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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Front. Hum. Neurosci.

Sec. Cognitive Neuroscience

Volume 19 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1652607

This article is part of the Research TopicNeurofeedback: applications, techniques, and validity in clinical and non-clinical useView all 3 articles

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Relationships between Real-Time Neurofeedback Training Parameters and Acquisition of Neural Modulation

Provisionally accepted
Eldrick Josef GalangEldrick Josef Galang1Miguel Angel VelasquezMiguel Angel Velasquez2*Dehan ElcinDehan Elcin2Samantha O'ConnellSamantha O'Connell3Julian WieckJulian Wieck4Savannah McNairSavannah McNair5Paul J ColomboPaul J Colombo2,6
  • 1Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
  • 2Department of Psychology, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States
  • 3Tulane University Department of Epidemiology, New Orleans, United States
  • 4Department of Psychological and Behavioral Health Sciences, University of Houston-Clear Lake, Houston, United States
  • 5Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, United States
  • 6Brain Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States

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Real-time neurofeedback is an emerging method for regional modulation of neural activity with physiological and behavioral effects that persist beyond the duration of feedback sessions. The present work investigated the degree of effect that parameters of neurofeedback training had on the acquisition and retention of neural modulation in healthy adults. After a literature search, studies were screened, data were extracted, and study quality was evaluated. 55 participant groups met inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis. This meta-analysis identified 4 parameters associated with significant neural modulation in the desired direction: the neurofeedback imaging device used, complexity of the feedback stimulus, presence of a pre-training rehearsal trial, and EEG target oscillations. This systematic review and meta-analysis may serve to better understand how methodological variables used in neurofeedback influence the acquisition and retention of neural modulation.

Keywords: Neurofeedback1, brain-computer interface2, cognitive control3, biofeedback, neural plasticity4, Meta-analysis5

Received: 24 Jun 2025; Accepted: 11 Aug 2025.

Copyright: © 2025 Galang, Velasquez, Elcin, O'Connell, Wieck, McNair and Colombo. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Miguel Angel Velasquez, Department of Psychology, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary Material