Life cycle assessment and structural evaluation of sustainable and cost effective engineered cementitious composite (ECC) repair mortars

This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of a sustainable Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) repair mortar developed using eco-efficient material modifications and its performance in rehabilitating partially distressed reinforced concrete (RC) beams. The environmental performance of the developed ECC was assessed through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) using the ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) method, considering a cradle-to-gate system boundary. The incorporation of quarry dust powder, supplementary cementitious materials (GGBS and silica fume), polymer modifiers (SBR latex), internal curing agent Polyethylene glycol (PEG), and hybrid fibres significantly reduced the overall environmental impact and cost compared to conventional mixes containing silica sand and PVA fibres. To validate structural performance, RC beams were cast and subjected to flexural testing after simulated distress and repair and compared with commercially available repair mortar. The ECC-repaired beams exhibited improved load-carrying capacity, ductility, and crack control relative to beams repaired with conventional mortars. The combined LCA and experimental results confirm that the optimized ECC mortar offers a balanced solution for sustainable and durable repair applications in RC structures.

1 Introduction

Rehabilitation of deteriorated reinforced concrete (RC) structures is a growing necessity due to aging infrastructure, environmental exposure, and increasing sustainability demands. Conventional repair mortars often exhibit poor compatibility and limited ductility, leading to premature failure under service loads. ECC, characterized by their strain-hardening behaviour and multiple cracking, present a promising solution for durable repair applications.

This study integrates environmental and structural assessments of a newly developed ECC repair mortar incorporating industrial by-products and polymer-based modifications. The research combines Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), cost assessment and flexural testing of repaired beams to establish the material’s overall sustainability and repair efficiency.

Effective and durable repair strategies are critical to extending the service life of such structures while avoiding complete demolition and reconstruction, which are costlier and environmentally taxing (Mehta and Monteiro, 2014; Neville, 2011). Moreover, the increasing frequency of extreme weather events and aging infrastructure has amplified the demand for resilient and long-lasting repair materials in both developed and developing nations. ECC, a class of high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious materials, have gained significant attention for repair applications due to their strain-hardening behavior, tight crack width control, and excellent durability under aggressive environments (Zhang et al., 2022; Asmitha and Pannem, 2025).

ECCs differ from conventional Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) by exhibiting multiple microcracks under tensile stress, providing superior ductility and damage tolerance (Eltawil et al., 2025). These microcracks remain narrow (typically below 100 μm), which significantly limits the ingress of harmful agents such as chlorides, sulphates, and carbon dioxide, thereby improving the long-term durability of the repaired structure (Varma et al., 2024; Joseph et al., 2023). Polypropylene (PP) fibres are most effective when used in combination with stronger fibres, providing plastic shrinkage resistance, improved workability, and enhanced dispersion (Deb et al., 2018).

Quarry dust, being locally available and abundant, presents a viable alternative. Studies have shown that quarry dust possesses similar particle size distribution, high angularity, and reasonable pozzolanic activity, making it suitable for use in cementitious systems (Lim et al., 2017. Replacing silica sand with quarry dust in ECC resulted in only marginal reductions in compressive and flexural strength, while significantly lowering material cost. Improved matrix densification and reduced permeability in quarry dust-based ECC, attributed to better packing and interfacial bonding (Kamaruddin et al., 2014; George and Sathyan, 2025).

ECC also shows promising self-healing capabilities, where narrow cracks can autogenously heal in the presence of water and unreacted cementitious materials, further extending service life without the need for frequent maintenance. Its superior bond strength with existing concrete makes ECC especially suitable for structural retrofitting, seismic strengthening, and surface repair of elements exposed to cyclic or dynamic loading (Deb et al., 2018).

ECC incorporating silica fume and GGBS exhibited excellent crack width control, tensile strain capacity and chloride resistance, making it highly suitable for structural rehabilitation in aggressive environments. Such binary blends also improve the sustainability profile of ECC mixes without compromising mechanical performance (Liu et al., 2018). Despite these excellent properties, the widespread application of ECCs in repair works is often limited by the high cost of constituents, particularly the use of silica sand and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibres, which are not always locally available and are expensive (Odeyemi et al., 2025).

Furthermore, the environmental footprint of ECC production, especially due to high cement content, raises concerns regarding sustainability and carbon emissions (Lim and Li, 1997). In an era where construction practices are expected to align with sustainable development goals, there is a pressing need to explore alternative materials and strategies that can reduce the cost and environmental impact of ECC, without compromising its mechanical and durability performance.

Curing is another major challenge in repair applications, particularly in situations with limited access or insufficient moisture control. Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) is introduced as a self-curing agent in the developed ECC mix. PEG acts through internal curing mechanisms by absorbing and slowly releasing water during hydration, maintaining a favourable moisture balance inside the matrix. This internal curing action not only supports complete cement hydration but also helps mitigate autogenous shrinkage and early-age cracking, both of which are critical to the long-term durability and dimensional stability of repair materials (Wu et al., 2017; Kiran et al., 2025).

Beyond mechanical enhancement, durability and workability are critical considerations for any repair material. To this end, Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) latex is incorporated into the mix. SBR is a water-based polymer emulsion commonly used in repair mortars to improve adhesion to substrates, tensile strength, abrasion resistance, and impermeability. Its film-forming capability after hydration helps seal capillary pores, thus reducing the permeability of the hardened matrix and enhancing long-term durability, especially in aggressive environments such as marine or industrial zones (Xu et al., 2010).

The polymer improves the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the cement matrix and the substrate or reinforcing fibres, thus enhancing bond strength and stress transfer (Chen et al., 2014). SBR also contributes to crack interface stability, promoting more uniform distribution of microcracks and reducing delamination or spalling (Azadmanesh et al., 2021).

Most ECC research is confined to small-scale tensile or flexural specimens. There is limited experimental data on the structural performance of actual RC elements repaired with modified ECC mixes. Few studies validate how ECC affects the load-carrying capacity, stiffness, ductility, or crack pattern in retrofitted beams or columns. Furthermore, the integration of sustainable ECC into real repair contexts, especially with thin-section overlays or jacketing, is underreported in literature. Reinforced concrete (RC) structures commonly suffer deterioration due to environmental exposure, mechanical overloading, poor construction practices, or aging. Effective repair and retrofitting strategies are vital to extend the service life of these structures and restore or enhance their structural integrity. ECC have emerged as one of the most promising materials for structural rehabilitation, due to their superior ductility, crack-width control, and long-term durability, particularly under aggressive environmental conditions (Zakeremamreza et al., 2023).

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic analytical method used to evaluate the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service throughout its life cycle from raw material extraction, production, transportation, use, to end-of-life disposal or recycling. In the context of civil engineering and material development, LCA provides a robust framework to quantify the environmental performance of construction materials and helps in comparing conventional and alternative materials on a sustainability basis (Minne and Crittenden, 2015). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies confirm that the use of industrial by-products such as quarry dust in ECC can significantly lower embodied energy and global warming potential, aligning with sustainable construction goals (Kanagaraj et al., 2025).

With growing concerns over climate change, resource depletion, and ecological degradation, the construction industry is increasingly integrating LCA into material selection, design, and policy-making to minimize carbon footprints and promote sustainable practices.

The novelty of this research lies in the integrated framework that simultaneously combines sustainable material modifications quarry dust, supplementary cementitious materials (GGBS and silica fume), internal curing agent (PEG), polymer modifier (SBR latex), and hybrid fibres within a single ECC system developed for structural repair applications. In addition, the study uniquely integrates environmental (LCA), economic (cost), and structural (flexural performance) assessments of the same material system to provide a holistic evaluation of sustainability and performance. This approach not only reduces the overall material cost but also aligns with the principles of sustainable construction and circular economy. While individual modifiers have been previously explored, such a multi-criteria integration for ECC repair mortar development and validation has not been reported in prior studies.

2 Research objectives

The primary objective of this study is to develop and evaluate a sustainable ECC repair mortar that offers improved environmental performance and superior structural efficiency compared to conventional repair materials.

To achieve this, the specific objectives are:

1. Material Development: To formulate an ECC-based repair mortar incorporating sustainable material modifications such as quarry dust powder (as a partial replacement for silica sand), supplementary cementitious materials (GGBS and silica fume), polymer modifier (SBR latex), internal curing agent (PEG), and hybrid fibres as an alternative to PVA fibres.

2. Environmental Assessment: To perform a cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the developed ECC repair mortar using the ReCiPe 2016 methodology to quantify its environmental impacts

3. Structural Evaluation: To investigate the flexural performance of partially distressed reinforced concrete (RC) beams repaired using the developed ECC mortar and compare their behaviour with beams repaired using commercial repair mortars.

3 Materials and methods

The developed ECC 20 (Ferenc et al., 2024). incorporated quarry dust powder as a partial substitute for silica sand modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and silica fume (SF) as supplementary cementitious materials, SBR latex as a polymer modifier, PEG as an internal curing agent, and hybrid fibers (PVA + PP) as a partial replacement for synthetic PVA fibers. SBR latex and PEG is shown as % of cement. In M4, the cement content is reduced to 450 kg/m³ and silica fume is taken as 20% of the total remaining cementitious content. Similarly, 40% of cementitious content is taken as fly ash and the same is done for GGBS as shown in Table 1. M5 and M6 represents two repair mortar commercially used with a density of 1300 kg/m³ and 2300 kg/m³ respectively.

Table 1

Table 1. Mix details.

4 Life cycle assessment

4.1 Functional unit and system boundary

• Functional Unit: 1 cubic meter of ECC repair mortar

• System Boundary: Includes extraction, processing, and transport of all raw materials (cement, fly ash, GGBS, silica fume, quarry dust, water, polymers, and fibers), as well as mixing and production energy.

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the ECC repair mortars was carried out following ISO 14040 (ISO, 2006a) and ISO 14044 (ISO, 2006b) standards to evaluate their environmental performance. The LCA was performed in SimaPro v9.5 using the Ecoinvent v3.9 database. Allocation followed a cut-off approach. Impact categories such as Global Warming Potential (kg CO₂-eq), Human Toxicity (DALY), and Resource Depletion (MJ) were quantified and normalized using the ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) method. This method was chosen because it provides a comprehensive evaluation of environmental impacts by aggregating midpoint indicators into endpoint damage categories human health, ecosystem quality, and resource scarcity. It is widely recognized and recommended in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies for construction materials due to its balanced hierarchical perspective and compatibility with the SimaPro software.

4.2 Life cycle inventory (LCI)

The inventory involves the quantification of material and energy inputs as well as emissions associated with each component in the mix.

4.3 Impact assessment methodology

The ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) method was adopted for impact assessment. Impact scores were calculated using Simapro software, and normalization and weighting were applied to compare multiple mixes across impact categories. The Hierarchist (H) perspective was selected in this study as it represents a balanced and widely accepted scientific consensus, providing a realistic assessment of medium-term environmental impacts of ECC repair mortars (Kulczycka, 2024).

5 RC beam preparation and repair methods

To evaluate the structural performance of the developed ECC repair mortar, an experimental study was carried out on reinforced concrete (RC) beam specimens. The primary objective was to simulate damage, apply repair using the optimized ECC mix, and assess the effectiveness of the repair under flexural loading (Nounu and Chaudhary, 1999).

A total of six RC beams were cast with identical reinforcement and dimensions (length = 750 mm, breadth = 150 mm, depth = 150 mm) shown in Figure 1. The beams were designed for under-reinforced behaviour and cast using M25 grade concrete. After 28 days of curing with a portion of reinforcement exposed, beams were applied with repair mortar for 7 days and preloaded up to ultimate flexural capacity to simulate cracking. The beam specimens used in this study were designed for laboratory scale testing to facilitate controlled comparison among ECC mixes and efficient material use. However, it is recognized that the small specimen size may introduce scale effects that influence structural behaviour and limit the direct generalization of results to full-scale elements. While the present results effectively demonstrate the relative performance and repair efficiency of various ECC compositions under controlled laboratory conditions, caution should be exercised when extrapolating these findings to full-scale structural applications.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Detailing of the reinforced beam.

The repair procedure involved surface cleaning, crack identification, and application of ECC mortar in the tension zone. After 28 days of curing, all specimens were subjected to four-point bending tests to assess load-deflection behaviour, first crack load, peak load, and failure patterns.

5.1 Specimen details and preparation

RC beams of size 150 mm × 150 mm x 750 mm were cast to study the performance of developed cementitious repair composites. The reinforcement comprises Fe 550 grade steel rebars, and the typical detailing adopted are: two nos. 8 mm diameter rebars in the tension zone, 2nos. 8 mm diameter rebars in the compression zone, and 8 mm diameter stirrups at 150 mm spacing c/c (Figure 1). M25 grade concrete with mix ratio 1:2.2:3.1 and w/cm ratio 0.55 was used to cast beams without cover. Standard protocols are followed for uniform hand mixing and placing of concrete on moulds. The fabricated beam reinforcement cage shown in Figure 2 is placed inside the clean and oiled steel mould with appropriate cover blocks to maintain cover thickness.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Reinforcement cage.

To simulate real-time distressed conditions (i.e., delaminated cover in the tension zone), concrete was poured inside the mould in three layers, with each layer receiving 25 blows of tamping using 16 mm diameter tamping rods such that the finished top surface exposes cover thickness (i.e., exposing tension zone rebars, and the top surface of stirrups as shown in Figure 3).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Exposed reinforcement after curing.

The beams are demoulded after 24 h, and the demoulded size of the beam is 150 mm × 130 mm x 750 mm. These beams were subjected to a 28-day curing regime in two phases viz. (i) curing by complete immersion in potable water for 7 days, (ii) 3% NaCl solution curing by wrapping in jute burlap for 21 days. This curing process facilitated accelerated corrosion of exposed steel rebars, and chloride ingress near cover regions (Ferenc et al., 2024).

This simulates the real time distressed condition of the beam affected by chloride ingress and subsequent corrosion of steel rebars which causes delamination of cover concrete over a period of time. In particular in the tensile region, simultaneous action of working load and corrosion of steel rebar causes premature delamination of cover concrete.

5.2 Flexural performance of repaired beams

The flexure test is a standard procedure used to assess the performance of RC beams. It involves subjecting a beam to a gradually increasing load until failure occurs. The test determines the beams load-carrying capacity, crack formation, and ultimate mode of failure. Although corrosion mass loss was not directly measured, visible rust formation as shown in Figure 3 and surface delamination confirmed effective chloride-induced distress simulation. By analysing the test results, the beams structural performance can be assessed. For each mix, three identical RC beams were tested, and the reported results represent the mean values of three specimens. The various parameters observed in the flexure test are as follows:

5.2.1 First crack load

The initial crack load offers crucial insights into a material’s behavior during the early loading stages. Up to this point, the material typically responds linearly, conforming to Hooke’s law. This regime permits analysis of the material’s response under constant stress and strain conditions, providing valuable data for characterizing its mechanical properties.

5.2.2 Yield load

Yield load is a fundamental parameter for evaluating the material properties and structural integrity of any structural component. The point at which the material transitions from elastic to plastic behavior before fracturing is referred to as the yield load. This parameter is critical as it indicates the maximum stress that the material withstand before experiencing permanent deformation.

5.2.3 Ultimate load

The ultimate load is used to determine a material’s capacity to endure the maximum load before complete failure. This parameter is critical for assessing the quality, safety, and reliability of materials in engineering applications. By determining the ultimate load, material performance under extreme loading conditions can be evaluated. This information is crucial for understanding whether a structure can withstand unexpected loads during its service life. Besides evaluating material quality and safety, the ultimate load also informs design decisions and allows for the incorporation of appropriate safety margins to account for uncertainties and variations in operating conditions. Overall, the ultimate load serves as a fundamental criterion for assessing the strength and structural integrity of a material.

5.2.4 Stiffness

Stiffness is characterized by the resistance of a material to deformation when a force is applied. It essentially reflects the rigidity of a material. When a force is applied, a stiffer material or structure exhibits less deformation, whereas a less stiff material or structure shows greater deformation. This property is crucial for evaluating material characteristics under various loading conditions. Stiffness is determined as the ratio of the yield load to the deflection at the yield load and is typically expressed in kN/mm.

5.2.5 Ductility ratio

The ability of a material to deform under applied forces without cracking is a key property. This property indicates the material’s capacity to elongate before fracturing. Material with high ductility experiences significant deformation before breaking. Understanding this behavior is essential for reasonably characterizing material and assessing its performance under various conditions. The ductility ratio is described as the ratio of the deflection measured at the ultimate load to the deflection recorded at the yield load.

5.2.6 Load-deflection curve

A load-deflection curve is a graphical representation that shows the relationship between the applied load and the resulting deflection of a structural element. This graph is useful for understanding the material’s behavior under gradual loading. The vertical axis represents the applied load in kilonewtons (kN). The horizontal axis represents the deflection at a specified location, with the central deflection often considered as a crucial factor for evaluating the flexural behavior of the structure. Deflection is typically measured in millimeters.

The load-deflection curve displays several key points: (i) the initial linear elastic region, where the material deforms in a reversible manner and returns to its original shape once the load is removed; (ii) the yield point, at which the material begins to deform plastically; and (iii) the ultimate load, where the material fails or reaches its maximum capacity.

5.3 Test setup and arrangement

The flexural strength test on repaired RC beams was performed according to IS 516 (Bureau of Indian Standards, 2021) with a four-point bending setup. Data Acquisition System (DAS) is used to record data from the specimen throughout the test. Figure 4 depict the schematic and setup of the flexural test.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Four-point bending test setup showing the attached LVDT at the bottom of the beam and cracks formed after testing.

6 Results and discussions

6.1 Life cycle assessment

The environmental impacts were evaluated under three major endpoint categories:

• Human Health

• Ecosystems

• Resources

The comparative results are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Damage assessment results in LCA.

6.1.1 Interpretation of results

The results indicate that M4 (with SCM) showed the lowest environmental impact across all three categories:

• Human Health Impact:

M4 reduced the impact to nearly 55% compared to M1. This significant drop suggests that the addition of SCM contributes to extended durability and lower maintenance frequency, which compensates for its initial embodied impact.

• Ecosystems Impact:

M4 demonstrated a 25%–30% lower impact compared to M1–M3. The incorporation of quarry dust and SCMs (GGBS, fly ash) reduces primary raw material extraction and lowers ecotoxicity and eutrophication potential.

• Resource Depletion:

M4 consumed ∼30% fewer non-renewable resources than M1. This is attributed to the partial replacement of high-energy materials (e.g., cement and PVA fibers) with waste materials and hybrid fibers, improving overall resource efficiency.

Mixes M2 and M3 show intermediate environmental performance between M1 and M4, with a trend indicating that increasing SCM dosage improves sustainability due to performance-enhancing benefits that offset initial environmental costs.

The LCA confirms that thoughtful material selection and optimization in ECC mix design can significantly reduce environmental impacts. Among the evaluated mixes, M4 (with SCM) emerged as the most sustainable option, offering a notable reduction in damage to human health, ecosystems, and resource consumption. The findings support the adoption of hybrid-fibre polymer-modified ECC incorporating industrial waste materials as a sustainable repair material for concrete infrastructure.

6.2 Repair of RC beam

The performance of Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) and commercial repair mortars was evaluated based on their load–deflection response shown in Figure 6 under flexural testing. Key parameters such as first crack load, yield load, ultimate load, stiffness, and ductility index were determined for all six mixes (M1–M6) shown in Table 2. These parameters are critical indicators of the cracking behavior, strength, rigidity, and deformation capacity of repair materials. The results not only provide insight into the mechanical response of ECC with different modifications but also facilitate comparison with commercially available mortars to assess their suitability for structural repair applications.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Load deflection diagram.

Table 2

Table 2. Parameters obtained from load deflection curve.

6.2.1 First crack load

The first crack load represents the resistance of the mix to crack initiation. The baseline ECC mix (M1) recorded the lowest value of 4 kN, indicating weak early crack resistance. Incorporation of SBR latex (M2) doubled the first crack load to 8 kN, while the addition of PEG (M3) reduced it slightly to 6 kN. The improvement in early crack resistance and yield load (M2) can be attributed to the polymer film formation within the cement matrix, which improves tensile stress transfer and adhesion (Salami et al., 2024). The SCM-modified ECC (M4) again registered 8 kN, comparable to M2. In contrast, the commercial repair mortars exhibited superior crack resistance, with M5 reaching 10 kN and M6 achieving the highest value of 12 kN. These results confirm that commercial mortars offer stronger resistance to initial cracking compared to ECC-based mixes.

6.2.2 Yield load

The yield load marks the onset of inelastic deformation. M1 displayed the lowest value of 6 kN, whereas M2, M3, and M4 each attained 10 kN, signifying improved performance with polymer modification and SCM incorporation. M5 also exhibited a yield load of 10 kN, while M6 achieved the highest yield capacity of 14 kN. This shows that ECC mixes with modifications can match the yield performance of commercial mortars, although M6 provided superior yield resistance.

6.2.3 Ultimate load

The maximum load-carrying capacity was notably improved by material modification. The baseline ECC (M1) had the lowest ultimate load of 17.3 kN. The inclusion of SBR latex (M2) and PEG (M3) enhanced the values to 20.3 kN and 21 kN, respectively. The SCM-modified ECC (M4) achieved the highest ultimate load among ECC mixes, at 25 kN, which is comparable to commercial mortars. The superior performance of M4 is linked to the synergistic pozzolanic action of silica fume and GGBS, which refine pore structure and enhance interfacial bonding, thereby improving both strength and ductility (Raghav et al., 2020). Both M5 and M6 demonstrated ultimate loads of 25 kN and 24 kN, respectively. Thus, M4 performed on par with high-strength commercial mortars.

6.2.4 Stiffness

The stiffness values highlight the rigidity of the mixes. M1 and M2 showed stiffness values of 1.1 and 1.1 kN/mm, respectively, which were comparable to those of commercial mortars (M5 – 1.1 kN/mm, M6 – 1.1 kN/mm). In contrast, M3 and M4 demonstrated significantly lower stiffness values of 0.8 and 0.8 kN/mm, reflecting more flexible structural behavior. This indicates that the addition of PEG and SCM reduces rigidity but favors enhanced energy dissipation and deformation capacity.

6.2.5 Ductility index

The ductility index indicates the ability of a mix to undergo deformation beyond the yield point. M1 displayed a moderate value of 2.1. With the inclusion of SBR latex, M2 achieved a higher ductility ratio of 2.3, and M3 also maintained good ductility at 2.1. PEG contributes to delayed hydration and controlled internal moisture release, promoting uniform strength gain and minimizing shrinkage cracking, which explains the slight reduction in stiffness but enhancement in ductility seen in M3 (Hong et al., 2024). SCM modification (M4) produced the highest ductility index of 2.6, demonstrating excellent deformation capacity. On the other hand, commercial mortars exhibited lower ductility, with M5 at 2.0 and M6 at 1.4, reflecting their relatively brittle nature.

The comparative analysis indicates that commercial mortars (M5 and M6) provide superior crack resistance, higher yield loads, and greater stiffness, making them highly resistant but comparatively brittle. ECC mixes, particularly M2 to M4, demonstrated improved strength and ductility compared to the baseline mix. Among all, the SCM-modified ECC (M4) offered the best balance of ultimate load (25 kN) and ductility (2.6), though with reduced stiffness. This highlights the potential of SCM-based ECC as a sustainable and high-performance repair material, providing a more ductile and energy-absorbing alternative to conventional commercial mortars.

6.3 Cost analysis

The economic viability of any repair material is a crucial factor in its practical adoption. While technical performance and sustainability indicators such as durability, mechanical strength, and environmental impact form the backbone of material development, the overall cost determines its field applicability. This chapter presents a comparative cost analysis of the proposed Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) mixes (M1, M2, M3, and M4) against commercially available repair mortars, namely, M5 and M6. The analysis incorporates material costs and transportation charges, thereby providing a holistic view of cost-effectiveness.

6.3.1 Material cost estimation

The cost analysis was carried out on a per cubic meter (m³) basis. Table 3 provides a detailed breakdown of the constituent materials, their market cost per kilogram, dosage used in each ECC mix, and the corresponding cost contribution. Cost analysis of commercially used repair mortar is also provided in Table 4. Cost of each material is taken from market rates. Transportation cost is taken as 5% extra by referring the previous literature (Mitoulis, Bompa and Argyroudis, 2023). Cost analysis is done by referring the market rate of each material which was used during experimental work.

Table 3

Table 3. Cost analysis (M1 to M4).

Table 4

Table 4. Cost analysis (M5, M6).

Despite the higher cost of fibres, all ECC mixes remain substantially cheaper than commercial mortars. Among the developed ECC mixes, M1 is the most economical (₹17,619.89/m³), while M4 achieves an excellent balance between cost (₹19,535.51/m³) and environmental sustainability.

7 Conclusion

The sustainability evaluation confirmed that SCM-modified ECC (M4) is the most sustainable variant, offering significant reductions in environmental impacts across human health (54%), ecosystem quality (74%), and resource consumption (69%) as compared to M1, M2 and M3. The results emphasize that material optimization in ECC design can contribute to green construction goals by effectively incorporating industrial by-products and reducing reliance on natural sand.

Flexural performance testing of repaired beams showed that commercial mortars (M5 and M6) achieved higher first crack loads, yield loads, and stiffness, but suffered from low ductility, reflecting brittle behavior. The integrated assessment confirms that the SCM- and polymer-modified ECC developed in this study offers a balanced solution for sustainable and high-performance repair applications. Incorporating quarry dust powder, GGBS, and silica fume effectively reduced the environmental footprint and material cost, while SBR latex and PEG improved bond strength, self-curing ability, and long-term durability. The hybrid-fibre system enhanced ductility and crack control, ensuring improved energy absorption in repaired RC beams.

Among all mixes, the SCM-modified ECC (M4) demonstrated the best synergy of mechanical, economic, and environmental performance achieving comparable load capacity to commercial mortars but with higher ductility and lower environmental impact. These findings underline the potential of the developed ECC as a sustainable and cost-effective repair material for extending the service life of deteriorated RC structures. Future research may focus on long-term field validation, microstructural and durability under cyclic or environmental loading to further confirm its large-scale applicability.

This study presents a novel integrated approach that links material design, environmental life cycle assessment, cost analysis, and structural performance evaluation of ECC repair mortars. The combination of sustainable material substitution and multi-dimensional assessment provides new insights into designing cost-effective, durable, and eco-efficient repair materials for reinforced concrete structures.

The flexural performance observed in laboratory-scale beams may vary in full-scale structural members due to potential scale effects, and further studies on larger specimens are recommended.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

MG: Investigation, Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing, Project administration, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Methodology. DS: Formal Analysis, Validation, Project administration, Supervision, Methodology, Data curation, Writing – review and editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Investigation.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Acknowledgements

Facilities provided by Amrita School of Engineering Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu and Rajagiri school of Engineering and Technology Kakkand, Kerala, India are gratefully acknowledged.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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