Achieving sustainable architecture through the integration of vernacular natural ventilation principles into contemporary architecture design

Abstract

Introduction:

Vernacular architecture has long embodied climate-responsive strategies for natural ventilation and passive cooling; however, most existing studies remain descriptive or comparative and lack technically grounded pathways for integration into contemporary housing. This research addresses this gap by systematically reconstructing and reinterpreting vernacular ventilation principles for direct application in modern residential design. Focusing on Northern Cyprus as a climatically representative context, the study advances beyond theoretical discourse to demonstrate how traditional environmental knowledge can be operationalized within contemporary architectural practice.

Methods:

A mixed-method research approach is employed. First, a quantitative analysis of global climate classifications is conducted to identify their influence on vernacular architectural characteristics. Second, vernacular natural ventilation strategies are systematically categorized according to their structural, spatial, and functional roles. Third, selected strategies are adapted and integrated into contemporary residential housing models in Northern Cyprus. Environmental performance and spatial behavior are evaluated using digital tools and simulations, including Revit, INdex360, DepthmapX, and energy performance analyses, to assess airflow efficiency, thermal comfort, and energy consumption.

Results:

The findings demonstrate that vernacular ventilation strategies, when systematically reconstructed and technically adapted, can substantially reduce energy demand while improving indoor thermal comfort. Simulation results confirm enhanced natural airflow performance, reduced reliance on mechanical cooling, and improved spatial efficiency compared to conventional contemporary housing models. The integration framework effectively translates vernacular principles into measurable environmental benefits within modern design constraints.

Discussion:

This study establishes a technically grounded framework for embedding vernacular ventilation knowledge into contemporary residential architecture. While rooted in the specific climatic and regulatory context of Northern Cyprus, the proposed model offers transferable insights for regions facing similar sustainability challenges. By positioning Northern Cyprus as a microcosm, the research highlights how localized vernacular intelligence can inform globally relevant, resilient housing solutions. The outcomes contribute to sustainable, health-oriented, and policy-informed architectural discourse and provide a foundational reference for the development of a future building code in Northern Cyprus.

1 Organizational routines and templates

2 Introduction

The rapid global increase in energy consumption, driven by population growth and urbanization, has intensified environmental challenges such as global warming and climate change (Achuo et al., 2023). In 2021, buildings were responsible for approximately 30% of global final energy consumption and 26% of energy-related CO₂ emissions, with heating and cooling being the primary contributors (Ramezani and Reza, 2022). Energy demand for space cooling alone is expected to rise by 45% by 2030, from 7 to nearly 10 EJ (Islam and Ali, 2024). In response, natural ventilation (NV) presents a viable solution for reducing energy use while maintaining occupant comfort. By harnessing wind and thermal buoyancy, NV eliminates the need for energy-intensive mechanical systems, achieving zero operational carbon emissions (Daghigh, 2015). This approach is rooted in vernacular architecture, which traditionally has utilized local climatic conditions to create thermally comfortable spaces, making NV particularly relevant in hot and humid climates like that of North Cyprus.

However, the case of Northern Cyprus reveals critical regulatory and practical gaps. Unlike many countries with well-established building codes and cost benchmarks, Northern Cyprus lacks a comprehensive national regulation framework or standardized construction pricing system. Only recently have energy efficiency measures begun to be considered in educational buildings, while the residential sector remains largely unregulated. Despite rapid urban transformation marked by the rise of high-rise housing typologies, construction practices continue to rely on rigid, thermally inefficient materials. This mismatch between evolving urban form and outdated building practices has perpetuated high energy demand in residential buildings, underscoring the urgency of developing context-sensitive, scalable solutions.

This study seeks to address these challenges by developing a standardized framework for NV in residential buildings, promoting energy efficiency and environmental sustainability. It involves a climatic analysis of North Cyprus, an evaluation of global NV typologies, and energy simulations that compare NV and hybrid systems to quantify energy savings and carbon reductions. The ultimate goal is to propose a regulation-compliant and adaptable design strategy that not only advances sustainable housing in Northern Cyprus but also informs broader global discussions on energy-responsive architecture. By positioning Northern Cyprus as a representative case of small, under-regulated, and climatically vulnerable regions, the study demonstrates how locally derived frameworks can generate transferable insights with applicability to global sustainable housing challenges.

3 Contextual and methodological constraints

This study is contextually constrained to mid-rise residential buildings in Iskele, Northern Cyprus—a rapidly urbanizing area that lacks standardized building regulations. The region’s hot-humid Mediterranean climate, coupled with inconsistent construction oversight, has led to residential developments that often neglect climate-responsive design. The focus on mid-rise buildings reflects their growing dominance and the particular ventilation challenges they present in the absence of a cohesive national building code. Our research adopts the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system due to its empirical rigor and global recognition, enabling the selection of climate-appropriate ventilation strategies. While alternative systems exist, Köppen–Geiger’s alignment with historical temperature and precipitation data enhances the validity of the selected techniques for the Mediterranean context.

Technological limitations are addressed through the integrated use of Revit for detailed modeling, DepthmapX for spatial airflow analysis, and thermal simulation. Revit was chosen because of its parametric modeling capacity and seamless integration with BIM, which allow accurate geometric definition and the rapid iteration of design alternatives, which are advantages not fully achievable with simulation-oriented platforms such as EnergyPlus or DesignBuilder. DepthmapX, meanwhile, provides unique spatial configuration tools such as visibility graph analysis (VGA) and isovist-based airflow studies, enabling an evaluation of how geometry shapes natural ventilation pathways—functions that EnergyPlus and DesignBuilder cannot directly perform. The combined use of Revit and DepthmapX, therefore, ensures both geometric precision and spatial logic assessment, aligning closely with the study’s aim of linking vernacular ventilation strategies with contemporary mid-rise residential typologies. Though robust, these tools require precise data inputs and expert handling, which may limit replicability in contexts that lack technical resources.

Furthermore, the reliance on ASHRAE Standards 55 and 62.2 for performance validation serves as both a strength and a limitation. While offering international credibility, ASHRAE Standards may not fully reflect regional socio-cultural preferences or construction practices. Nevertheless, the framework developed herein offers a scalable model adaptable to other regions with similar climatic and regulatory voids.

4 Analyzing the climatic roots of vernacular architecture

Climate fundamentally influences architectural form by shaping thermal comfort, material use, and energy strategies. Vernacular architecture exemplifies an adaptive response to local climates through passive techniques aimed at enhancing human wellbeing while minimizing energy demands.

The classification of climates allows researchers and architects to design structures and urban environments that are better adapted to specific weather patterns and environmental factors (Lu et al., 2025). Several systems have been developed over time, with the Köppen climate classification being one of the most widely used due to its simplicity and accuracy.

Broader ecological classifications, like Thornthwaite and Holdridge, provide insights into hydrological and ecological conditions, but they are less directly applicable to architectural design. In contrast, the Köppen climate classification offers a straightforward, globally recognized system based on measurable variables—temperature and precipitation—as illustrated in Figure 1, making it especially valuable for architectural applications. The Köppen climate classification system, introduced by Wladimir Köppen in 1884 and thence refined in the early 20th century, categorizes the world’s climates based on average monthly temperature and precipitation data (Köppen, 1936).

FIGURE 1

Pan et al., 2024).

Each primary group is further divided into subcategories based on specific temperature and precipitation patterns. For example, tropical climates (A) are classified into rainforest (Af), monsoon (Am), and savanna (Aw) types, distinguished by varying rainfall distributions (Köppen and Geiger, 1928). The letter-based system allows for detailed yet concise descriptions of a location’s climatic conditions, aiding comparative climate studies and environmental planning (Table 1).

Vernacular architecture, as a reflection of localized knowledge and environmental adaptation, exhibits remarkable diversity across global regions, with each strategy tailored to specific climatic, cultural, and material contexts. By leveraging passive design techniques, vernacular structures optimize energy efficiency and occupant comfort, offering valuable lessons for contemporary sustainable architecture.

These strategies, deeply rooted in their respective climatic contexts, demonstrate a universal principle of vernacular design: the integration of local environmental dynamics with culturally informed construction practices to achieve energy efficiency and resilience (Europa Publications, 2022) that the table below illustrates in key vernacular strategies in various Köppen climate zones—tropical (A), arid (B), temperate (C), and cold (D)—focusing on their climatic responsiveness and energy-saving potential (Table 2).

Climate is a fundamental determinant of architectural form and function, shaping the design of built environments through its influence on thermal comfort, material selection, and energy performance. In this regard, several climatological frameworks have informed architectural design, each offering distinct perspectives on the interaction between climate and built structures. Victor Olgyay’s bioclimatic design theory (Aviv and Braham, 2025) emphasizes the integration of climatic parameters with human thermal comfort (Table 3), proposing that buildings should act as dynamic mediators between occupants and their environment. Olgyay’s psychrometric chart maps temperature and humidity against comfort zones, guiding the application of passive strategies like shading and ventilation (Olgyay-Fekete and Robin, 2025). Similarly, the comfort model of Givoni (1994) extends this approach by delineating climatic boundaries for passive cooling and heating, thus offering practical design recommendations for diverse climate zones (Redden and Crawford, 2025).

TABLE 3

	Name of techniques	Global location	Photograph	Design criteria	Plan and section	Cross section	High
1	Wind catchers
2	Badgir: one-sided wind catcher	Iran, Egypt to India		Elevation and plan of X-blade four-sided wind catcher at square plan. Commonly used in Iran and GCC countries		Square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal	3–5 m
3	One-sided wind catcher	GCC countries					3–4 m
4	Mangh: one-sided wind catcher	Pakistan, Hyderabad, Sindh, and Thatta		Elevation (view) and plan of a single-sided wind catcher at a square plan. Indus wind catchers were used in the residential buildings of historical cities		Square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal	3–5 m
5	Badgir and malkaf: two-sided wind catcher	Iran and Egypt		Elevation and plan of K-blade multiple-sided wind catcher at square plan. Commonly used in Iran and GCC countries		Square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal	3–5 m
6	Badgir multi-sided wind catcher	Iran		Elevation and plan of X-blade wind catcher at hexagonal plan. Commonly used in Iran, particularly Dulat Abad and Yazd		Square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal	3–5 m
7	Badnivil: multi-sided wind catcher	Afghanistan		Elevation and plan of single-sided wind catcher, square plan over dome, used in the fortress of Herat.		Square over circular plan	1–12 m
8	Wind scoop, multi-sided wind catcher	India, Iran, and Tazia Minar		Elevation and plan of multi-sided blade wind catcher over a circular plan and dome supported by cylindrical columns. Decorative wind catcher used in Yazd, Iran, and Sharjah, UAE.		Square over circular plan	5–12 m
9	Mashrabiya	Middle East, North Anatolia, Egypt, Turkey, and Iraq		Elevation and plan		Square and rectangular	Wooden boards 10–12 cm wide; in the case of large ornamental units and may reach width of 20 cm. Lower part 30–50 cm high, while upper part 60–80 cm high
10	Terome walls	France		Elevation and plan		Square and rectangular	One floor
11	Venturi effect	Mediterranean region: Greece, Italy, and Spain		Roof		Square	3–12 m
12	Ondol heating system	Korea		Elevation and plan		Square	L × H × W: 2,500, 21, 70 mm
13	Raised floor design engosu	Indonesian, Japanese architecture		Ground floor		Based on size of house	60–100 cm
14	Shavadoon	Iran		Ground floor			5–12 m
15	Eyvan	Iran and Turkey		Ground floor		Square or rectangle	3–4 m high
16	Courtyards	Turkey, Iran, and China		Exterior space. In middle of house area		Square or rectangle	3–4 m
17	Breeze catchers, known as “joglo houses”	Indonesia		Middle interior spaces		In plan, a small-sized joglo is approximately 60–70 m2; a large one approximately 100–120 m2	5.5 m high, pillars of the circle 25 × 25 cm, in cross section 20 × 20 cm; porch pillars 3 m high, cross-sectional size 15 × 15 cm
18	Cazuelas	Mexican		Cazuelas are clay pots or ceramic vessels that are integrated into the roofs of buildings. They are strategically placed to capture and channel breezes into the interior spaces. The pots have openings at the top and are partially embedded in the roof structure
19	Mud-brick construction combined somba ventilation technique	African		Tata somba houses have a small narrow openings near the roofline called “air intakes.” These openings allow air to enter the house, creating a stack effect. The stack effect is a natural ventilation phenomenon where warm air rises and escapes through higher openings, creating a pressure difference that draws in cooler air through lower openings		Circle	3 m
20	Mudhif	Africa and southern Iraq		Mudhif structures are elevated on wooden or mud platforms to protect them from flood waters. This elevation allows for air to circulate beneath the building, helping to cool the interior spaces. The roof of the mudhif is designed with a high, conical shape and is traditionally made of reeds or palm fronds. This design encourages natural ventilation by allowing hot air to rise and escape through the top, creating a chimney effect. As the warm air exits, it draws in cooler air from the lower portions of the mudhif, promoting airflow and cooling the interior		Rectangle	21 m long, 7 m wide, and 15 m to the peaks of its arches

Vernacular natural ventilation techniques by Köppen climate zone consideration (Source: Hosseini et al., 2024; Pan et al., 2024; Philokyprou et al., 2017; edited by authors, 2025).

5 Principles of climate-responsive vernacular design

Climate-responsive vernacular architecture embodies a long-standing human effort to harmonize building design with regional environmental conditions. Its dual aim is to ensure indoor comfort while minimizing energy consumption. By leveraging passive strategies—such as orientation, ventilation, insulation, and material mass—vernacular buildings naturally regulate indoor climates without heavy reliance on mechanical systems (Turan, 2024; Fathy, 2017).

Rooted in cultural and environmental knowledge, this design approach adapts form and layout to seasonal needs (Lu et al., 2025). Building orientation and spatial organization play pivotal roles in optimizing solar exposure, shading, and ventilation, and they reinforce the connection between architecture, climate, and comfort (Givoni, 1994; Karagöz, 2016).

Globally, vernacular architecture offers a rich classification of strategies tailored to climate adaptation, structural efficiency, material use, and cultural identity. By systematizing these techniques, architects can better translate them into modern bioclimatic and hybrid designs (Oruore, 2024). This approach not only preserves local identity but also enhances ecological resilience and human health.

Overall, vernacular principles provide a foundational framework for creating sustainable, human-centered environments that respond to both environmental and cultural imperatives. Thus, the following table categorizes global indigenous techniques (Table 3).

The enduring relevance of these vernacular strategies lies in their adaptability to modern sustainable design frameworks, offering scalable solutions for energy efficiency in diverse climatic contexts. By integrating passive solar design, cross-ventilation, and locally sourced materials, vernacular-inspired architecture not only minimizes environmental impact but also enhances occupant wellbeing through biophilic connections and improved indoor air quality (Asojo and Hazazi, 2025). Recent studies have demonstrated that buildings which incorporate these principles can reduce energy demands for cooling by up to 60%, outperforming conventional designs (Filali and Ezzahir, 2025). Natural ventilation is one of the fundamental passive strategies embedded in vernacular architecture across diverse climatic regions. Rooted in centuries of empirical knowledge, traditional buildings were often designed to respond effectively to local environmental conditions without reliance on mechanical systems. Natural ventilation, achieved through the deliberate manipulation of building orientation, openings, internal spatial organization, and materiality, was a critical mechanism for thermal regulation and indoor air quality improvement (Fathy, 1986; Oliver, 2006).

These indigenous strategies align with modern sustainability goals, thus demonstrating that climate-responsive design is not a recent innovation but a continuity of long-standing architectural wisdom. Integrating such passive ventilation techniques into contemporary buildings can significantly reduce energy consumption associated with air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems (Givoni, 1994).

Accordingly, traditional ventilation methods, rooted in indigenous knowledge, deserve closer attention in contemporary design. Consequently, to clarify the effectiveness of these techniques and their areas of use, the following table presents and categorizes indigenous techniques related to natural ventilation (Table 4).

TABLE 4

Name of techniques, location in the world	Photograph	Location in architecture spaces	Contemporary model photograph	Contemporary model photograph
Wind catchers, Iran		Roof and facades/cross-section square/rectangle/hexagonal and octagonal./3–5 m	Modern wind catcher and dome at a mosque in Iran
Wind catchers, Pakistan (Mangh)		Roof and facades/cross-section square/circular 3–5 m
Wind catchers, India (Tazia Minar)			Modern wind catcher at the Torrent Center, India
Wind catchers, Afghanistan (Badnivil)		Roof, cross-section square over circular plan 1–1.2 m
Wind catchers, UAE (Barajeel)		Rectangle 3–4 m	Modern wind catcher in Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
Wind catchers, Bahrain (Barajeel)
Kuwait (Barajeel)			Qatar University modern wind catcher
Mashrabiya or mashrabiyya, East and North Africa		Outdoor, interior, roof decoration, outdoor wall cladding decoration, building facades
Traditional Chinese architecture, East Asia		Shavadoon Iran

Classification of vernacular ventilation techniques in the world.

In vernacular architecture, ventilation is intricately tied to local climate, topography, and cultural practices. These passive strategies are context-specific and optimized to minimize mechanical energy consumption while maximizing occupant comfort (Givoni, 1994). Ventilation thus plays a crucial role in sustainable architecture to ensure thermal comfort, maintain indoor air quality, and promote energy efficiency (Ramezani and Reza, 2022).

Building shape and layout. Shallow plans promote airflow, while courtyards and atria act as “breathing cores.” Features like vegetation and water elements can enhance microclimate control.

Wind catchers: vertical shafts that exploit wind pressure and the stack effect.

Thermal mass and earth-air tunnels: stabilize temperatures and cool incoming air.

Seasonal and adaptive systems: movable shutters and panels allow occupants to control airflow.

Courtyards are used dynamically: open in summer for cooling, semi-enclosed in winter for warmth.

Despite these benefits, challenges persist. One barrier to mainstreaming vernacular ventilation in contemporary architecture is the difficulty in standardizing performance metrics. Differences in regional typologies and the qualitative nature of many traditional strategies complicate direct comparison and modeling. Nevertheless, consistent findings across diverse climatic contexts underscore the value of vernacular ventilation strategies as environmentally responsive design tools. Quantitative validation, temperature and humidity logging, and post-occupancy evaluations enable the integration of these systems into modern sustainable architecture (Table 5).

North Cyprus as a case study, located in the eastern Mediterranean, falls under the Köppen–Geiger Csa classification, defined by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters (Peel et al., 2007). This Mediterranean climate significantly shapes the region’s vernacular architecture, encouraging the adoption of passive design strategies that respond to seasonal extremes.

Based on studies conducted on the vernacular architecture of Northern Cyprus, its summary is given in the table below (Table 6).

TABLE 6

Technique	Structural/Functional role	Image	References
Semi-open courtyard	Central courtyards facilitate passive cooling through night ventilation, shading via pergolas or vegetation, and evaporative cooling from water features. These spaces also serve as social hubs, enhancing biophilic connections and reducing cooling energy demands by up to 50% in summer		Philokyprou et al. (2017); Redden and Crawford (2025)
Stone/mud walls	High-thermal-mass walls (30–50 cm thick) made of local limestone or adobe stabilize indoor temperatures by absorbing and releasing heat slowly, reducing cooling needs by 40%–60% in the hot Csa summer climate		Philokyprou et al. (2017)
Cross-ventilation and openings	Strategically placed windows and vents, often with adjustable louvres, promote airflow across interiors, enabling night purge cooling and humidity control, achieving up to 55% reduction in cooling energy in Mediterranean climates		Savvides et al. (2016); Thravalou et al. (2016); Nagapurkar et al. (2025)
Vaulted stone roofs/chimneys	Vaulted roofs constructed with local stone tiles dissipate heat through high thermal mass, while chimneys facilitate stack-effect ventilation, expelling hot air and reducing cooling loads by 30%–45%		Filali and Ezzahir (2025)

North Cyprus vernacular architecture (Source: Hosseini et al., 2024; Pan et al., 2024; Gil-Crespo and Maldonado-Ramos, 2015).

5.1 Shavadoon

The internal temperature of a shavadoon is governed by the thermal stability of the earth’s crust and the extent of natural ventilation. Unlike the upper “primitive” crust, which is exposed to rapid daily and seasonal temperature changes, the lower crust—at depths of 1–20 m—maintains a relatively constant temperature throughout the year. This thermal inertia enables shavadoon spaces to remain at approximately 25 °C even during peak summer heat, when outdoor temperatures exceed 45 °C (Figure 2) (Mohammadshahi et al., 2018).

FIGURE 2

Mohammadshahi et al., 2018).

Experimental and simulated results confirm the capacity of the shavadoon for passive cooling and heating through natural convection, with only a 10% deviation between modeled and actual conditions (Rabbani et al., 2011). Optimizing the design by integrating vertical shafts (tals) can enhance airflow by up to 57%, whereas conventional windows reduce ventilation efficiency. Two-way natural ventilation—air entering low and exiting high—is essential for maximizing performance (Mohammadshahi et al., 2018).

A shavadoon relies on nocturnal cooling for fresh air intake. During the day, rising warm air prevents denser cold air from descending, but at night, when surface heat dissipates, cold upper air sinks, cools the roof, and is stored underground for daytime use. The effective design of inlets is crucial for preventing hot air intrusion during the day and enabling optimal ventilation during cooler nighttime hours (Figure 3) (Hazbei et al., 2015; Mohammadshahi et al., 2018).

FIGURE 3

Hazbei et al., 2015; Mohammadshahi et al., 2018).

5.2 Wind catcher

Wind catchers, or badgirs, are traditional architectural elements designed to harness wind for passive cooling and ventilation in hot-arid and hot-humid climates. Common in regions like Iran and the broader Middle East, they serve to dehumidify indoor air, lower temperatures, and maintain air circulation in residential buildings (Figure 4) (Heidari and Heravi, 2024).

FIGURE 4

Kazemi and Akbarian, 2014).

A badgir operates by capturing prevailing winds through strategically oriented vertical shafts, channeling cool air into interior spaces while expelling hot, stale air via pressure differentials. The number and direction of its openings vary based on local wind patterns which range from single-sided to multi-directional configurations, thus allowing maximum adaptation to site-specific climate conditions (Figure 5) (Saadatian et al., 2012; Kazemi and Akbarian, 2014).

FIGURE 5

Kazemi and Akbarian, 2014).

Additional architectural features such as roof apertures, internal courtyards, and large windows work in synergy with the badgir to enhance airflow. Internal partitions within the windcatcher structure efficiently guide airflow, ensuring that fresh air is directed downward while warm air is vented out (Khalili and Amindeldar, 2014).

The use of badgirs exemplifies a sustainable, low-energy ventilation strategy that is rooted in vernacular wisdom and adaptable for integration into modern bioclimatic design frameworks (Table 7).

5.2.1 Louvers

The louver technique is a passive cooling and ventilation strategy that uses slatted openings to regulate airflow, control light, and maintain comfort in indoor spaces. It works by positioning slats or panels at an angle, allowing wind to enter while keeping out rain, sunlight, or dust. This technique is widely used in traditional architecture to adapt buildings to local climates without relying on mechanical systems (Iqbal et al., 2025) (Table 8).

6 Influence of North Cyprus’ Mediterranean climate (CSA) on vernacular architectural formation

The climate of Northern Cyprus—particularly in the İskele region along the southeastern coast—is strongly influenced by the Mediterranean Sea and the surrounding Kyrenia mountain range. Average annual temperatures range between 14 °C in winter and 33 °C in summer, while prevailing westerly winds account for roughly 22% of the yearly pattern, with an average speed of 2.8 m/s. The most intense wind activity occurs during July to September, coinciding with peak temperatures (Meteorological Service of Northern Cyprus, 2024). These seasonal breezes, shaped by the island’s topography, enhance opportunities for natural cross-ventilation and passive cooling in both vernacular and contemporary housing (Zhai and Chen, 2005).

Iskele’s urban morphology reflects its coastal context (Figure 6): low- and mid-rise developments are oriented parallel to the shoreline, optimizing natural airflow and sea views. The region experiences periodic gusts exceeding 40 km/h in winter (Meteorological Service of Northern Cyprus, 2021), which has prompted design adaptations such as aerodynamic roof forms, reinforced façades, and the inclusion of green corridors functioning as wind buffers (Bahar and Köroğlu, 2020; Aydin and Mihlayanlar, 2020) (Table 9). Historically, vernacular dwellings employed thick masonry walls, inner courtyards, and deep-set openings to moderate wind pressure and maintain thermal stability (Rapoport, 1969).

FIGURE 6

Today, similar climatic logic informs sustainable urban design strategies—such as staggered building placement for wind channeling, native vegetation for natural windbreaks, and semi-open public zones like shaded arcades or pergolas—to enhance thermal comfort and minimize energy loads. Collectively, İskele’s spatial pattern demonstrates a coherent, climate-responsive framework where local wind and temperature dynamics are integral to shaping resilient and energy-efficient architecture.

In regions like İskele and Long Beach, architectural responses include sloped roofs, overhangs, and semi-open courtyards that enhance both thermal comfort and rainwater management. Traditional materials—such as light-colored limestone, adobe, and clay renders—provide thermal mass and moisture resistance, addressing both heat stress and winter humidity (Philokyprou et al., 2017; Filali and Ezzahir, 2025).

Spatial organization in vernacular settlements reflects environmental adaptation: compact village clusters reduce solar exposure, while coastal layouts enhance airflow. Design elements like adjustable louvres, vegetation-shaded verandas, and semi-subterranean rooms improve thermal performance while maintaining cultural and biophilic connections.

The Long Beach area of Iskele experiences distinct seasonal wind variations that significantly influence architectural and urban design. In winter, cool and humid Mediterranean winds—mostly from the northwest and west—blow at speeds of 1–4 m/s, requiring wind-mitigating features such as dense vegetation, sunken courtyards, and sloped roofs. During summer, especially from July to September, wind speeds increase and shift slightly to the southwest. These seasonal breezes can be strategically harnessed for natural ventilation and passive cooling, reducing reliance on mechanical systems and enhancing comfort in outdoor and semi-outdoor spaces (Figure 7).

FIGURE 7

The Long Beach area in İskele experiences distinct seasonal wind patterns that influence its urban microclimate and architectural planning. In summer (July to September), dominant northwesterly and westerly winds provide cooling breezes that support natural cross-ventilation, particularly when building orientations align perpendicularly to wind flow. In winter, prevailing easterly and south-easterly winds, occasionally stronger, require adaptive design strategies such as cross-ventilated layouts, windbreaks, and responsive shading to ensure year-round thermal comfort (Figure 8).

FIGURE 8

The Long Beach area in İskele has been categorized into three wind exposure zones based on seasonal wind intensity and direction. Zone 1, adjacent to the coastline, is subject to strong winds and favors designs optimized for ventilation and wind resistance. Zone 2 acts as a transitional area with moderate wind exposure influenced by terrain and vegetation, while Zone 3, located inland, is more sheltered and benefits from passive strategies such as thermal mass and controlled airflow. This zoning framework informs climate-responsive planning and promotes sustainable architectural solutions. Seasonal temperatures typically range from 30 °C to 36 °C in summer and 8 °C–16 °C in winter, with sea breezes playing a key role in tempering local microclimates and enhancing thermal comfort (Figure 9).

FIGURE 9

Seasonal temperature fluctuations in Long Beach require adaptable architectural strategies to ensure thermal comfort and energy efficiency. In summer, passive cooling methods such as cross-ventilation and shading are vital to limit mechanical cooling demands. During winter, maximizing solar gain and enhancing insulation help reduce heating loads. The use of thermal mass and well-designed insulation systems supports year-round temperature regulation by moderating indoor thermal variations (Givoni, 1994; Olgyay, 1963; Ascione et al., 2016).

By aligning similarities and differences in climatic variability, this study consolidates the analysis into 27 detailed zones, presented in the table below. This classification provides a comprehensive climatic framework for evaluating context-specific, vernacular-inspired design strategies within the Long Beach area.

According to data taken to guide the study, an analytical framework was developed linking vernacular knowledge with climate-adaptive design criteria. The key factors analyzed included spatial ventilation capacity, thermal comfort, material behavior, and environmental responsiveness. Given the lack of building standards in Northern Cyprus and rising energy demands—especially for cooling—traditional architecture was examined as a low-energy, climate-conscious alternative.

Following ASHRAE 62.1-2019, the design of natural ventilation systems was guided by key parameters, including cross-ventilation, stack effect, airflow direction, and the placement of openings. Environmental factors such as humidity and pollution were considered, with hybrid ventilation solutions proposed where necessary, as shown in bellow Figure 10.

FIGURE 10

7 Air change rate, thermal comfort indices, and humidity control as criteria

Environmental performance metrics such as the thermal comfort index (TCI), indoor air quality (IAQ), ventilation effectiveness, energy consumption, and climatic responsiveness index (CRI) are employed to assess the efficacy of vernacular-inspired architectural strategies in North Cyprus (Figure 11), focusing on passive ventilation and overall building performance. These metrics support design adaptability indicators, including passive responsiveness, climatic adjustability, material reusability, regulatory integration, lifecycle modifiability, and user interaction, with a particular emphasis on passive responsiveness (Indicator 2) to enhance thermal comfort and energy efficiency. The study proposes four hypotheses. H1 suggests that vernacular ventilation improves indoor air quality, tested through IAQ simulations. H2 posits that vernacular ventilation enhances thermal performance across various climates, measured by PMV and cooling load reduction. H3 hypothesizes that vernacular ventilation reduces energy consumption, assessed by annual energy intensity. H4 examines how vernacular ventilation aligns with comfort and ESG criteria, evaluated via adaptive models and carbon reduction. These hypotheses are derived from environmental design theory and vernacular logic, with the primary focus on H1 (air quality).

FIGURE 11

The study first assessed the thermal performance of the case study building in its unmodified form (Figure 12), revealing limited natural cooling potential due to the absence of passive ventilation strategies. Subsequently, the shavadoon, a vernacular subterranean cooling technique, was integrated into the building’s basement level. This intervention, inspired by traditional architecture from Central and Southwestern Asia and adapted to the Cypriot context, demonstrated improved thermal performance through earth coupling and vertical airflow. Simulation results indicated a reduction in the heating index from 15.320 to 9.548 and an increase in the cooling index to 20.115, although its impact was largely confined to the lower floors.

FIGURE 12

To enhance ventilation in upper levels, wind catchers were introduced. These vertical shafts, adapted from traditional designs, were integrated into light wells and stairwells to overcome spatial fragmentation in modern buildings. The final design featured context-specific configurations: unidirectional and bidirectional wind deflectors aligned with local wind patterns. The windcatcher system further improved thermal conditions, raising the cooling index to 20.193 while maintaining the reduced heating index. Overall, the integration of these vernacular strategies effectively enhanced passive thermal regulation across the building, demonstrating their applicability within contemporary architectural frameworks in Northern Cyprus (Figure 13).

FIGURE 13

Spatial and environmental performance assessments of the case study building were conducted using DepthmapX, focusing on visibility graph analysis (VGA) and axial analysis across the basement, ground, and fourth floors. These tools revealed critical insights into visual connectivity, airflow potential, and spatial integration. Following the incorporation of vernacular elements, particularly a louver system, performance metrics showed notable improvements, with the cooling index rising to 25.854 and the heating index dropping to 12.641.

Additionally, indoor conditions became cooler and less humid than the original design that lacked indigenous strategies. The combined use of a shavadoon and wind catchers effectively stabilized thermal comfort, maintaining interior temperatures within the globally recommended cooling threshold of 23.85 °C. These outcomes affirm the relevance of vernacular ventilation strategies in enhancing spatial flexibility, reducing energy loads, and supporting climate-responsive architectural design (Figure 14).

FIGURE 14

At this stage of the study, a simulated prototype was first tested in Zone 1, characterized by specific climatic conditions, and later extended to 27 surrounding zones in the Long Beach area of Northern Cyprus.

This broader analysis assessed how variations in wind speed, direction, and temperature influenced the performance of passive ventilation. The findings demonstrated that natural airflow efficiency can be significantly improved by aligning design strategies, such as shavadoon depth, wind catcher orientation, and louver angle, with local climatic variables. Maintaining interior thermal comfort within ASHRAE Standards and controlling humidity levels between 30% and 60% was achieved through tailored combinations of vernacular techniques. These results highlight the adaptability and effectiveness of passive systems like the shavadoon, wind catchers, and louvers to minimize mechanical energy demand and support sustainable and resilient building practices that are both climate-responsive and architecturally relevant (Figure 15).

FIGURE 15

At this stage of the research, a simulated prototype was initially examined within Zone 1, characterized by specific climatic conditions. The preliminary analysis yielded measurable outcomes that informed the subsequent phases of the study. To expand the scope of the investigation and assess the model’s adaptability, the same simulation was subsequently applied to additional zones. This comparative approach considered variations in key climatic parameters, including ambient temperature, wind direction, and velocity, as well as other relevant environmental factors. The objective was to systematically evaluate the model’s performance under diverse climatic scenarios and to identify context-specific design responses (Figure 16).

FIGURE 16

A key insight from this study is the influence of wind characteristics—specifically gust speed, direction, and temperature—on the efficiency of natural ventilation in medium-rise structures. By strategically integrating wind deflectors and aligning them with prevailing wind directions, airflow can be optimized, reducing reliance on mechanical cooling. This reinforces the feasibility of sustainable cooling approaches that comply with ASHRAE thermal comfort standards.

Furthermore, the combined use of a shavadoon and wind catchers enhances thermal gradient stability, ensuring that interior temperatures remain within recommended limits. The suggested cover depths (5 m for basements and 15–18 m for wind catchers) contribute to this effectiveness, making the system highly adaptable to humid subtropical climates. Given their scalability, such configurations provide practical solutions for contemporary architectural applications aiming to balance energy efficiency with occupant comfort.

Beyond temperature regulation, the study highlights the role of these vernacular strategies in maintaining indoor humidity levels between 30% and 60%. This not only prevents mold growth and enhances air quality but also aligns with ESG principles by reducing energy consumption and improving indoor environmental conditions. The incorporation of hybrid ventilation systems further enhances adaptability, allowing buildings to respond to seasonal variations while preserving the advantages of natural airflow.

From a wider architectural perspective, the data presented in the table below highlight the possibility of merging traditional passive cooling methods with contemporary design needs. By integrating wind catchers, shavadoon, and louvers, architects can create comprehensive solutions that enhance thermal performance while adhering to regulatory standards. Conversely, it is crucial to evaluate which vernacular elements should be included based on climatic factors. These approaches provide adaptable, culturally attuned strategies that support sustainability objectives, reinforcing passive cooling as a key element of resilient and energy-efficient architectural designs.

8 Energy use analysis and cost in the case study

By integrating vernacular architectural elements and passive cooling strategies, such as shavadoon, wind catchers, and adjustable louvers, the dependence on mechanical HVAC systems can be significantly reduced. In hot, humid Mediterranean climates like Northern Cyprus, where HVAC accounts for nearly 70% of total building energy consumption (Meteorological Service of Northern Cyprus, 2024), such strategies offer a practical path to reducing operational costs and emissions (Figure 17).

FIGURE 17

According to international and regional studies, the application of passive design principles can lower HVAC-related energy use by approximately 30%–60%, depending on climatic responsiveness and design execution (Zhai and Chen, 2005; Qahtan et al., 2024). Assuming a conservative 40% reduction rate, total summer cooling energy for the examined residential complex, previously estimated at 48,000 kWh, could decrease to approximately 28,800 kWh, resulting in an estimated cost saving of €4,800 at the standard residential electricity rate (€0.25/kWh) (Table 10).

This outcome demonstrates that integrating vernacular and passive systems is not only environmentally beneficial but also economically viable. Such strategies enhance indoor comfort, reduce energy dependency, and align with broader sustainability goals, positioning Northern Cyprus as a model for climate-responsive architectural adaptation in Mediterranean regions.

The following are broader benefits beyond cost savings.

Improved thermal comfort: passive design strategies create more comfortable indoor environments by enhancing natural airflow and reducing overheating without relying on mechanical systems, which is shown in Table 11.

Reduced carbon footprint: lower electricity consumption translates to reduced greenhouse gas emissions, especially if the local electricity grid relies on fossil fuels.

Energy Resilience: Reduced dependency on mechanical cooling increases building resilience during power outages or electricity price spikes (Table 12).

Compliance and sustainability: these strategies align with the North Cyprus Building Code’s push for sustainable, climate-responsive architecture and contribute to meeting international green building standards (e.g., LEED and BREEAM).

Long-term value: incorporating passive design improves building market value and occupant satisfaction while reducing operating costs.

To achieve the study’s main goal of enhancing building quality and reducing energy consumption, a comprehensive implementation guide and contractor checklist were developed (Table 13). This practical framework provides clear, step-by-step guidance for architects, designers, contractors, and landowners to ensure that vernacular and passive design strategies are applied correctly, efficiently, and consistently throughout Northern Cyprus.

9 Conclusion

Through environmental simulations and performance-based evaluations, this study demonstrates that each vernacular ventilation technique offers distinct functional advantages when carefully integrated into specific spatial typologies. The shavadoon proved particularly effective for subterranean or lower-level cooling, making it ideal for basements or semi-open communal zones. Wind catchers, positioned within stairwells or vertical shafts, significantly enhance vertical airflow and stack effect, reducing heat accumulation across upper floors. Louver systems, strategically embedded in cross-ventilation zones such as living rooms, bedrooms, and transitional corridors, ensure consistent horizontal airflow which mitigates stagnant zones and improves indoor air quality.

Collectively, these passive strategies achieved notable thermal regulation, maintaining indoor temperatures at approximately 23.85 °C and relative humidity within the optimal comfort range of 30%–60%, which fosters occupant comfort, mitigates mold risk, and enhances overall health and productivity. Quantitative analysis revealed a 40% reduction in HVAC electricity consumption, translating to annual energy savings of 19,200 kWh and approximately €4,800 in operational cost savings. Cooling demand decreased by over 13,000 units, while heating demand dropped by 6,800 units, clearly validating the energy efficiency of this approach.

Beyond energy performance, the framework also achieves measurable reductions in operational carbon emissions, supporting ESG objectives and reinforcing long-term sustainability. Moreover, the study underscores the architectural and ecological value of vernacular strategies within a modern regulatory context. The proposed model aligns with ASHRAE 62.1-2019 ventilation standards, offering a scalable, climate-responsive solution for future developments in Northern Cyprus and comparable regions. More than a technical intervention, this approach re-establishes cultural continuity with local traditions, responding simultaneously to environmental pressures, social needs, and the historical context of the built environment.

Post-occupancy evaluations should become an integral part of any passive system deployment. Institutionalized feedback mechanisms can provide actionable insights on energy performance, occupant comfort, and maintenance effectiveness, supporting continuous improvement.

10 Recommendation

To build upon the insights of this study and further advance the integration of natural ventilation techniques into modern architecture, the following future research directions are recommended.

Smart system integration. Explore the integration of natural ventilation with intelligent control systems. Research on real-time monitoring, adaptive louvers, and AI-based ventilation modulation could enhance performance during transitional weather periods.

User behavior and comfort perception. Investigate how occupant behavior and subjective comfort perceptions influence the effectiveness of passive cooling. Post-occupancy evaluations would provide valuable data for improving design-user interaction.

Policy impact studies. Examine how revised building codes or green building certifications influence the adoption of passive ventilation systems. This would inform advocacy strategies and help mainstream sustainable design practices.

In addition, the theory of architectural flexibility warrants further investigation. While this study focused primarily on the application of vernacular passive strategies within relatively rigid mid-rise structures, flexibility remains a critical design principle for adapting buildings to evolving environmental conditions, user needs, and future climate variability. Future research should examine how modular and reconfigurable spatial systems can be integrated with passive ventilation techniques, enabling buildings to respond dynamically to seasonal changes, occupancy patterns, and urban densification pressures.

By combining performance-based insights from passive systems with principles of architectural flexibility, subsequent studies can provide comprehensive design frameworks that are not only energy-efficient and climate-responsive but also resilient, adaptable, and culturally relevant across multiple urban and regional contexts.

By following these recommendations, architects, planners, policymakers, and researchers can collectively foster a resilient, energy-efficient, and culturally grounded architectural future in Northern Cyprus and beyond.

Collectively, these future research directions can enhance the scalability, performance, and cultural integration of flexible design strategies rooted in natural ventilation.

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