexors (Boys Maturity >3.0)19.03.923.64.824.2
Lower arm flexors (girls maturity >3.0)16.23.617.33.66.8
Lower arm extensors (boys maturity >3.0)13.11.319.04.745.0
Lower arm extensors (girls maturity >3.0)10.12.112.62.424.8
Ignjatovic et al., 2011TM15.7 ± 0.823212398–128–12 RM30% Bench press367.265.4392.461.36.9
40% Bench press405.371.8432.068.16.6
50% Bench press455.984.5475.077.14.2
60% Bench press503.086.6526.882.04.7
Kotzamanidis et al., 2005TM17.1 ± 1.1112943-88,6,3 RMHalf squat140.515.6154.515.710.0Squat jump25.73.126.23.51.9
Step up65.57.676.47.116.740 cm DJ18.45.518.95.52.6
Leg curl53.66.762.35.616.1CMJ27.23.427.53.30.9
30 m Sprint4.30.24.30.20.5
Lloyd et al., 2016PEMPre-PHV: 12.7 ± 0.31026341010 RMPre-PHV squat jump22.34.924.84.611.2
Post-PHV: 16.3 ± 0.310Post-PHV squat jump32.45.034.65.16.8
Pre-PHV 10 m sprint2.30.22.20.24.4
Post-PHV 10 m sprint1.90.11.80.15.3
Pre-PHV 20 m sprint3.40.33.40.30.0
Post-PHV 20 m sprint2.80.22.70.23.6
Lubans et al., 2010UMF15.0 ± 0.7F: 37282108–12RPE 15–18Girls (bench press) FW49.913.062.011.924.2
E: 41282108–12RPE 15–18Girls (incline leg press) FW173.647.2234.350.535.0
Girls (bench press) ET50.515.256.514.511.9
Girls (incline leg press) ET181.453.3283.664.356.3
Boys (bench press) FW31.26.236.46.716.7
Boys (incline leg press) FW144.834.2191.051.331.9
Boys (bench press) ET31.77.235.97.113.2
Boys (incline leg press) ET156.220.0186.230.119.2
Moore et al., 2013TM16.0 ± 2.014320320LowPosterior shoulder endurance test30.014.088.036.0193.3
Moraes et al., 2013UM15.5 ± 0.9143123910–1210–12 RMBench press40.66.148.37.219.0Long jump137.122.6139.821.52.0
Leg press231.439.3435.737.088.3CMJ29.46.030.86.04.8
Muehlbauer et al., 2012PEM16.8 ± 0.86284–671030–40%Boys leg press MVIC178631919122807.0Boys CMJ31.12.233.32.97.1
F16.6 ± 0.58Girls leg press MVIC1287329163932527.3Girls CMJ24.63.726.74.18.5
Negra et al., 2016TM12.8 ± 0.213212418–1240–60%Squat102.025.2127.815.225.3Long jump1.70.21.90.215.5
CMJ24.14.629.83.423.5
Ozmun et al., 1994UMF10.5 ± 0.6838317–1010 RMIsok EF27.8
Isot EF22.6
Piazza et al., 2014TM12.0 ± 1.819263121212 RMSquat jump427.135.3440.128.03.0
CMJ449.734.5481.330.87.0
Pikosky et al., 200211.026191515 RMChest press22.71.525.11.710.6
KE18.62.431.13.267.2
Pesta et al., 2014UM15.3 ± 1.0133102312KE MVIC124522613292256.8Squat jump31.53.635.95.914.0
CMJ33.54.437.85.812.8
Prieske et al., 2016TM16.6 ± 1.1202–392–3515–20Trunk flexors MVIC65792681893.7CMJ36.03.435.53.2–1.4
(Stable)Trunk extensors MVIC60398644936.820 m Sprint3.00.13.00.10.3
Prieske et al., 2016TM16.6 ± 1.0192–392–3515–20Trunk flexors MVIC6249961797–1.1CMJ34.03.434.32.70.9
(Unstable)Trunk extensors MVIC591676141153.820 m Sprint3.00.13.00.10.7
Ramsay et al., 1990UM9–11133203–56Failure70–85%Bench press34.6
Leg press22.1
Isok PT EF25.8
Isok PT KE21.3
Rhea et al., 200817.4 ± 2.1321–3.12455–1075–85%CMJ (W)928.3229.11145.4285.923.4
Riviere et al., 2017TM17.8 ± 0.9Traditional: 8263–662–470–90%Bench press105.623.3110.624.74.7
Variable: 8Bench press95.69.6100.610.95.2
Rodriguez-Rosell et al., 201612.6 ± 0.515262–344–845–60%Squat (U 13)38.617.957.215.948.210 m Sprint (U13)1.90.61.80.73.2
14.6 ± 0.514Squat (U 15)64.014.581.716.627.720 m Sprint (U13)3.40.13.30.12.7
CMJ (U13)26.64.329.83.912.0
10 m Sprint (U15)1.80.61.80.61.7
20 m Sprint (U15)3.10.13.10.11.3
CMJ (U15)32.45.235.76.110.2
Sadres et al., 2001MF9.2 ± 0.3272841–43–65–3030–70%KE18.05.031.37.073.9
KF9.04.016.84.586.7
Sander et al., 2013TM13.1182104554–104–10 RMBack squat25.09.690.013.5260.0
Front squat21.48.581.414.4280.4
Santos and Janeira, 2012TM14.5 ± 0.6153102–3610–1210 RMMed ball throw 3 kg3.40.43.70.47.6
Squat jump24.83.327.94.012.5
CMJ33.34.336.74.210.2
Depth jump34.84.138.14.39.5
Sarabia et al., 2015TM15.0 ± 1.0112113–62Half Squat627.9183685.11829.1CMJ31.23.632.52.34.1
Bench press328.042341.1494.0Squat jump28.53.631.22.39.6
Med ball throw9.41.010.61.013.1
Sewall and Micheli, 1986NRMF10–111039331050–100%Isom KE19.824.121.7
Isom KF12.6
Isom SE16.321.230.1
Isom SF5.87.732.8
Siegel et al., 1989UMF8.4 ± 0.550312VarVarVarVarBoys (N = 26)
Cable flexion11.42.311.32.3–0.9
Cable extension12.72.512.62.5–0.8
Handgrip right13.43.114.93.311.2
Handgrip left12.83.214.03.29.4
Chin up2.42.53.83.658.3
Girls (N = 24)
Cable flexion11.21.711.81.95.4
Cable extension10.12.39.32.0–7.9
Handgrip right10.52.011.92.713.3
Handgrip left9.92.111.32.614.1
Chin up1.21.61.81.950.0
Steele et al., 2017UMF14.0 ± 1.01729284–64–6 RMBench press31.47.036.02.814.6
UMF14.0 ± 1.016292812–1512–15 RMBench press30.97.035.32.814.2
Teng et al., 200814.0 ± 1.012212310Isok KF54.018.057.016.05.6
Isok KE106.020.0118.026.011.3
Tran et al., 2015TMF14.0 ± 1.11027365–12Isom mid thigh pull12.7CMJ5.7
Tsolakis et al., 2004UM11.8 ± 0.8938361010 RMIsom EF85.18.3100.28.417.7
Isot EF3.21.64.01.524.2
Velez et al., 2010PEMF16.1 ± 0.2133122–31210–1510 RM bench press42.019.249.519.817.9
10 RM seated row61.521.971.024.715.4
10 RM shoulder press38.021.349.34.729.7
10 RM squat105.033.5152.152.844.9
Weakley et al., 2017TM16.9 ± 0.4351125Squat77.432.696.018.624.010 m Sprint1.90.11.90.1–0.5
Bench press68.512.875.210.69.840 m Sprint5.80.25.80.20.7
CMJ33.85.236.25.60.7
Weltman et al., 1986TM8.2 ± 1.3163141030 secKF 30°·s19.55.424.17.523.6Long jump124.814.3128.619.23.0
KF 90°·s16.23.819.66.321.0CMJ21.14.823.33.410.4
KE 30°·s26.910.333.512.224.5
KE 90°·s23.69.128.013.118.6
EF 30°·s11.33.714.65.529.2
EF 90°·s10.14.013.85.736.6
EE 30°·s11.53.315.23.632.1
EE 90°·s11.23.213.33.318.5
Wong et al., 2010M13.5 ± 0.72821237–105–15CMJ55.56.658.87.35.9
10 m Sprint2.10.22.00.14.8
30 m Sprint4.90.34.70.32.2

Strength type resistance training program descriptions.

%Δ, Percent change from pre-test to post-test; BPT, balance training before plyometric training; BW, bodyweight; cm, centimeter; CMJ, counter movement jump; CSTS, core strength training on stable surface; CSTU, core strength training on unstable surface; EE, elbow extension; EF, elbow flexor; ET, elastic tubing; Ex, exercises; FFM, fat free mass; Freq, frequency; FW, free weight; Int, intensity; Isok, isokinetic; Isom, isometric; Isot, isotonic; KE, knee extension; KF, knee flexion; kg, kilogram; m, meter; Med, Medicine; Mod, moderate; MVIC, maximal voluntary isometric contraction; N, number of participants; PBT, plyometric training before balance training; PE, physical education students; PHV, peak height velocity; Post, post-test; Power, power measures; Pre, pre-test; PT, peak torque; Reps, repetitions; RM, repetition maximum; RPE, rating of perceived exertion; s, second; SD, standard deviation; Strength, strength measures; T, trained youth; TMS, trunk muscle strength; Tr, training status; U, untrained youth; Var, varied; Wks, weeks.

Additional Citations for Table 2A are found in the text reference list (Hettinger, 1958; Funato et al., 1986; Sewall and Micheli, 1986; Weltman et al., 1986; Blimkie, 1989; Ozmun et al., 1994; DeRenne et al., 1996; Gorostiaga et al., 1999; Sadres et al., 2001; Flanagan et al., 2002; Pikosky et al., 2002; Tsolakis et al., 2004; Drinkwater et al., 2005; Benson et al., 2007; Faigenbaum et al., 2007a, 2014, 2015; Channell and Barfield, 2008; Rhea et al., 2008; Teng et al., 2008; Chelly et al., 2009; Dorgo et al., 2009; Lubans et al., 2010; Velez et al., 2010; Wong et al., 2010; Ebada, 2011; Granacher et al., 2011a,b, 2014, 2015; Ignjatovic et al., 2011; Muehlbauer et al., 2012; Santos and Janeira, 2012; Moore et al., 2013; Moraes et al., 2013; Sander et al., 2013; Coskun and Sahin, 2014; Ferrete et al., 2014; Pesta et al., 2014; Piazza et al., 2014; Dalamitros et al., 2015; Gonzalez-Badillo et al., 2015; dos Santos Cunha et al., 2015; Sarabia et al., 2015; Tran et al., 2015; Eather et al., 2016; Harries et al., 2016; Lloyd et al., 2016; Negra et al., 2016; Prieske et al., 2016; Rodriguez-Rosell et al., 2016; Contreras et al., 2017; Steele et al., 2017; Weakley et al., 2017).

Table 2B

ArticleTrSexAgeNFreqWksSetsExRepsIntStrengthPreSDPostSD% ΔPowerPreSDPostSD% Δ
Alves et al., 2016UMF10.9 ± 0.545282–364–81 kg Ball throw3.60.63.80.65.6
3 kg Ball throw2.20.42.40.49.1
Single leg jump1.30.21.40.27.7
CMJ0.20.00.20.00.0
Arabatzi, 2016UMF9.3 ± 0.612341038–12CMJ18.80.521.00.511.7
Drop Jump20.70.422.70.59.9
Attene et al., 2015TF14.9 ± 0.91826256CMJ26.93.630.03.711.3
Squat jump22.73.226.23.615.4
Borges et al., 2016TM5 m Sprint1.00.61.10.73.9
30 m Sprint4.20.94.30.20.7
Buchheit et al., 2010TM14.5 ± 0.581104–64–610 m1.90.11.90.10.5
30 m4.70.34.60.21.9
CMJ35.47.840.68.814.7
Chaabene and Negra, 2017TMLPT: 12.7 ± 0.213285–610–15LPT: 5 m sprint1.190.041.10.06–7.5
HPT: 12.7 ± 0.312289–1312–15HPT: 5 m sprint1.20.11.160.09–3.3
LPT: 30 m sprint4.980.124.840.17–2.8
HPT: 30 m sprint5.170.345.030.34–2.7
Chelly et al., 2015TM11.9 ± 1.0144103–1063–10Squat jump0.22.80.20.014.3
CMJ0.20.00.30.08.7
Drop jump0.20.00.30.013.6
Cossor et al., 1999TM11.7 ± 1.21932021510–15
Vertical jump199.765.8212.559.16.4
de Hoyo et al., 2016TMSQ: 18 ± 1.09281–382–3CMJ35.54.337.93.66.8
RS: 17 ± 1.020 m Sprint3.00.13.00.10.3
PL: 18 ± 1.050 m Sprint6.60.26.50.31.4
Diallo et al., 2001M12.3 ± 0.4103103
CMJ29.23.932.63.411.6
Squat jump27.34.029.33.37.3
Running velocities 20 m (m/sec)5.60.15.70.22.7
Faigenbaum et al., 2007bTM13.4 ± 0.913261–210–126–10VJ43.18.446.59.27.9
Long jump181.125.9191.928.56.0
9.1 m sprint2.20.12.20.20.0
Ball toss319.296.9358.485.212.3
Faigenbaum et al., 2009PEMF9.0 ± 0.94029112–146Curl up29.110.7319.96.5Long jump132.027.5139.927.06.0
18Push up4.65.68.79.589.1
110
Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2016TM12.5 ± 0.330582–46–810–15CMJ30.14.332.04.16.3
5 m Sprint1.20.11.10.15.1
20 m Sprint3.50.23.40.23.7
Long jump184.011.7200.017.38.7
Medicine ball throw626.091.6680.01148.6
Granacher et al., 2015TM15.0 ± 1.012283–5165–8CMJ IPT44.14.446.13.84.5
CMJ SPT41.14.246.44.912.9
Drop jump IPT28.93.931.23.27.9
Drop jump SPT27.24.230.22.511.1
10 m Sprint IPT1.90.11.90.1157.0
10 m Sprint SPT1.90.11.90.12.1
30 m Sprint IPT4.40.24.40.2–0.7
30 m Sprint SPT4.50.24.50.31.1
Hall et al., 2016TF12.5 ± 1.710261~4201–6CMJ43.56.145.35.84.1
Hammami et al., 2016bTMBPT: 12.7 ± 0.312281~3108–15CMJ BPT25.54.029.22.914.5
PBT: 12.5 ± 0.3CMJ PBT24.72.426.81.88.5
Long jump BPT186.015.9220.710.318.7
Long jump PBT177.111.6206.813.916.8
10-m Sprint BPT2.10.12.00.14.7
10 m Sprint PBT2.10.11.90.29.5
30-m Sprint BPT5.10.25.00.32.0
30 m Sprint PBT5.10.25.00.22.0
Hammami et al., 2016aTM15.7 ± 0.215284–1047–10Dom leg PT (N–m)41746712.25 m Sprint1.10.11.00.17.3
Hewett et al., 1996TF15.0 ± 0.6113616NonDom leg PT (N–m)37746824.3
Kotzamanidis et al., 2005TM17.0 ± 1.1122943–88,6,3 RMHalf squat140.415.5154.515.710.0Squat jump25.73.126.23.51.9
Step up65.57.676.47.116.7DJ4018.45.518.95.52.6
Leg Curl53.66.762.35.616.1CMJ27.23.427.53.30.9
30-m running speed4.30.24.30.20.5
Kotzamanidis, 2006UM11.1 ± 0.515210310 m speed (s)2.30.22.20.12.2
30 m speed (s)5.70.15.60.03.3
Vertical jump23.04.531.04.134.7
King and Cipriani, 2010TMFP: 15.1 ± 0.91026363–10Vertical jump FP68.167.3–1.1
SP: 15.2 ± 1.110Vertical Jump SP67.263.6–5.3
Lephart et al., 2005TF14.5 ± 1.314381110Quads PT 60°/s (%BW)211.845.2227.623.97.5
Hams PT 60°/s (%BW)106.332.6112.714.46.0
Quads PT 180°/s (%BW)128.522.9147.218.114.6
Hams PT 180°/s (%BW)88.423.783.616.3–5.4
Hip abd isom PT (%BW)169.434.1165.535.6–2.3
Lloyd et al., 2012GE9M9.4 ± 0.520242–453–10Hopping reactive index
GE 1212.3 ± 0.322GE90.900.250.900.240.0
GE 1515.3 ± 0.320GE120.910.241.010.2611.0
GE151.460.281.520.264.1
Lloyd et al., 2016PEM12.7 ± 0.31026243–1010 m sprint pre-PHV2.30.22.20.24.3
16.4 ± 0.21020 m sprint pre-PHV3.40.23.30.22.9
Squat jump pre-PHV24.64.928.34.615.0
10 m sprint post-PHV1.90.11.00.147.4
20 m sprint post-PHV2.70.32.60.33.7
Squat jump post-PHV32.36.432.76.31.2
Marques et al., 2013TM13.4 ± 1.426262–688–30CMJ7.7
30 m Sprint1.7
Martel et al., 2005TF15.0 ± 1.01026172–5Isok PT Quad 60°1082912025CMJ33.44.737.14.511.0
PT Hamstrings 60°69137912
PT Quad 180°61176921
PT Hamstrings 180°48135610
Marta et al., 2014M10.8 ± 0.476282–683–301 kg Ball throw T1333.5355.76.7
3 kg Ball throw T1213.3233.29.3
Standing long Jump T1126.8133.85.6
CMJ T121.422.65.5
20 m Sprint T14.34.22.5
1 kg Ball throw T2370.2387.54.7
3 kg Ball throw T2240.7256.36.5
Standing long Jump T2121.4127.04.6
CMJ T220.922.05.1
20 m Sprint T24.44.41.8
Matavulj et al., 2001TM15–16363110
DJ 50 cm11DJ 50 cm0.3DJ 50 cm4.8
DJ 100 cm11DJ 100 cm0.03DJ 100 cm5.6
McCormick et al., 2016TF
FP16.3 ± 0.7726496CMJ FP48.35.450.15.33.8
SP15.7 ± 0.77CMJ SP47.77.152.69.410.3
Standing long Jump FP176.918.5187.114.26.0
Standing long Jump SP177.930.1191.929.17.9
Meylan and Malatesta, 2009TM13.3 ± 0.614282–446–121–5SJ30.14.130.53.20.6
CMJ34.64.437.24.57.9
10 m Sprint1.960.071.920.12.1
Michailidis et al., 2013TM10.7 ± 0.7242122–445–1010 RM Squat30 m Sprint–3.0
CMJ27.6
SJ23.3
DJ15.9
Moran et al., 2016TM12.6 ± 0.792135–10CMJ Pre-PHV28.04.028.14.00.4
14.3 ± 0.68CMJ Mid-PHV32.56.032.83.70.9
10 m Sprint Pre-PHV2.30.12.30.10.4
10 m Spring mid-PHV2.20.22.10.12.3
30 m Sprint pre-PHV5.50.35.40.30.5
30 m Sprint mid-PHV5.00.34.90.30.4
Noyes et al., 2012TF14–1757361175VJ26.212.328.512.08.8
18 m Sprint3.50.33.50.40.3
Noyes et al., 2013TF15.0 ± 1.06236117537 m Sprint6.10.46.00.42.0
VJ 2 Step40.78.942.18.33.4
CMJ32.96.732.625.8–0.9
Noyes et al., 2012TF14.5 ± 1.034361175–25Sit-up (reps)37.75.340.55.97.4CMJ40.17.141.54.53.5
Pereira et al., 2015TM14.01028258–20CMJ26.94.532.39.020.1
Medicine ball throw7.515.27.914.35.2
Piazza et al., 2014TF11.9 ± 1.018261103
SJ410.441.6421.528.42.7
CMJ457.230.6485.033.86.1
Potdevin et al., 2011TM14.3 ± 0.212262–10134–12CMJ28.94.832.54.212.2
SJ26.23.831.14.918.9
Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2013TM13.2 ± 1.838272310CMJ27.05.84.3
20 m Sprint4.30.60.4
Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014TM13.2 ± 1.838272710HighCMJ26.74.72.2
20 m Sprint4.390.483.7
Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2015aTM11.6 ± 2.71226265–1030 m sprint6.00.66.5
CMJ30.59.315.4
Horizontal jump153.04.114.6
Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2015bMNPPT: 13.0 ± 2.1826225Vert CMJ w/arms
PPT: 12.8 ± 2.8825–10NPPT28.510.410.9
PPT27.98.716.6
Horz CMJ w/arms
NPPT163.042.64.6
PPT160.027.97.9
Right leg horiz CMJ w/arms
NPPT138.035.32.8
PPT138.027.713.5
Left leg horiz CMJ w/arms
NPPT136.042.914.1
PPT134.027.021.2
Maximal kicking velocity
NPPT68.315.45.7
PPT67.116.310.1
10 m sprint time
NPPT2.60.40.9
PPT2.70.31.6
Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2015cTMBG: 11.0 ± 2.012262–365–10CMJ:
UG: 11.6 ± 1.716BG31.12.018.7
BUG: 11.6 ± 2.712UG29.54.37.9
BUG30.59.315.4
Horizontal CMJ
BG1663317.4
UG153228.9
BUG1534114.6
Maximal kicking velocity
BG59.218.48.4
UG59.910.814.0
BUG61.819.612.0
30 m Sprint
BG5.70.5–3.2
UG6.10.4–6.2
BUG6.00.6–6.5
Rosas et al., 2016TM12.3 ± 2.3212664–8CMJ31.79.04.3
Horizontal jump159.035.76.1
Santos and Janeira, 2012TM15.0 ± 0.5142102–466–15Squat jump25.23.529.24.115.8
CMJ30.34.334.55.013.8
Medicine ball throw3.40.43.90.414.9
Santos et al., 2012UM13.3 ± 1.030281–57–83–8GR Group
CMJ0.30.10.30.14.4
Long jump1.50.31.60.34.7
1 kg Medicine ball throw7.51.78.21.68.7
3 kg Medicine ball throw4.71.05.11.19.9
20 m4.50.54.10.410.8
GCOM group
CMJ29.80.131.60.16.0
Long jump1.70.31.70.34.2
1 kg Medicine ball throw7.31.67.61.74.5
3 kg Medicine ball throw4.61.15.11.211.1
20 m4.40.63.80.313.0
Skurvydas et al., 2010M10.3 ± 0.313281130MVIC79.422.186.623.19.1CMJ24.13.832.85.136.1
Skurvydas and Brazaitis, 2010M10.2 ± 0.313281130Girls21.83.329.93.837.7
Sohnlein et al., 2014TM13.0 ± 0.9122162–596–16Max10 m Sprint1.80.11.80.12.2
30 m Sprint4.40.24.30.12.5
5 m Sprint1.10.01.00.03.8
20 m Sprint3.20.13.10.13.2
Szymanski et al., 2007TM15.4 ± 1.125312276–10Dom TRS17.1Standing long jump2.30.22.50.17.3
NonDom TRS18.3Medicine ball hitter's throw10.6
Parallel squat (kg)106.323.414527.726.7
Bench press (kg)71.715.986.115.216.7
Thomas et al., 2009TM17.3 ± 0.41226Chu's5 m Sprint
DJ trained1.00.11.10.11.9
CMJ trained1.10.11.10.10.9
10 m Sprint
DJ trained1.80.11.80.21.1
CMJ trained1.80.11.80.20.0
20 m Sprint
DJ trained3.10.13.10.21.0
CMJ trained3.20.13.20.30.6
Witzke and Snow, 2000PEF14.6 ± 0.5253122–3Str:78–125–15% BWLeg strength9619.9107.717.316.7Leg power392.082.0445.091.013.5
242–3Plyo: 5–202–20mod-high

Power (plyometric) resistance training program descriptions.

%Δ, percent change from pre-test to post-test; BPT, balance training before plyometric training; BW, bodyweight; cm, centimeter; CMJ, counter movement jump; DJ, drop jump; Dom, dominant; Ex, exercises; FP, frontal plane; Freq, frequency; GCOM, combined resistance training and endurance; GR, resistance training alone; Int, intensity; IPT, plyometric training on unstable surface; Isok, isokinetic; Isom, isometric; kg, kilogram; m, meter; Mod, moderate; MVIC, maximal voluntary isometric contraction; N, number of participants; Nm, newton meter; NonDom, non-dominant; NPPT, no plyometric training; PBT, plyometric training before balance training; PE, physical education students; Pre, pre-test; PHV, peak height velocity; PL, plyometric; Post, post-test; Power, power measures; PPT, plyometric training; Reps, repetitions; RS, resisted sprinting; s, second; SD, standard deviation; SJ, squat jump; SP, sagittal plane; SPT, plyometric training on stable surface; SQ, squat; ST, Strength; Strength, strength measures; T, trained youth; Tr, training status; TRS, torso rotational strength; U, untrained youth; Wks, weeks.

Additional Citations for Tables 2A,B are found in the text reference list (Hewett et al., 1996; Cossor et al., 1999; Witzke and Snow, 2000; Diallo et al., 2001; Matavulj et al., 2001; Martel et al., 2005; Szymanski et al., 2007; Meylan and Malatesta, 2009; Thomas et al., 2009; Buchheit et al., 2010; King and Cipriani, 2010; Skurvydas and Brazaitis, 2010; Skurvydas et al., 2010; Potdevin et al., 2011; Santos and Janeira, 2011; Lloyd et al., 2012; Noyes et al., 2012, 2013; Santos et al., 2012; Marques et al., 2013; Michailidis et al., 2013; Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2013, 2015a,b; Marta et al., 2014; Piazza et al., 2014; Sohnlein et al., 2014; Attene et al., 2015; Chelly et al., 2015; Pereira et al., 2015; Alves et al., 2016; Arabatzi, 2016; Borges et al., 2016; de Hoyo et al., 2016; Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2016; Hall et al., 2016; McCormick et al., 2016; Moran et al., 2016; Rosas et al., 2016).

Muscle power (jump) measures

Table 3 shows that power (plyometric) training studies provided higher magnitude changes in jump performance than strength training studies. In terms of general descriptors, power training studies exceeded strength training studies with trained (moderate vs. small), untrained (large vs. moderate)(Figures 2, 4) and adolescent (moderate vs. small) populations (Figures 3, 5). For the overall or general results (Figures 2, 4) as well as with children (Figures 3, 5), the descriptive classifications were the same (moderate magnitude improvements), although the precise SMDs values were higher with power training. When comparing specific populations (power and strength training combined), untrained individuals (moderate to large magnitude) experienced greater jump height gains than trained participants (small to moderate). Similarly, with training groups combined, children experienced larger jump height gains than adolescents, although the descriptive classification only differed with strength training (moderate vs. small), but not power training.

Table 3

GeneralTrained vs.UntrainedChildren vs.Adolescents
Power training effects on jump measures0.69 Moderate0.67 Moderate0.80 Large0.74Moderate0.57 Moderate
Strength training effects on jump measures0.53 Moderate0.48 Small0.61 Moderate0.68 Moderate0.42 Small
Power training effects on sprint measures0.38 Small0.32 Small1.19*Large0.47Small0.13 Trivial
Strength training effects on sprint measures0.48 Small0.45 Small0.57*Moderate0.73Moderate0.36 Small
Power training effects on lower body strength measures0.16** TrivialNot reportedNot reportedNot reported0.16** Trivial
Strength training effects on lower body strength measures1.14 Large1.23 Large1.08 Large1.39 Large0.88 Large

Summary of meta-analysis results.

Shaded row values illustrate higher magnitude changes compared to the corresponding measure. Bolded values illustrate higher magnitude changes for untrained vs. trained participants. Bolded and underlined values indicate higher magnitude changes for children vs. adolescents.

*

3 studies met inclusion criteria;

**

4 studies met the inclusion criteria.

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Sprint speed measures

In contrast to power (jump) results, strength training studies tended to provide better sprint time results than power training (Table 2). However, it was only in the children and adolescent strength vs. power training comparison where the descriptive classifications for strength training exceeded power training with moderate vs. small and small vs. trivial classifications, respectively (Figures 7, 9). In contrast, power training (only 3 measures) provided a greater magnitude change than strength training (30 measures) with untrained populations demonstrating a large vs. moderate improvement in sprint time (Figures 6, 8). Again, similar to power (jump) measures, untrained and child populations had greater magnitudes and descriptors than trained and adolescents respectively for both strength and power training.

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

Muscle strength measures

There were very few power training studies that measured lower body strength with no studies that utilized children or differentiated between trained and untrained individuals (Figure 10). The 4 power training measures within our review used adolescents with only a trivial magnitude improvement compared to large magnitude improvements in all categories (0.88–1.35) with the 45 strength training measures (Figures 11, 12).

Figure 10

Figure 11

Figure 12

Discussion

This is the first systematic review and meta-analysis that compared the effects of strength vs. power training on measures of muscle strength, power, and speed in trained and untrained youth. The most pertinent findings of the present study were the tendencies for training specificity with power measures (power training more effective than strength training), but a lack of training specificity with sprint measures (strength training more effective than power training) with youth. Thirdly, strength training exhibited uniformly large magnitude changes to lower body strength measures, which contrasted with the generally trivial, small and moderate magnitude training improvements of power training upon lower body strength, sprint and jump power measures, respectively. Furthermore, untrained youth displayed more substantial improvements in jump and sprint measures with both power and strength training compared to trained youth.

The greater magnitude improvements in power measures with power vs. strength training corresponds with the training specificity principle (Sale and MacDougall, 1981; Behm, 1988, 1995; Behm and Sale, 1993). Training specificity dictates that training adaptations are greater when the training mode, velocities, contraction types and other training characteristics most closely match the subsequent activity, sport or tests. The higher speed and power movements associated with power training would be expected to provide more optimal training adaptations for explosive type jump measures. Power training (e.g., plyometrics) can improve youth's ability to increase movement speed and power production (Behm et al., 2008). Chaouachi et al. (2014) reported similar findings when they compared training programs that involved two types of power training (Olympic weight lifting and plyometric) and traditional RT. In accordance with the present review and the concept of training specificity, both plyometric and Olympic weight lifting in the Chaouachi study provided greater magnitude improvements in CMJ than traditional RT.

It should be noted though, that while the numerical SMD values for power training exceeded strength training for power measures, the descriptor categorization overall was the same: moderate for both power and strength training. Thus, while it is conceded that power training demonstrates a numerical advantage over strength training for power measures (e.g., jump performance), the relative extent or degree of superiority was not overwhelming. The relative magnitude of improvement with power training (moderate to large: 0.6–0.8) for power measures (e.g., jumps) did not match the training specific extent or consistency of improvements associated with strength training on lower body strength (uniformly large: 0.88–1.35). Hence, the training specific response of strength training (strength training effects on strength measures) was consistently more substantial than the power training specific response (power training effects on jump power measures). Furthermore, power training specificity did not extend to another power and speed related measure: sprint speed.

Strength training magnitudes of change exceeded power training for sprint measures (exception of untrained participants). These findings contradict the long-held concept of training specificity (Sale and MacDougall, 1981; Behm, 1988, 1995; Behm and Sale, 1993). Slower, more deliberate movements of traditional RT would not be expected to provide optimal training adaptations for sprint measures that involve higher speed, stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) type activities. Again, similar findings were reported by Chaouachi et al. (2014) who found that traditional RT provided superior training adaptations compared to both Olympic weight lifting and plyometric training for 5 and 20 meter sprints. However, Radnor et al. (2017) reported contradictory results to the present meta-analysis with plyometric training and combined strength and plyometric training providing more positive responders than strength training alone for sprint velocity. The Radnor study incorporated school aged boys (not specifically trained) whereas the present review included both highly trained athletes and untrained youth. Similar to Radnor and colleagues, untrained youth in this meta-analysis participating in power training had greater magnitude improvements in sprint measures than trained athletes or the mean results of both populations.

One of the main factors contributing to optimal sprint performance is the capacity to generate a high rate of muscular force (Aagaard et al., 2002; Cronin and Sleivert, 2005; Cormie et al., 2007). Sprint actions employ stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) actions that involve the sequential combination of eccentric and concentric muscle contractions (Komi, 1986). SSC based actions tend to promote greater concentric force outputs when there is a rapid and efficient storage and transfer of elastic energy from the eccentric to the concentric phases (Cavagna et al., 1968; Bosco et al., 1982a,b; Cormie et al., 2010). Elastic and contractile (e.g., increased time for muscle activation, pre-load effect, muscle-tendon interaction, stretch reflexes) components affect maximal power output (Cavagna et al., 1968; Ettema et al., 1990; Lichtwark and Wilson, 2005; Avela et al., 2006). These mechanical and reflexive contributions occur over a short duration and thus the transition from eccentric to concentric phases must be brief (McCarthy et al., 2012). Reaction forces from sprints and hurdle jumps can generate reaction forces of ~4–6 times the individual's body mass (Mero et al., 1992; Cappa and Behm, 2011). Since the predominant jump measures were from bilateral CMJ and squat jumps, the ground reaction forces upon each limb would have been substantially lower (typically ½) than with high speed sprinting (with unilateral landings) (Dintiman and Ward, 2003; Cappa and Behm, 2011). The training specific related power (jump height) improvements seen with power training in this review would not necessitate similar eccentric strength capacities compared to the reaction forces experienced with sprinting. An individual who lacks sufficient eccentric strength must accommodate the eccentric forces by absorbing those forces over a longer time period, which would nullify the advantages of SSC actions (Miyaguchi and Demura, 2008). The lack of sprint training specificity with youth might be attributed to a lack of foundational eccentric (and likely concentric) strength. The effectiveness of traditional RT with youth sprinting would lie in its ability to build this essential strength component allowing youth to take advantage of the SSC mechanical and reflexive power amplification. Plyometric training would not be effective with any individual (youth or adult) who must absorb reaction forces over a prolonged period and thus cannot efficiently transfer the eccentric forces to the concentric power output.

The CMJ, drop, squat and other jumps evaluated in this meta-analysis all involved bilateral take-offs and landings. In contrast, sprinting is a series of rapid, unilateral landings and propulsions which would place greater challenges on the balance capabilities of the individual. Balance is another important contributor to SSC and sprint performance especially in youth (Hammami et al., 2016a). Balance affects force, power output and movement velocity (Anderson and Behm, 2005; Drinkwater et al., 2007; Behm et al., 2010a,b). Since balance and coordination are not fully mature in children (Payne and Isaacs, 2005), the effectiveness of plyometric training could be adversely affected. Hammami et al. (2016a) reported large-sized correlations between balance measures and proxies of power with youth (r = 0.511–0.827). These correlation coefficients were greatest with the more mature post-peak height velocity (PHV) youth, suggesting that the poorer postural control of the less mature pre-PHV and PHV youth had negative consequences upon power output. Similarly, significant positive correlations between maximum speed skating performance and a static wobble board balance test were reported in youth under 19 years of age (Behm et al., 2005). Thus, plyometric training activities are positively augmented with greater balance or postural control. For example, when 4 weeks of balance training was incorporated prior to 4 weeks of plyometric training the training outcomes were significantly better with youth than in the reverse order (Hammami et al., 2016b). Hence, the combination of inadequate strength and balance would inhibit positive sprint training adaptations associated with plyometric training with youth. In conflict with the training specificity principle, traditional RT may be more beneficial for promoting sprint adaptations in youth since it can build a foundation of strength upon which youth can take greater advantage of the SSC. Furthermore, the use of free weight or ground based strength/RT would be highly recommended for youth in order to emphasize initial balance adaptations (Behm et al., 2008, 2010a,b).

The only exception to the strength training advantage for sprint performance was with untrained participants with strength training providing moderate benefits (0.57) compared to large benefits (1.19) with plyometric training. However, upon closer inspection, there were only 3 measures each available for the untrained strength and plyometric training participants vs. 11 and 30 measures for the trained strength and plyometric trained participants, respectively. Hence, with such a sparsity of measures, one must be cautious about interpreting the robustness of this specific result for the untrained youth population.

There are a few youth training studies that combine plyometric and RT. As expected, the combination of plyometrics and RT provided significantly greater improvements in sprint speed and vertical jump height performance than untrained controls with 6 and 12 weeks of training, respectively (Wong et al., 2010; Hopper et al., 2017). Radnor et al. (2017) compared 6 weeks of plyometric, RT and combined training and found more positive responders for 30 m sprint speed with the combined pre-PHV group. In the post-PHV group, the combined training provided more positive responders with acceleration (10 m sprint) and squat jumps vs. the plyometric only and RT groups. Similarly, Kotzamanidis et al. (2005) reported that the combination of 13 weeks of RT and speed training provided greater training benefits for 30 m sprint, squat jump and CMJ than RT alone. The combination of plyometric and RT in these studies did not provide substantially greater training adaptations than the plyometric only training meta-analysis results expressed in this meta-analysis. While Wong et al. (2010) reported small to moderate magnitude improvements for vertical jump height, 10 and 30 m sprint performance, Kotzamanidis et al. (2005) reported 3–7% improvements in sprint and jump performances vs. 1–2% improvements for the RT only group. Thus, the combination of plyometric and strength training exercises did not seem provide additive benefits compared to either plyometric or RT alone.

Untrained youth in this meta-analysis produced greater training gains with jump and sprint measures (for both strength and power training) than trained youth. Table 2 illustrates that not only were the numerical effect sizes greater but in each case the threshold for the magnitude descriptor was exceeded and moved into a higher category with the untrained (i.e., moderate vs. large, small vs. moderate, small vs. large). Since the untrained individuals are beginning a training program and are situated at a lower baseline of functional performance, the initial degree of improvement would be expected to be greater than with trained individuals whose physical capacities have already progressed beyond their initial baseline. Similarly, Behringer et al. (2011) reported a similar trend and offered there might a ceiling effect of functional adaptations in experienced subjects, whereas novices and non-athletes experience greater adaptations due to greater learning effects. The only exception to the untrained groups training accrual benefits was for the effect of strength training upon lower body strength measures, where both groups had large magnitude changes. The training adaptation emphasis may differ between these two groups with untrained youth optimizing motor control/learning and coordination, whereas trained youth may emphasize more the neural (recruitment, rate coding synchronization) and morphological adaptations. So, although the trained youth may be closer to their training potential ceiling, they may be able to tap into adaptations not yet fully available to the untrained.

A limitation of this meta-analysis is that the involved studies investigated relatively healthy and athletic populations. Future studies should also focus on populations with risk factors. Furthermore, appropriate age or maturation matched power and plyometric training intensities, volumes, durations, frequencies and other factors (e.g., What is the optimal platform height for drop jumps with different youth maturational levels? With the appropriate intensity established, what would be the appropriate volume of power training for each session or each week/cycle?) should be investigated to obtain the greatest benefits.

In conclusion, there was modest evidence for the effect of power training specificity upon power measures (small to moderate magnitudes of change). Plausibly due to the greater reaction forces with sprinting, there was no power training specific advantage with sprint results. On the contrary, strength training provided greater sprint training benefits likely due to the development of greater strength allowing the individuals to absorb and react to the ground reaction forces more efficiently to optimize the SSC mechanical and reflexive advantages. Strength training provided the greatest training specific results in youth with consistently large magnitude improvements in lower body strength across trained, vs. untrained, as well as with children vs. adolescents. In addition, untrained youth with their lower baseline of physical capacities (untapped training potentials), immature motor learning (Payne and Isaacs, 2005; Behm et al., 2010b; Behringer et al., 2011; Hopper et al., 2017) and possibly due to their lack of experience tend to experience greater training benefits for power and sprint measures than trained youth. Based on these findings, resistance training for youth should initially emphasize strength training methods. Prior research has also demonstrated the importance of introducing balance training early in the training process (Behm et al., 2008; Hammami et al., 2016b). Plyometric training can also be included but this training should emphasize lower amplitude movements with low to moderate reaction forces (Behm et al., 2008). Proper form, balance and motor control should be first emphasized before presenting the individual with high reaction forces. As indicated in the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology position stand (Behm et al., 2008), plyometric training and other forms of power training (e.g., Olympic weight lifting) are not intended to be stand-alone exercise programs, the best approach is to incorporate properly supervised and progressive power training into a well-rounded program that also includes other types of strength and conditioning.

Statements

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Summary

Keywords

children, boys, girls, plyometric training, resistance training

Citation

Behm DG, Young JD, Whitten JHD, Reid JC, Quigley PJ, Low J, Li Y, Lima CD, Hodgson DD, Chaouachi A, Prieske O and Granacher U (2017) Effectiveness of Traditional Strength vs. Power Training on Muscle Strength, Power and Speed with Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Physiol. 8:423. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00423

Received

02 April 2017

Accepted

01 June 2017

Published

30 June 2017

Volume

8 - 2017

Edited by

Kimberly Huey, Drake University, United States

Reviewed by

Brian H. Dalton, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Canada; Shane A. Phillips, University of Illinois at Chicago, United States

Updates

Copyright

© 2017 Behm, Young, Whitten, Reid, Quigley, Low, Li, Lima, Hodgson, Chaouachi, Prieske and Granacher.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: David G. Behm

This article was submitted to Exercise Physiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Physiology

Disclaimer

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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