Enhancing neighborhood functionality through transit-oriented design, a study of sustainable development, proximity, and mobility

This study evaluates transit-oriented development (TOD) around Dubai’s Mall of the Emirates station to curb sprawl, reduce car dependence, and shorten trips. A geo-spatial baseline was assembled by digitizing vector data in GIS, producing land-use shapefiles from satellite imagery, and validating features with Google Earth and OpenStreetMap. Field observations supported audits of walkability, block structure, and transit accessibility. Spatial analysis quantified public-realm gains by calculating areas for parking and green spaces and by testing block permeability and route continuity. Land-use shapefiles were created to generate existing conditions maps and benchmark scenarios. Findings indicate that the Al Barsha station area combines diverse uses, active frontages, and proximity to services, yet exhibits gaps in continuous sidewalks, limited safe crossings, and coarse blocks. The design package recommends parking lots totaling 12,000 m²; a linear green spine of 17,900 m²; pedestrian walkways covering 16,000 m²; two cul-de-sacs measuring 2.68 km each; and an active corridor of 5.08 km to support cycling and local connectivity. Together, these elements rebalance street space, prioritise people over vehicles, and strengthen access to transit. Overall, the proposals operationalise TOD principles compact form and pedestrian networks advancing the MOE precinct toward an accessible and safe urban environment aligned with international best practice. Transit-oriented development (TOD) has emerged as a strategic approach to counter urban sprawl, reduce automobile dependence, and minimize excessive commuting. This study explores TOD principles within the Mall of the Emirates (MOE) station area in Dubai, assessing walkability, connectivity, transit accessibility, mixed-use intensity, mode shift potential, and spatial compactness. Drawing on established framework, our methods encompass field surveys, GIS-based satellite imagery, and official planning documents to deliver a comprehensive site assessment. This study established that MOE station neighborhood (Al Barsha) demonstrates strengths in land use diversity, ground-level activity, and proximity to local services, it lacks continuous pedestrian routes, safe crossings, and appropriately scaled blocks. Findings proposed several key design elements, including Parking Lots (12,000 m²), a Green Spine (17,900 m²), Pedestrian Walkways (16,000 m²), two Cul-de-sacs each measuring (2,676 m/2.68 km), and an Active Corridor (5,076 m/5.08 km) for cycling and neighborhood connectivity. These proposals will help to fully realize TOD’s potential, reconfiguring streetscapes, bolstering pedestrian infrastructure, and balancing public and private transport provisions are recommended. Such refinements will ensure that this critical transit node evolves into a optimize neighborhood functionality, fostering a more accessible, dynamic, and environmentally sustainable urban environment, aligning with global best practices in TOD.

1 Introduction

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has emerged as an effective urban planning approach that reconnects the principles of historic, walkable neighborhoods with the needs of modern cities. At its core, TOD prioritizes compact, mixed-use developments that integrate residential, commercial, and recreational functions within accessible distances of public transportation hubs. By promoting accessibility and reducing reliance on private vehicles, TOD offers a sustainable alternative to urban sprawl, which has characterized many post-automobile era cities (Ma, 2022; Cruceru, 2011). Historically, urban communities facilitated daily activities such as living, working, and shopping within pedestrian-friendly zones. TOD revives this model, creating vibrant neighborhoods centered around public transit systems. By reducing car dependency, TOD addresses challenges such as congestion, social fragmentation, and environmental stress (Ndebele, 2018; Abdi, 2021).

Rapid urbanization, particularly in developing countries, exacerbates issues like traffic congestion, environmental degradation, and social inequities due to increased reliance on private vehicles (Pucher et al., 2007; Pojani and Stead, 2015). Initially observed in the United States, urban sprawl prompted the development of TOD as a response to dispersed growth patterns. TOD facilitates medium-to high-density developments near transit nodes, revitalizing declining neighborhoods and encouraging urban population retention (Thomas and Bertolini, 2014; Jacobson and Forsyth, 2008). Research highlights TOD’s effectiveness in enhancing livability, mobility, and efficient urban space management (Shamskooshki, 2012; Renne and Listokin, 2019).

The success of TOD projects heavily depends on detailed analysis and context-specific implementation strategies. Critical factors include land use analysis, transportation systems assessment, housing affordability, market trends, population density, and accessibility (Cervero, 2004; Noland et al., 2017). Walkability and financial feasibility also remain crucial. Multidisciplinary input from urban planners, geographers, economists, and engineers, along with active stakeholder engagement, ensures TOD initiatives achieve intended goals (Chen et al., 2024; Wan et al., 2023). Besides, TOD benefits can be categorized into primary and secondary outcomes. Primary benefits are directly tied to implementation, such as increased transit ridership, improved property values, revitalized urban centers, and affordable housing creation, fostering economic development and social equity (Simonson, 2011). Secondary benefits include reduced traffic congestion, improved air quality, decreased crime rates, and enhanced economic activity from increased pedestrian footfall near transit hubs (Su et al., 2021; Ibraeva et al., 2020; Noland et al., 2014).

Emerging cities in regions like the GCC, India, and China face significant urbanization challenges. TOD presents opportunities for these cities to reduce car dependency and align growth with sustainable goals. For instance, cities like Dubai benefit from TOD’s high-density, mixed-use development approach that prioritizes public transportation connectivity (Jumah, 2020; El Adli and Abd El Aziz, 2022). In India and China, TOD has shown success in improving urban connectivity and reducing environmental impacts, although challenges such as affordability, stakeholder coordination, and balancing economic feasibility with social inclusion remain (Kumar et al., 2020).

Dubai represents a compelling case for TOD implementation due to its rapid transformation into a global economic and residential hub. Integrating efficient transit systems into Dubai’s expanding urban fabric is essential, requiring innovative planning solutions. TOD strategically aligns developments with metro stations and transit hubs, enhancing connectivity, mobility, and sustainability (Chohan and Awad, 2023). Dubai’s TOD projects integrate residential, commercial, and public spaces into cohesive urban zones, fostering interconnected communities emphasizing walkability and reduced car dependency, which align with the city’s environmental goals (Mathew, 2014).

In summary, the growing demand for efficient public transportation in Dubai underscores TOD’s importance for accommodating population growth sustainably. TOD enhances urban livability and economic inclusivity by promoting affordable housing near transit hubs (Yehiya, 2023). Global experiences highlight TOD’s adaptability to diverse contexts, emphasizing high-density, mixed-use development around transit systems while addressing local challenges, cultural dynamics, and policy frameworks (Su et al., 2021; Ibraeva et al., 2020; Noland et al., 2014). Common elements in successful TOD projects include pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, integrated public spaces, and context-sensitive urban design, ensuring that TOD effectively addresses unique urban challenges while delivering long-term economic and environmental benefits. This study elucidates that TOD’s adaptability ensures its relevance to diverse urban contexts, making it a cornerstone of modern urban planning. Table 1 has been developed to portray the key learning from Section 1.

Table 1

Table 1. Key factors of TOD.

Building on this foundation, the present study aims to operationalize TOD principles for the Mall of the Emirates (MoE) station by identifying the most influential urban-form and mobility variables and translating them into GIS-based design and policy interventions aligned with Objectives (a) and (b). The guiding research questions are, which TOD factors (accessibility, land-use integration, density, and design) most constrain or enable TOD feasibility in the MoE station precinct? Question 2, how can GIS evidence be converted into implementable station-area strategies to improve walkability and reduce car dependence? The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 states the problem and MoE justification; Section 3 presents objectives; Sections 4–5 baseline and site analysis; Section 6 develops rationale for TOD proposals; Section 7 understanding Dubai metro; Section 8 methodology and Sections 9 case study; Section 10 GIS analysis and finally Sections 11, 12 discuss design implementation and conclusions.

2 Problem statement

Dubai is functionally segregated, and its highway-oriented growth produces long daily trips to jobs and services, reinforcing car dependence, congestion, crashes, and higher energy use and emissions (Scholz, 2020; Acuto, 2010). Dispersed land consumption also degrades ecosystems and habitats, while mono-functional districts weaken social interaction and limit the mixed-use intensity needed for efficient transit (Bertolini, 2012; Cervero et al., 2017). Weak pedestrian infrastructure further suppresses walking and cycling, deepening auto reliance (Worku, 2013).

Consequently, Dubai’s swift expansion and reliance on private vehicles have contributed to dispersed development, extended travel durations, infrastructure congestion, and diminished green spaces. Although metro services are operational, various types of Dubai Metro stations restrict the implementation of coordinated, transit-supportive development around stations. However, the Mall of the Emirates (MoE) station can be positioned as a sustainable transport hub because it combines a high demand transit node with a major regional destination, dense surrounding residential catchments, and latent redevelopment capacity in adjacent underutilized plots and parking-dominated land conditions that can enable multimodal interchange, intensified mixed use, and shorter trip lengths when guided by TOD (Yehiya, 2023; Cervero et al., 2017).

Importantly, case-study findings (Section 9) indicate MoE faces recurrent traffic congestion linked to mall-driven peak flows, pedestrian safety risks at wide multilane junctions, and discontinuous walking routes that force reliance on footbridges and car access, undermining last-mile connectivity (Worku, 2013; Acuto, 2010). Therefore, a methodical examination and application of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) are required to identify station-specific opportunities at MoE station. This study is informed by multi-source spatial datasets selected using clear inclusion criteria: current, publicly verifiable layers with adequate positional accuracy and full coverage within the MoE catchment (e.g., satellite imagery, digitized parcels/buildings/rights-of-way, land-use indicators, and walkability-relevant network features). Datasets were excluded where they were outdated, incomplete for the study boundary, inconsistent in geometry/attribution, or could not be cross-validated through independent sources. Where applicable, municipal and RTA inputs were incorporated in line with data-sharing availability (e.g., access constraints, permissions for site visits, and station-area operational considerations), and field verification was conducted to ensure local relevance. By analyzing how factors such as density, diversity, design, accessibility, distance to transit, and travel demand management influence the shaping of Dubai’s built environment, this research aims to guide more integrated, efficient, and eco-sensitive strategies for future urban growth.

3 Objectives

a. To investigate TOD frameworks to establish which aspects of urban form and mobility such as accessibility, land-use integration, density, and design most significantly impact the feasibility of implementing TOD in the vicinity of Dubai Metro stations.

b. To formulate customized GIS based urban design directives and targeted policies for the reviewed station, to improve transit effectiveness, enhance walkability, and lowering excessive dependence on private automobiles.

4 Interrelation of transit-oriented development, urban mobility, and community design

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), initially conceived as a response to unchecked suburban expansion, has significantly evolved over the past 3 decades. One notable early instance was the Twin Cities Rapid Transit (TCRT) system in Minneapolis and St. Paul, operational from approximately 1900–1930. Covering about 524 miles of streetcar routes and serving over 200 million passengers annually, TCRT leveraged transit corridors to promote commercial and real estate growth, enabling affordable suburban living with easy urban access. Post-World War II, increased automobile ownership led to reduced investment in transit infrastructure, fostering urban sprawl and diminishing public transit services. Contemporary TOD efforts now aim to reestablish transit corridors and develop mixed-use environments near rail lines as remedies for these historical challenges (Jariwala, 2018; Knowles et al., 2020; Carlton, 2009). However, urban planning after World War II heavily favored private vehicles, reshaping city layouts to accommodate automobile traffic through expansive highways and dispersed land uses. Public transit received minimal attention, and zoning laws segregated residential, commercial, and industrial areas. Globally replicated, these strategies inadvertently increased automobile dependency, urban sprawl, central-city decline, and congestion (Cervero et al., 2017; Parker et al., 2002).

Despite varied implementations, TOD is widely recognized as a strategic framework promoting sustainable urban growth, livability, and long-term mobility options. Patnala et al. (2020) define TOD as moderate-to high-density development within walking distance of major transit hubs, blending residential, commercial, and employment functions, prioritizing pedestrian accessibility while accommodating automobiles. Similarly, Calthorpe (1994) describes TOD as compact, mixed-use communities located within a quarter-mile of transit stations and commercial centers, emphasizing walkability through thoughtful urban design and interconnected layouts.

Steuteville and Langdon (2009) position TOD within the broader “new urbanism” movement, reviving pre-WWII urban patterns by reinstating public transit as a central organizing principle. Laaly et al. (2017) further specify that TOD aims to establish transit-centered neighborhoods appealing to residents, workers, shoppers, and visitors, offering diverse housing within proximity to rail stops. Federal Transit Administration (2024) underscores TOD’s role in promoting transit-oriented communities designed to enhance reliance on transit, walking, and cycling, addressing suburban sprawl, lengthy commutes, pedestrian conditions, congestion, and environmental impacts. In this context, several defining TOD characteristics emerge consistently, such as clustering developments near transit hubs to encourage transit use over private cars, integrating diverse land uses, fostering pedestrian-friendly environments, and maintaining concentrated population and employment densities. By emphasizing walkable layouts and amenities, TOD promotes healthier lifestyles and mitigates congestion. Furthermore, TOD encourages revitalization near transit stations, enhancing community vitality, economic growth, investment opportunities, and social cohesion, while reducing carbon emissions and supporting sustainability goals (Scholz, 2020; Bertolini, 2012).

In summary, TOD’s overarching mission is to create sustainable, vibrant communities centered around efficient public transit systems. Offering diverse transportation choices and reducing private automobile dominance, TOD fosters resilient, environmentally responsible, and socially dynamic urban environments. Table 2 presents a TOD matrix summarizing potential design initiatives applicable for upgrading Dubai Metro Stations.

Table 2

Table 2. Matrix of TOD and design guidelines. Source: (Federal Transit Administration, 2024; Frank et al., 2006; Yehiya, 2023).

5 Challenges arising from rapid urban expansion and mobility in Dubai

According to Scholz (2020), Dubai’s urban development has evolved into a compartmentalized structure, dedicating sprawling zones to specific functions. Consequently, residents travel longer distances to workplaces, schools, and essential services, increasing commute durations and overall distances. Dependence on extensive highway systems intensifies traffic congestion, accident risks, and carbon emissions due to heightened energy consumption. Extensive land use also disrupts ecosystems, damages the environment, and diminishes natural resources, causing habitat destruction (Bertolini, 2012). Segregated districts further weaken social interactions, hindering dynamic mixed-use neighborhoods essential for sustainable living and complicating efficient transit strategies (Cervero et al., 2017).

Dubai’s planning often prioritizes purpose-built zones for business, housing, and recreation, reinforcing urban fragmentation (Acuto, 2010). This physical separation restricts daily interactions among diverse groups, perpetuating social disparities (Aljoufie et al., 2013). Consequently, fostering inclusive communities becomes challenging, impairing urban interconnectedness. Moreover, zoning practices have created distinct residential, commercial, and industrial clusters, resulting in heavy reliance on private vehicles (Bagaeen, 2007). Despite investments in public transport, including the Dubai Metro, limited connectivity prompts many residents to favor cars, worsening congestion, travel times, and greenhouse gas emissions. Insufficient pedestrian infrastructure also discourages walking or cycling (Worku, 2013).

Prolonged commutes constitute another critical issue, driven by sprawling neighborhoods requiring substantial travel distances. Worku (2013) highlights that low-density housing on Dubai’s outskirts significantly extends commute times, particularly impacting residents commuting from nearby emirates such as Sharjah and Ajman. A 2007 survey revealed 80% of Ajman residents worked in Sharjah or Dubai, traveling approximately 20–45 km daily. Limited public transportation forces reliance on personal vehicles, aggravating congestion, pollution, and stress, reducing productivity and overall wellbeing (Tranter, 2010; Elsheshtawy, 2009). Solutions such as Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) are thus critical for enhancing connectivity and minimizing long-distance travel.

Study of Davidson (2008) links Dubai’s rapid horizontal expansion to diminished social equity and inadequate rental housing. Peripheral neighborhoods lacking diverse amenities compel residents to undertake long journeys for social and recreational activities, negatively impacting social vitality (Davidson, 2008). Such spatial layouts restrict cultural interactions, creating monotonous living environments. Spatial imbalances exacerbate socioeconomic disparities, as lower-income populations are often concentrated in under-resourced areas (Aljoufie et al., 2013). Limited affordable housing in central locations further compounds these inequalities, restricting equal access to essential facilities and reinforcing automobile dependency (Newman and Kenworthy, 1998).

Davidson (2008) notes significant socioeconomic inequality in Dubai, notably between affluent residents and predominantly South Asian migrant laborers experiencing poor living conditions, low wages, and limited protections, intensifying social stratification (Elsheshtawy, 2004). Rising living costs and insufficient affordable housing deepen these divides, threatening social cohesion. Concurrently, rapid urban growth burdens natural environments through deforestation, biodiversity loss, and carbon emissions. High water and energy consumption for cooling and landscaping accelerates resource depletion, and desalination discharges high-salinity wastewater into the Arabian Gulf, harming marine ecosystems. The urban heat island effect, intensified by prevalent concrete surfaces and limited green spaces, further exacerbates environmental and climate challenges (Arabi, 2018; Gehl, 2013).

6 Rationale for transit-oriented development in Dubai

Implementing Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) provides Dubai with a strategic solution to challenges resulting from rapid urban expansion and excessive reliance on private vehicles. Prioritizing compact, mixed-use neighborhoods around robust public transportation can significantly reduce travel distances, enhance connectivity, and promote social equity (Calthorpe, 1994; Aljoufie et al., 2013). Such initiatives align with Dubai’s vision of sustainable growth and its goal to become a globally competitive city offering high living standards (Dubai Urban Plan, 2024; Dubai, 2040). For the Mall of the Emirates (MoE) Metro station, the rationale becomes stronger when Table 2 TOD factors are translated into place-specific interventions and measurable outcomes. Given MoE’s role as a high-demand transit node adjacent to a major regional destination, prioritizing proximity to transit access points supports concentrating new mixed-use infill and active frontages within a 400 m walking radius, while upgrading direct pedestrian links to station entrances. The expected outcome is improved first/last-mile access, higher walk-to-metro mode share, and reduced short car trips generated by the station–mall interface (Calthorpe, 1994; Suzuki et al., 2010).

Creating environments that blend housing, workspaces, and recreational areas promotes walkability and cycling, fostering healthier lifestyles and vibrant social interactions (Bertolini, 2012; Gehl, 2013). At MoE, this aligns with Table 2’s (Matrix of TOD and Design Guidelines) high-quality pedestrian realm through interventions such as continuous, shaded sidewalks, safe at-grade crossings, pedestrian-priority streets, and a connected network of green corridors that link residential pockets to the station and mall. These measures address heat exposure and safety constraints, improve street vitality, and make walking and cycling realistic choices rather than residual modes (Bertolini, 2012; Gehl, 2013). In a city characterized by high vehicle ownership, offering viable alternatives for daily travel can reduce congestion and environmental impacts. TOD encourages dynamic communities where residents can conveniently live, work, and socialize without predominantly depending on cars. Lowering car dependence not only eases traffic but also reduces carbon emissions (Banister, 2008; Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure, 2017), supporting Dubai’s objectives of reducing environmental footprints through sustainable transportation. Consistent with Table 2’s reduced reliance on private vehicles, MoE requires parking reform consolidating dispersed surface parking into structured facilities, managing park-and-ride strategically, and limiting excessive parking supply in core areas—so that valuable land can be reallocated to public space, active uses, and non-motorized mobility. Expected outcomes include lower parking-induced traffic circulation, improved pedestrian comfort, and more efficient land consumption (Litman, 2011; Banister, 2008).

Economically, TOD stimulates growth by linking residents to employment opportunities and increasing commercial activities within accessible urban areas (Suzuki et al., 2010). Dubai Urban Plan (2024) emphasizes that improved connectivity can attract investment, boost property values, and encourage economic diversification, aligning with the city’s broader development ambitions (Dubai Urban Plan, 2024; Dubai, 2040). At MoE, Table 2’s integration of diverse land uses and concentrated population and employment densities can be pursued through flexible zoning, vertical mixed-use, and incentives for higher densities around the station. The anticipated outcome is a stronger local customer base for small and medium enterprises beyond the mall, more stable all-day activity patterns, and increased transit ridership that supports service quality (Suzuki et al., 2010; Thomas and Bertolini, 2014). Additionally, efficient land use in TOD areas can reduce infrastructure costs by decreasing the necessity for extensive road networks (Litman, 2011). Social equity improvements include making housing near transit stations affordable for lower-income populations, facilitating better access to employment and essential services (Thomas and Bertolini, 2014). Such inclusive development helps reduce social disparities prevalent in Dubai (Elsheshtawy, 2009). In MoE’s context, prioritizing affordable and mid-market housing within the station catchment would translate TOD benefits into tangible accessibility gains for service workers and daily commuters (Thomas and Bertolini, 2014; Elsheshtawy, 2009).

Historically, urban planning policies in Dubai and the broader Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region have favored single-use zoning and sprawling suburban development. Adopting TOD principles can help transition these areas toward compact, efficient urban structures (Salama and Wiedmann, 2016). Current and planned expansions of public transit, notably the Dubai Metro, provide a solid foundation for implementing TOD near station precincts (Rode et al., 2015). For MoE, Table 2’s reinvestment in existing neighborhoods supports retrofitting current blocks with improved street permeability, upgrading public realm edges, and redeveloping underutilized plots and parking-dominated voids as mixed-use infill—outcomes that can reduce sprawl pressure and strengthen the urban fabric without requiring outward expansion (Salama and Wiedmann, 2016; Litman, 2011). Prioritizing pedestrian and bicycle-friendly infrastructure in TOD developments also encourages physical activity, improving public health (Frank et al., 2006). Additionally, integrating green spaces and recreational facilities enhances the attractiveness of denser urban environments (Beatley, 2011), which at MoE can be operationalized through pocket parks, shaded plazas, and tree-lined “green spines” that improve thermal comfort and neighborhood identity (Beatley, 2011; Gehl, 2013).

However, successful TOD implementation requires appropriate policy frameworks, incentives, and effective collaboration among government entities, private-sector stakeholders, and local communities (Cervero and Sullivan, 2011). Dubai must adjust its regulatory frameworks to facilitate higher densities, mixed uses, and pedestrian-friendly urban designs (Schneider et al., 2010). Addressing challenges related to land ownership, funding, and prevailing automobile preferences is critical to effective execution. In summary, Dubai’s sprawling growth and auto-dependent planning threaten its sustainability, social inclusiveness, and overall quality of life. Fragmented land use, extended commuting times, and limited urban cohesion underline the necessity for substantial shifts in urban planning strategies. Transit-Oriented Development offers a coherent framework for creating interconnected, resource-efficient, and vibrant neighborhoods. By leveraging existing and planned transit infrastructure and by applying Table 2’s factors through MoE-specific actions such as sidewalk continuity, parking consolidation, mixed-use infill, and green corridors Dubai can deliver measurable gains in walkability, transit use, safety, and environmental performance, supporting a healthier, balanced, and prosperous future (Dubai Urban Plan, 2024; Dubai, 2040; Banister, 2008).

Implementing Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) provides Dubai with a strategic solution to challenges resulting from rapid urban expansion and excessive reliance on private vehicles. Prioritizing compact, mixed-use neighborhoods around robust public transportation can significantly reduce travel distances, enhance connectivity, and promote social equity (Calthorpe, 1994; Aljoufie et al., 2013). Such initiatives align with Dubai’s vision of sustainable growth and its goal to become a globally competitive city offering high living standards (Dubai Urban Plan, 2024; Dubai, 2040).

Creating environments that blend housing, workspaces, and recreational areas promotes walkability and cycling, fostering healthier lifestyles and vibrant social interactions (Bertolini, 2012; Gehl, 2013). In a city characterized by high vehicle ownership, offering viable alternatives for daily travel can reduce congestion and environmental impacts. TOD encourages dynamic communities where residents can conveniently live, work, and socialize without predominantly depending on cars. Lowering car dependence not only eases traffic but also reduces carbon emissions (Banister, 2008; Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure, 2017), supporting Dubai’s objectives of reducing environmental footprints through sustainable transportation.

Economically, TOD stimulates growth by linking residents to employment opportunities and increasing commercial activities within accessible urban areas (Suzuki et al., 2010). Dubai Urban Plan (2024) emphasizes that improved connectivity can attract investment, boost property values, and encourage economic diversification, aligning with the city’s broader development ambitions. Additionally, efficient land use in TOD areas can reduce infrastructure costs by decreasing the necessity for extensive road networks (Litman, 2011). Social equity improvements include making housing near transit stations affordable for lower-income populations, facilitating better access to employment and essential services (Thomas and Bertolini, 2014). Such inclusive development helps reduce social disparities prevalent in Dubai (Elsheshtawy, 2009).

Historically, urban planning policies in Dubai and the broader Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region have favored single-use zoning and sprawling suburban development. Adopting TOD principles can help transition these areas toward compact, efficient urban structures (Salama and Wiedmann, 2016). Current and planned expansions of public transit, notably the Dubai Metro, provide a solid foundation for implementing TOD near station precincts (Rode et al., 2015). Strategically clustering diverse land uses around these nodes can reduce urban sprawl and enhance the overall urban fabric. Prioritizing pedestrian and bicycle-friendly infrastructure in TOD developments also encourages physical activity, improving public health (Frank et al., 2006). Additionally, integrating green spaces and recreational facilities enhances the attractiveness of denser urban environments (Beatley, 2011).

However, successful TOD implementation requires appropriate policy frameworks, incentives, and effective collaboration among government entities, private-sector stakeholders, and local communities (Cervero and Sullivan, 2011). Dubai must adjust its regulatory frameworks to facilitate higher densities, mixed uses, and pedestrian-friendly urban designs (Schneider et al., 2010). Addressing challenges related to land ownership, funding, and prevailing automobile preferences is critical to effective execution.

In summary, Dubai’s sprawling growth and auto-dependent planning threaten its sustainability, social inclusiveness, and overall quality of life. Fragmented land use, extended commuting times, and limited urban cohesion underline the necessity for substantial shifts in urban planning strategies. Transit-Oriented Development offers a coherent framework for creating interconnected, resource-efficient, and vibrant neighborhoods. By leveraging existing and planned transit infrastructure, Dubai can reshape urban areas to accommodate diverse needs, supporting a healthier, balanced, and prosperous future. Aligning with global best practices, embracing TOD principles advances Dubai’s ambitions in sustainable urban development.

7 Features of urban connectivity and Dubai metro

The Dubai Metro, internationally recognized as an engineering marvel, exemplifies Dubai’s commitment to sustainable and integrated public transportation. Initiated under the leadership of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the metro aimed to decrease car dependency, alleviate traffic congestion, and enhance connectivity between expanding residential and commercial districts (Roads and Transport Authority RTA 2024). As the first driverless metro in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region and among the world’s longest automated systems, it significantly impacts daily mobility for residents and visitors alike (Smith et al., 2009).

Plans for Dubai’s contemporary rail network started in 1992 due to rapid population growth, economic expansion, and road congestion (RTA, 2024). Official construction commenced in 2004, leading to the Red Line opening in 2009 and the Green Line in 2010. Sheikh Mohammed’s strategic vision emphasized efficient, safe, and convenient transit infrastructure to sustain Dubai’s global competitiveness in urban mobility (Dubai Metro and Tram Stations, 2024). The metro complements other transit modes like buses, ferries, and water taxis, thus promoting multimodal connectivity. The city’s division into seven fare zones aligns transit infrastructure with future urban growth corridors (Smith et al., 2011).

Design of Dubai metro stations integrate futuristic aesthetics and cultural heritage themes, including Earth, Water, Air, and Fire (Smith et al., 2011). Stations such as Al Ghubaiba and Al Ras on the Green Line incorporate historical Dubai elements like pearl-diving imagery and wind-tower structures, providing practical insulation benefits (RTA, 2024). Stations follow four main structural typologies: At-grade, Elevated, Underground, and Extendable, each designed for specific urban contexts and operational needs (Smith et al., 2009). At-grade stations, such as UAE Exchange, enable road-level access, whereas elevated stations, situated approximately 5 m above street level, minimize traffic disruptions. Underground stations like Union and BurJuman facilitate interchange between metro lines, and extendable terminal stations accommodate future expansions (Smith et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2011).

In context of coverage, the Red Line spans 52.1 km, initially opened with ten stations, and extended to 29 stations by 2010, connecting Al Rashidiya to UAE Exchange (Dubai Metro and Tram Stations, 2024). Key stations include Dubai Mall/Burj Khalifa, Deira City Centre, BurJuman, and Mall of the Emirates. Running parallel to Sheikh Zayed Road, it significantly reduces congestion. The Green Line, covering 22.15 km, traverses’ historical neighborhoods along Dubai Creek, including Al Rigga, Al Ras, and Al Fahidi, enhancing accessibility to markets, heritage sites, and residential areas (Dubai Metro and Tram Stations, 2024). However recently, the Expo 2020 Route extended the Dubai Metro by 14.5 km, adding seven stations from Nakheel Harbour and Towers to the Expo 2020 site. This expansion serves developing neighborhoods such as Discovery Gardens and Dubai Investment Park, connecting remote areas with central Dubai, thereby stimulating economic and social interactions (Dubai Metro and Tram Stations, 2024).

Dubai Metro prioritizes international standards of safety and accessibility, featuring pedestrian bridges, clear signage, moving walkways, and elevators (RTA, 2024). Facilities like tactile flooring and ramps enhance mobility for disabled passengers. Park-N-Ride services at Al Rashidiya (2,700 spaces), Nakheel Harbour and Towers (3,000 spaces), and Etisalat (2,300 spaces) cater to commuters from neighboring emirates, thereby improving commuter convenience and urban safety. Station designs integrate noise insulation and comprehensive security systems, ensuring safe, efficient passenger experiences and reducing commuter stress (Smith et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2011; RTA, 2024). Dubai Metro’s effectiveness is evident from passenger numbers, exceeding 175 million journeys from January to August 2024, nearing the total of 260 million journeys in 2023. Stations like BurJuman and Union, critical interchanges, registered the highest footfall, with BurJuman alone accommodating 7.8 million passengers between January and June 2024, reflecting its centrality in Dubai’s public transit network as shown in Figure 1 (The National, 2024). Overall, Dubai Metro demonstrates strategic urban mobility planning, effectively integrating comprehensive public transit solutions within Dubai’s rapidly evolving urban landscape.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Dubai metro stations and passengers sum source: (The National, 2024).

8 Methodology

A mixed-methods design integrated quantitative GIS modelling with qualitative audits to address TOD objectives. Grounded in international frameworks (Cervero and Landis, 1997; Curtis et al., 2009), indicators targeted accessibility, density, land-use mix, and urban design. Base layers were derived from recent satellite imagery; vector features (parcels, buildings, rights-of-way, open space) were digitized and encoded as shapefiles. Spatial analysis has quantified proposed areas for public parking and green infrastructure, block dimensions and intersection density, network connectivity within 400–800 m catchments, and pedestrian route continuity. Land-use classes were assembled to generate existing conditions maps and proposal scenarios. Qualitative assessment drew on field observation and Google-Maps to evaluate sidewalks, crossings, active frontages, and climate modifiers. All features were cross-validated against Google Earth and OpenStreetMap for geometry and land-use attribution. Outputs comprised a geodatabase and reproducible map series supporting TOD-aligned walkability and transit access upgrades.

To strengthen methodological rigor, the workflow is organized into four phases and summarized in a flow diagram, Figure 2: (i) data acquisition (imagery, OSM/Google layers, site photos, and RTA inputs where available), (ii) GIS processing (projection harmonization, topology checks, network dataset creation, and buffer/isochrone settings), (iii) TOD appraisal using 3D/6D metrics (e.g., intersection density per km², land-use entropy, FAR/dwelling density, and average network distance to transit within 400–800 m), and (iv) validation through field spot-check sampling of key links/intersections and stakeholder review to confirm map attribution and interpretability (Curtis et al., 2009).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Stages of methodology.

Complementing these quantitative evaluations, qualitative interviews and consultations with urban planners, transportation experts, and officials from Dubai’s Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) verified the applicability of the spatial findings and contributed significantly to the formulation of targeted design guidelines and strategic recommendations for enhancing TOD implementation in Dubai (Curtis et al., 2009). By integrating theoretical knowledge, quantitative location-based analyses, and professional insights, this holistic methodology provided a robust foundation for generating actionable TOD recommendations. Triangulating data in this manner ensured both reliability and contextual relevance, ultimately supporting more accessible, pedestrian-friendly, and less car-centric development in Dubai’s dynamically evolving urban environment.

9 Case study mall of the emirates Dubai metro station and TOD model implementation: a critical perspective

The Mall of the Emirates Metro station emerges as a high-potential site for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) owing to its robust ridership levels, strategic positioning, and synergy with surrounding land uses. Drawing an estimated 5.6 million passengers annually, the station benefits from a pronounced demand for public transit services. While this substantial footfall underlines the economic feasibility of integrating residential, commercial, and retail functions, it also presents an opportunity to enhance local urban connectivity and move away from a heavy reliance on private vehicles. Moreover, the station already enjoys multiple accessibility amenities such as bus links, parking facilities, and pedestrian overpasses that can be leveraged to further deepen TOD principles. However, realizing the station’s full TOD potential necessitates cohesive planning, which should account for streamlined pedestrian circulation, integrated land-use policies, and the encouragement of non-motorized travel options.

Strategically located within Al Barsha, a district characterized by a mix of multi-story apartment buildings and villa communities, the station is positioned to facilitate diverse mobility needs, as shown in Figure 3. Its proximity to the Mall of the Emirates not only strengthens the economic appeal of future developments but also introduces critical considerations regarding traffic flow and pedestrian safety. While the presence of a major commercial landmark enhances footfall, it may also create localized congestion if not managed through well-coordinated urban design. To mitigate these challenges, policymakers and planners could integrate hotels, offices, and recreational areas within the broader station precinct, prioritizing walkability and reducing car dependence. This aligns with the Dubai Urban Plan (2024), which emphasizes sustainable growth and aims to curb unplanned urban expansion through high-density, transit-centric communities.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Location of mall of emirates station and Al Barsha neighbourhood source: Google maps.

In addition, the underutilized parcels around the Mall of the Emirates station offer prolific ground for sustainable growth. By dedicating these spaces to pedestrian corridors, cycling infrastructure, and green zones, the resulting TOD environment can promote environmental benefits such as lower carbon emissions and attract new investment prospects. The station’s readiness for TOD thus merges with Dubai’s longstanding focus on innovation and ecological stewardship, exemplified by the city’s commitment to the driverless Dubai Metro recognized globally as the longest of its kind in the GCC. Established in 2009 to combat escalating road congestion and reduce private vehicle use by 30%, the Metro network was orchestrated by the Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) via a zoning strategy that encourages balanced density and mixed land use (RTA. 2024). Although early skeptics questioned the viability of a rail-based system, the Metro has since proven instrumental in streamlining mobility and enhancing overall quality of life. Against this backdrop, the Mall of the Emirates station stands out as a pivotal node where TOD implementation can successfully harmonize sustainability goals with economic imperatives, reinforcing Dubai’s position as a leader in progressive urban development.

10 GIS informetric analysis of TOD issues at Dubai metro (MoE) station and neighbourhood

Geographic Information System (GIS) technology has proven to be an indispensable tool for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) planning, offering robust spatial analysis capabilities that are critical for site evaluation (Ünsal, 2024; Khare et al., 2021). In the context of Al Barsha and the Mall of the Emirates (MoE) Metro station, GIS has been utilized for a comprehensive examination of urban conditions and development opportunities. This study has employed GIS to analyze existing pattern of walkability and its issues; roads network; proximity of facilities and services in neighbourhood; spatial analysis of masses and voids and unutilized land; analysis of existing roadside parking; land utilization pattern; and issues of catchment area of Al Barsha and MoE station. According GIS technology supports evidence based decision making by integrating diverse datasets and visualizing spatial relationships, which are essential for TOD implementation.

Al Barsha, the neighborhood surrounding the Mall of the Emirates Metro station, exhibits a highly vehicle-centric layout in the absence of a robust Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) framework, as shown in Figure 4. The predominant road infrastructure features three and four way intersections designed primarily for vehicular flow, resulting in fragmented pedestrian pathways. This configuration forces pedestrians to navigate wide, multi-lane junctions with limited or inconvenient crossings, discouraging walking and other non-motorized forms of travel. Studies such as Mouzas et al. (2022) highlight how GIS can identify gaps in walkability, such as missing crosswalks or barriers caused by vehicle-oriented infrastructure.

Figure 4

Figure 4. GIS map- existing vehicle network and pedestrian intersections.

One of the critical issues is the mismatch between vehicle-oriented corridors and inadequate pedestrian infrastructure. Al Barsha’s roads often favor uninterrupted car movement, neglecting continuous sidewalks and safe crossing points. The station’s large surrounding arterials create barriers for pedestrians, with many forced to rely on elevated footbridges that are not always conveniently located or accessible. Even the designated pedestrian intersections appear insufficient compared to the broader vehicular network, as they commonly lack high-visibility crosswalks or traffic-calming measures such as speed humps or raised intersections. Consequently, this discourages seamless, safe pedestrian mobility between the station and adjacent land uses. Additionally, the limited permeability of the street network hampers first and last mile connectivity, impeding station access for residents in nearby housing clusters. Without comprehensive TOD principles guiding land use and street design, the neighborhood remains oriented toward high-speed traffic rather than walkable, mixed-use development. Opportunities for bus and cycling integration further suffer as road space is dominated by private vehicles, and dedicated lanes or interconnected bike routes are absent. This imbalance perpetuates car dependency, exacerbating congestion and undermining the potential benefits of having a major transit node in the area. This study asserts that Al Barsha’s existing road and intersection design underprioritizes pedestrians and contributes to an unsustainable reliance on private cars. Implementing TOD strategies including improved sidewalk continuity, safer crossing points, and enhanced multimodal corridors would be vital to transforming the station area into a thriving, accessible urban hub.

The neighborhood surrounding the Mall of the Emirates Metro station suffers from a lack of cohesive, localized shopping and services in the context of its road network and land use design. As noted by Gwede et al. (2010), Sadler (2016), GIS facilitates the identification of areas underserved by critical amenities, allowing planners to prioritize interventions. The area under study remains heavily car-dependent, with commercial services primarily clustered around the mall itself. While the Mall of the Emirates serves as a central retail and leisure hub, its proximity to residential areas is not accompanied by a balanced distribution of everyday neighborhood services such as grocery stores, healthcare facilities, and vocational centers. In the absence of a comprehensive Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) framework, services are often not easily accessible by walking, as shown in Figure 5. Residents must rely heavily on private vehicles for short trips to obtain basic needs or services outside the mall, exacerbating traffic congestion and increasing reliance on cars. The absence of localized mixed use developments discourages walkability, with large distances and limited pedestrian-friendly environments separating housing areas from essential services. This urban form reduces the capacity of local services to cater to a broad community within walking distance, undermining the effectiveness of public transit, making it difficult for pedestrians to access daily necessities without a car. Integrating more localized, pedestrian-oriented services through TOD principles would transform the dynamics of shopping and services in Al Barsha, fostering a more connected and sustainable urban environment.

Figure 5

Figure 5. GIS map- existing connectivity at MoE site.

Despite the proximity of numerous amenities including educational institutions, medical facilities, and fresh food outlets Al Barsha’s local shopping and services around the Mall of the Emirates station face distinct challenges. According to the spatial analysis, over 98% of buildings are located within 1,000 m of schools and healthcare centers, and more than 80% lie within 500 m of grocery and fresh food options. However, the physical ease of accessing these services remains questionable. Wide roads, limited crosswalks, and incomplete pedestrian paths can reduce the attractiveness of walking, thus undermining the nominal proximity of shops and services.

Moreover, small scale retail establishments risk being overshadowed by the Mall of the Emirates’ dominant commercial presence, potentially concentrating economic activity within a singular mega-structure rather than dispersing it throughout the neighborhood. This dynamic can create an uneven distribution of foot traffic, with local businesses outside the mall receiving fewer customers. While the data suggest high service coverage, the quality and diversity of local offerings also vary, particularly when considering affordable dining options or specialized stores. In short, Al Barsha’s favorable service distances need to be reinforced by TOD principles such as seamless pedestrian pathways, traffic calming measures, and integrated land use to truly maximize residents’ access to local shopping and services.

In the context of spatial organizations, researchers such as (Brick, 2010; Nago, 2022) emphasize the role of GIS in identifying underutilized spaces for infill development in TOD planning. Figure 6, presents a mixed pattern of built forms and undeveloped spaces that could serve as a prime area for adapting Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) principles. As seen in the image, the densely constructed areas marked by high-rise buildings, commercial zones, and housing clusters create a solid urban fabric (the “masses”), while certain swathes of unutilized or underdeveloped land (the “voids”) are scattered throughout the district. These voids are often parking lots, underutilized plots, and areas that are currently not maximally serving the community’s needs. This imbalance between mass and void contributes to an inefficient use of space, underserving the increasing demand for mixed-use developments, walkable neighborhoods, and public space. Al Barsha, with its relatively high built density and proximity to the Mall of the Emirates, highlights a latent potential for TOD interventions, especially by comprehensively redeveloping the areas of underutilized land. Integrating residential units, retail spaces, parks, and pedestrian walkways into these vacant plots would bolster connectivity while promoting sustainable urban mobility and reducing automobile dependency. If these voids are strategically reimagined with TOD strategies such as incorporating green belts, public plazas, and bike-friendly corridors this could enhance the neighborhood’s overall livability, increase local employment opportunities, and foster a sense of community. Consequently, the available land around Mall of the Emirates station represents a significant opportunity to reshape Al Barsha as a socially inclusive and environmentally responsible urban hub.

Figure 6

Figure 6. GIS Map- Built Environment mass and voids at site.

The Al Barsha neighborhood around the Mall of the Emirates station presents a dynamic interplay between built-up “mass” and vacant “voids,” as evidenced by the available site analysis. Approximately 422,459 square meters of developed land (comprising about 73 percent of the station area) contrasts sharply with the 577,541 square meters of unoccupied land. This disproportion highlights substantial potential for infill development, for projects aligned with Transit-Oriented Development (TOD). The existence of large swaths of underused space creates opportunities to introduce new residential blocks, commercial facilities, and public amenities within a compact, walkable radius of the station. Moreover, the strategic positioning of these vacant parcels allows for the integration of pedestrian pathways, cycling tracks, and green spaces, thereby enhancing connectivity and fostering a livelier urban fabric. If thoughtfully planned, these in-between spaces can also accommodate essential infrastructure for integrated mobility, including bike-sharing stations and ride-hailing pickup zones, to reduce automobile reliance. However, failing to capitalize on these voids could lead to missed chances for higher density and improved land use synergy.

Therefore, reimagining these underutilized plots through TOD principles offers a path toward more sustainable, people-focused development and improved economic outcomes, ensuring that Al Barsha evolves into a thriving, transit-friendly neighborhood.

GIS has been employed to map existing roadside parking and assess its impact on traffic flow and public space utilization. Findings by Ünsal, (2024) and Geremew, (2024) underscore the importance of converting excessive parking spaces into pedestrian or cycling infrastructure in TOD zones.

The neighborhood surrounding the Mall of the Emirates Metro station exhibits notable challenges related to off-street and roadside parking, as shown in Figure 7. As illustrated in the provided analysis, a significant portion of the urban area is dedicated to off-street parking spaces, particularly in proximity to commercial and residential buildings. While such provisions support vehicular access, the excessive allocation of land to parking spaces reduces opportunities for more pedestrian-friendly and transit-oriented developments.

Figure 7

Figure 7. GIS image of off-street parking locations.

The reliance on off-street parking contributes to a vehicle-dominant urban design, which conflicts with the principles of TOD. Instead of encouraging the use of public transit or non-motorized modes of transportation, the availability of abundant parking incentivizes private car usage, further exacerbating traffic congestion. The images also highlight poorly organized roadside parking, which encroaches on pedestrian pathways and impedes walkability. This arrangement undermines accessibility for transit users and reduces the overall usability of public spaces.

GIS is instrumental in delineating catchment areas and evaluating their coverage. By using isochrone mapping, GIS helps assess the station’s accessibility radius and identifies underserved areas. According to Ahuchaogu Emmanuel et al. (2020), catchment analysis is critical for understanding how effectively a transit station serves its surrounding population. Site study reveals that the catchment area analysis for the Mall of the Emirates Metro station highlights critical challenges and opportunities regarding walkability as shown in Figure 8. According to the ITDP guidelines, a walking distance of 1,000 m for rapid transit or 500 m for non-rapid transit is considered optimal. The map illustrates the station’s catchment zones, revealing that much of the neighborhood falls within this theoretical walkable radius. However, the actual experience of walking to the metro is hindered by fragmented pedestrian pathways, wide arterial roads, and limited safe crossing points.

Figure 8

Figure 8. GIS image of catchment area of MoE Metro.

The surrounding road network, characterized by vehicle-dominated design, poses significant barriers to pedestrian movement. Many areas within the catchment lack continuous sidewalks, forcing pedestrians to share space with vehicles or use poorly designed overpasses. Additionally, the large blocks and underutilized land create gaps in connectivity, increasing the perceived walking distance and discouraging transit use.

Study of Geneletti (2013) considers that GIS is a very effective tool to explore layer by layer information on the zoning of region. Another study of Malczewski (2004) mentions that, GIS instrumental rationality is based on the use of census tract and block group maps, traffic analysis zone maps, city limits lines, street networks, and other spatial data to inform and support decision-making processes. As shown in Figure 9, the land use and zoning analysis of the Mall of the Emirates (MoE) Metro station neighborhood reveals a diverse yet imbalanced distribution of zones, as illustrated in the provided image with the color-coded legend. The red zones, representing the Mall of the Emirates shopping center, dominate the central area, signifying the commercial and retail intensity of the neighborhood. While this attracts significant footfall and economic activity, the singular dominance of such large-scale commercial spaces limits the integration of other essential land uses within walking distance.

Figure 9

Figure 9. GIS image of Land utilization.

The yellow zones indicate residential areas, primarily low- and mid-density developments surrounding the commercial hub. These zones are critical for supporting TOD, but their potential remains underutilized due to weak pedestrian linkages and car-centric infrastructure. Orange zones for hotels cater to tourists and visitors, contributing to economic activity, but their spatial segregation from mixed-use and residential areas creates a lack of integration. The blue zones represent educational and medical facilities, providing essential services within the vicinity. However, the absence of strong pedestrian connectivity and shaded pathways makes access challenging. Green zones for mosques and gray zones for utilities are strategically scattered but lack cohesive integration with other uses.

The limited presence of beige mixed-use zones, crucial for TOD, highlights missed opportunities for vertical integration of residential, commercial, and institutional uses. Enhanced connectivity through dedicated pedestrian pathways and a balanced distribution of land uses can transform this area into a well-functioning TOD model, reducing car dependency and fostering a walkable, transit-oriented environment. In order to capture the discussion in section 9.0, following Table 3 portrays the key factor of GIS analysis conducted at site of MoE metro station and its neighbourhood.

Table 3

Table 3. Key Factors of GIS Analysis MOE metro station site.

11 Planning proposals for TOD adaptation and optimization of MoE metro station Dubai

Based on the GIS analysis in Section 9.0, the MoE metro station demands targeted design solutions to advance Transit-Oriented Development (TOD). Key areas that emerged as priorities include enhancing walkability and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, revamping both roadside and off-street parking to minimize congestion, and ensuring convenient access to essential facilities and services. By emphasizing these factors, planners can create an integrated urban environment that prioritizes efficient mobility, user safety, and overall comfort. Ultimately, employing comprehensive strategies that address these core issues will optimize TOD implementation at the MoE metro station, thus fostering sustainable urban growth and higher quality of life for users.

11.1 Off-road parking solutions

The highlighted red sites Figure 10 represent strategically positioned locations for multi-level parking buildings (Red) around the MoE metro station area, aligning with key Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) principles. By concentrating vehicular parking in designated structures measuring 11,999 m² (approximately 12,000 square meters), these buildings help minimize on-street parking, thereby creating more open and pedestrian friendly spaces at ground level. This reallocation of space improves walkability and encourages residents and visitors to favor public transport options, ultimately reducing the reliance on private cars. Furthermore, the proximity of these parking towers to the metro station offers convenient access for drivers, enabling a seamless. transition to transit services. This combination of efficient parking solutions and accessible rail infrastructure strengthens the overall mobility ecosystem, benefiting both local neighborhoods and broader catchment areas. Additionally, concentrating parking within these towers can significantly lower carbon emissions by decreasing the distance vehicles travel in search of parking and promoting the use of cleaner transit modes. Over time, reduced traffic congestion can also lead to improved air quality and a more vibrant urban environment. By adhering to TOD principles in situating these parking towers, the MoE station area cultivates a more sustainable, connected.

Figure 10

Figure 10. Proposed parking buildings near MoE Metro.

11.2 Optimized green spaces and walkability

The proposed plan for the MoE station area emphasizes the integration of optimized road parking (highlighted in yellow) and enhanced walkability, green spine (highlighted in green), reflecting core Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) principles. By reallocating space for strategic on street parking, traffic congestion is minimized, while the streetscape remains functional for both vehicles and pedestrians. This measured parking strategy helps ensure that cars are accommodated without overpowering the public realm, leaving ample room for safe and pleasant walking conditions, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11

Figure 11. Proposed plan of on street parking and uninterrupted walking.

Simultaneously, the proposed green corridors (spine) measuring 17,924 m² (approximately 17,900 square meters) and pedestrian pathways measuring 16,018 m² (approximately 16,000 square meters) will prioritize human scale movement, enabling residents year round comfortable navigation. Wide sidewalks, tree lined pathways, and traffic calming measures encourage active modes of transportation while reducing the need for unnecessary car trips. Furthermore, the plan calls for converting selected roads into cul-de-sacs measuring 2,676 m (2.68 km) to limit traffic, creating safer, uninterrupted walking environments that enhance the overall pedestrian experience. Together, these strategies offer health benefits, reduce carbon emissions, and improve local air quality.

By minimizing interference with pedestrian travel such as reducing curb cuts, consolidating parking, and incorporating dedicated crossings, residents are encouraged to favor walking over driving. As a result, local neighborhoods remain closely connected to the MoE metro station, promoting a culture of active mobility. Collectively, these design interventions create a balanced urban environment that fosters inclusivity, accessibility, and a heightened sense of community.

11.3 Active connectivity of parking and social hubs

Besides other proposals given above, study further proposed a plan for the MoE metro neighborhood introduces a active corridor spine, a dedicated cycling path, and strategically placed activity hubs, parking buildings and leading to MoE metro station all key strategies for enhancing Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) within the site. The active corridor link (Green) measuring 5,076 m (5.08 km) provides a continuous, car-free corridor that links residential zones, commercial areas, parking and public spaces. By minimizing motorized traffic along this corridor, pedestrians and cyclists are encouraged to travel safely and comfortably, fostering an environment of active mobility and social interaction, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12

Figure 12. Proposed plan for pedestrian connectivity and MoE station.

In parallel, the dedicated cycling path caters to a broader demographic, from daily commuters to recreational riders, promoting healthy and sustainable travel. This infrastructure not only enhances local connectivity by offering an alternative to private cars but also reduces congestion and air pollution levels throughout the neighborhood. Furthermore, the placement of Activity Hubs at strategic nodes along the Green Spine creates lively communal gathering points and diverse recreational opportunities. Whether featuring shops, cafés, green pockets, or cultural spaces, these Activity Hubs serve as anchors that draw residents and visitors alike, contributing to a vibrant streetscape and enriching overall quality of life.

Combined, these initiatives promote compact, walkable urban form while bolstering public transit usage. The emphasis on green mobility and social interaction helps optimize the MoE metro station’s potential as a focal point of sustainable urban living.

12 Conclusion

The proposals presented for adapting and optimizing the MoE Metro Station area for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) comprehensively address the key factors identified in the preceding GIS analysis. These factors ranging from walkability and pedestrian infrastructure to parking allocation, land use, and catchment connectivity underscore the need for a holistic approach in transforming the site into a more efficient, people-centered urban environment.

Firstly, the Off-Road Parking initiative targets one of the most pressing issues highlighted in Table 3 excessive on street parking that undermines pedestrian safety and walkability. By relocating vehicle storage to strategically positioned multi level parking buildings, ground level space is freed up for more pedestrian-friendly uses. This not only mitigates congestion but also reduces the visual and physical dominance of parked vehicles, creating a more inviting streetscape. Placing these parking buildings near the metro station further encourages drivers to switch to public transport with minimal inconvenience, thus reducing car dependency. Additionally, such concentrated parking reduces the time and distance vehicles circle in search of space, ultimately lowering overall carbon emissions.

Secondly, the emphasis on Optimized Road Parking and Walkability plays a pivotal role in enhancing the public realm. By right sizing on-street parking and introducing measures such as cul-de-sacs, wide sidewalks, and improved crossings, the area becomes more navigable and safer for pedestrians. This is in direct response to the GIS findings of fragmented pathways and limited safe crossings. Converting selected streets into cul-de-sacs eliminates through traffic, thereby providing quieter, uninterrupted walking environments. Simultaneously, traffic-calming measures and dedicated pedestrian zones encourage active forms of transport like walking and cycling. Collectively, these improvements deliver a robust framework for a more inclusive and convivial neighborhood, benefiting residents and visitors alike.

Thirdly, the Green Spine and Activity Hubs proposal addresses multiple TOD dimensions, notably the need for multimodal connectivity, public open space, and localized amenities. The Green Spine, being vehicle free prioritizes active movement, linking residential, commercial, and recreational zones in a continuous corridor. This uninterrupted linear park space not only offers a pleasant route for pedestrians and cyclists, but also functions as a social conduit, encouraging spontaneous interactions and leisure activities. The dedicated cycling path is similarly significant, as it caters to a growing demographic seeking healthier, more sustainable travel options. Incorporating Activity Hubs along this spine ensures that essential facilities such as cafés, retail, and community spaces are within walking distance of transit nodes. These hubs foster a sense of place and vitality by acting as communal anchors where people can gather, shop, and socialize. Consequently, the neighborhood becomes less car-reliant, aligning with TOD’s core principle of reducing private vehicle use and associated carbon emissions.

From a broader perspective, these interventions collectively respond to the catchment area analysis, which found that despite the theoretical walkable radius around the MoE station, barriers such as fragmented infrastructure diminished actual walkability. By adopting cul-de-sacs, improving pedestrian crossings, and establishing dedicated cycling paths, the station’s catchment is rendered more permeable and user-friendly, thereby increasing transit ridership. Likewise, the reallocation of road space to humans rather than vehicles creates an opportunity to redevelop vacant land for mixed-use and green spaces, as identified in the “Masses and Voids” category. Such infill development can inject vibrancy into underutilized areas, offering a balanced mix of residential, commercial, and public functions within comfortable walking distance of transit.

A coherent TOD vision for the Mall of the Emirates (MoE) precinct hinges on adaptive land-use policy that interweaves residential, commercial, and civic functions within a fine-grained street network. Consolidating surface parking into structured facilities, elevating pedestrian priority, and stitching the area together with continuous green corridors would rebalance access to daily needs and recreation, shorten trip lengths, and activate the public realm. When aligned with the mode-shift ambitions of the Dubai (2040) Urban Master Plan, these physical and regulatory moves can unlock higher, mixed densities near the station and allow the precinct to function as a single, legible, transit-first district rather than a set of isolated, vehicle-oriented plots (Dubai, 2040).

Translating regeneration vision into delivery, however, requires tackling Dubai-specific barriers that routinely derail station-area projects. Legacy single-use zoning, generous roadway standards, and high parking requirements constrain the reallocation of space to walking, cycling, and transit, while fragmented ownership and multi-agency mandates (mall operators, strata bodies, utilities, and RTA rights-of-way) complicate right-of-way redesign, phasing, and stewardship of the public realm. Evidence from TOD practice in Dubai underscores the need for coordinated governance, land-assembly tools, and market incentives such as reduced parking minimum, FAR bonuses tied to car-trip reduction, and joint delivery agreements to overcome auto-access expectations at major retail destinations (Hannawi et al., 2019). Addressing these constraints allows the proposed mix of built form, mobility upgrades, and open-space networks to operate synergistically, advancing an equitable, walkable, and genuinely transit-oriented MoE station area.

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/supplementary material.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Research Ethics Committee Ajman University, Ajman, UAE. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

OY: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – review and editing. AC: Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft. MA: Resources, Writing – review and editing. MM: Investigation, Software, Visualization, Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Ajman University and the Healthy and Sustainable. Built Environment Research Centre (HSBERC) College of Architecture Art and Design (CAAD) for their support and providing the research facilities used in this study.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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