Earthquake resilience among apartment and flat communities: a qualitative study in Jakarta, Indonesia

Background: Earthquakes present serious risks for residents living in vertical housing structures such as apartments and flats complexes in Jakarta. Although earthquake preparedness and mitigation programs have been introduced by governmental and non-governmental organizations, their implementation remains sporadic. Consequently, there is limited insight into how communities perceive, interpret, and apply these measures in everyday disaster preparedness practices. This study explores earthquake management practices among resident associations and building managers in the selected apartment and flat in Jakarta.

Methods: Using a cross-sectional qualitative design, data were collected through five Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with residents, five in-depth interviews with building managers, and two in-depth interviews with key stakeholders.

Results: The study found that all flats lack formal Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), written earthquake preparedness guidelines, and SLF certification for earthquake-resistant strength, except for one apartment. Government institutional capacity, including FPRB and inter-institutional collaboration, is key to coordinating disaster management, but budgets often prioritize general disaster management over earthquake-specific preparedness. Despite these gaps, residents show good preparedness through prompt evacuation, supported by social networks, though participation varies due to emotional responses. Lack of standardized Earthquake Early Warning System (EEWS) procedures and limited earthquake simulations leave residents largely untrained and evacuation management weak. However, resident association such as neighbourhood units (RT), community units (RW), Tenant Safety Officers (TSOs), P3SRS play an important role in organizing evacuation, coordinating emergency responses, and supporting recovery activities to strengthen earthquake resilience.

Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of empowering Tenant Safety Officers (TSOs) and P3SRS in apartment buildings, and RT/RW in flats to prepare earthquake preparedness standard operating procedures (SOPs) based on guidance from government institutions, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations.

1 Introduction

The heightened vulnerability of developing nations to natural hazards and strong earthquakes stems largely from infrastructural limitations and the transitional nature of their governance systems (Elnashai and Luigi, 2008). Although these risks are well-documented, the long-term societal impacts of catastrophic earthquakes in such regions remain insufficiently explored. Between 1970 and 2022, approximately 33% of all recorded earthquake events occurred in the Asia-Pacific region—a zone characterized by high population density and complex tectonic activity (ESCAP, 2023). In 2023, several countries, including the Philippines, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, and Turkey, suffered some of the deadliest earthquakes of the year, resulting in widespread destruction and substantial loss of life (Livemint, 2023).

Earthquakes occurred frequently in Indonesia due to its location along the Ring of Fire, and they have a devastating impact on human life, especially for citizens in Jakarta City which is densely populated as the capital city of Indonesia. Between January and October 2025, Indonesia recorded 22 earthquake events (Ge oportal Data, 2025). Jakarta has historically experienced five major earthquake in 1,699, 1780, 1834, 1903, and 1997 (Central Bureau of Statistic of Jakarta, 2023). Today, the city’s vulnerability is exacerbated by its dense population of 10, 679, 951 residents, with a population density of 16,084 people per square kilometre (Tjiptorini and Aisyah, 2021), coupled with rapid vertical urbanization. In response to limited land availability and severe traffic congestion, Jakarta has witnessed a significant surge in high-rise construction, including apartments and flats. While these developments address pressing housing and accessibility challenges, their concentration within seismic zones and reliance on structural integrity introduce heightened risks during major earthquakes (Marintan et al., 2024). This convergence of natural hazard exposure, population density, and vertical development underscores the urgent need for earthquake-resilient urban planning in Jakarta.

Vertical housing presents unique challenges for disaster risk reduction (DRR). Evacuation is significantly more difficult in apartments than in single-family homes, especially for residents on higher floors during emergencies such as earthquakes or fires. A major earthquake, for instance, struck Banten in early January 2022 with a magnitude of 6.7, shaking Jakarta and causing widespread panic among apartment residents. Some of whom fled using elevators—a dangerous response during seismic events (Fauzia and Dani, 2022). Globally, the risk is evident: the 2023 earthquake in Turkey destroyed 600,000 apartments (Yildirim, 2024), and similar events in Taiwan also caused severe damage and casualties (Aljazeera, 2025).

Although earthquake-resistant building design is addressed through standards such as SNI 1726:2019, structural safety alone is insufficient for reducing disaster risks in high-rise residences (Sitompul et al., 2024). Human preparedness and organized emergency management are critical components of DRR in vertical housing. It is generally easier to evacuate single-story homes compared to apartments, where constraints like locked emergency exits, congested stairwells, and residents’ lack of knowledge can lead to casualties. Jakarta’s disaster management agencies such as the Fire and Rescue Department and BPBD Jakarta had undertaken earthquake preparedness initiatives, including evacuation drills and safety campaigns for high-rise residents (Fitria et al., 2024). However, the actual implementation of earthquake management practices within apartment complexes depends heavily on the role of the apartment and flat owner-resident associations (P3SRS) and building management teams, who are responsible for enforcing building safety, emergency planning, and coordinating resident response.

Sustainable earthquake disaster risk reduction in apartments and flats requires active community involvement at all stages, as Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) (UNDRR, 2023). Strong social networks support mutual assistance, but resident participation remains uneven, highlighting the need for continuous engagement and education. Most buildings lack standardized SOPs and EEWS procedures, and residents are often untrained due to limited drills. Coordinated efforts among government agencies, building management, and community organizations are essential to implement guidelines, conduct training, and mobilize resources, enhancing preparedness, resilience, and protection in high-density urban settings.

Earthquake resilience practice among apartment and flats’ P3SRS and building management team were influenced by government institutional capacity (policy, fund, guidelines, and SOPs), apartment and flats institutional administrator (SOPs of earthquake preparedness, building strength), practice of earthquake management (pre, at, and post), willingness to be Disaster Preparedness Village, Early Warning System (EWS), and resource mobilization (Figure 1). Supporting earthquake policies and guidelines can increase funding for mitigation efforts. Aligning disaster management actions with clear guidelines and standard operating procedures (SOPs) can improve mitigation effectiveness and strengthen community resilience (Li and Tulsi, 2024). Disaster resilience can be enhanced by developing robust predictive capabilities to assess hazard-induced impacts on the performance of complex structural systems (Mayar et al., 2023). Community-based independent organizations for earthquake disaster management such as P3SRS, SOPs, and building managers can enhance public knowledge about earthquake disasters, create localized disaster maps for vertical housing to identify the safest places to take shelter during an earthquake whether indoors, at work, or outdoors, and determine the nearest safe evacuation sites (Nefianto, 2025). The implementation of EEWS is more effective when integrated into a holistic earthquake mitigation strategy (Fatmah and Sumiaty, 2026). Considering the increasing vulnerability of vertical housing in metropolitan areas and the limited feasibility of short-term earthquake forecasting, EEWS constitute an essential approach to urban disaster risk reduction (Gasparini et al., 2011). The effectiveness of resource mobilization has a substantial influence on the overall level of community resilience to hydro-climatic natural disasters, including droughts and floods [19]. Residents’ knowledge of building codes and structural safety played a key role in shaping their risk perceptions. Apartment owners and renters noted that their belief in the likelihood of an earthquake and their assessment of the building’s safety influenced their decision to live in the apartment (Blake et al., 2021).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of contributing factors on the earthquake resilience practice of apartment’s P3SRS and flat building managers.

International evidence indicates that prior earthquake experience enhances preparedness practices (Phuakniyan and Yusuke, 2022). Similarly, an intervention study in Iran demonstrated significant improvements in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors following earthquake education programs (Amini et al., 2021). Although several studies on earthquake risk in Indonesia have been conducted (Kurnio et al., 2021; Pribadi and Kusumastuti, 2008), issues related to community engagement, behavioral preparedness, and institutional coordination in high-rise residential settings such as apartments and flats remain largely unexamined.

Studies examining factors related to knowledge, awareness, and CBDRR practices among apartment residents in Indonesia particularly in DKI Jakarta remain scarce (Marintan et al., 2024; Fatmah and Sumiaty, 2026; Blake et al., 2021). Existing research on earthquake risk reduction in Indonesia has largely focused on structural safety measures and communities residing in single-family homes, with limited attention given to vertical housing communities such as apartments and dormitories (Mayar et al., 2023; Nefianto, 2025). However, the risks and challenges associated with high-rise living are considerably greater. Evacuation processes in vertical housing are more complex, and residents tend to be less engaged in CBDRR initiatives compared to those living in landed housing neighborhoods. Furthermore, there is a notable lack of awareness and knowledge among apartment residents regarding self-evacuation procedures and participation in collective earthquake preparedness activities.

To date, existing studies have not sufficiently examined the roles of P3SRS administrators and building managers in understanding, coordinating, and implementing earthquake preparedness in Jakarta’s high-rise residential buildings (Marintan et al., 2024; Fatmah and Sumiaty, 2026; Blake et al., 2021). This represents a significant knowledge gap in community-based disaster risk reduction within urban vertical housing settings. Notably, no qualitative research has explored the roles, perceptions, and coordination mechanisms of P3SRS and apartment building managers in promoting earthquake preparedness in such communities. This gap underscores the novelty of the present study, which addresses a critical yet underexplored dimension of urban disaster preparedness.

Addressing this gap is particularly important given Jakarta’s rapidly growing vertical housing population and its exposure to seismic hazards. This study responds to this need by focusing on P3SRS administrators and selected building managers in Jakarta, who are key actors in managing disaster risk in vertical housing. The novelty of this research lies in its examination of their perceptions, preparedness practices, and coordination mechanisms—areas that have not previously been studied in this context.

By providing a comprehensive overview of current earthquake management practices in selected apartment complexes and flats in Jakarta, this study seeks to identify existing challenges, roles, and strategies employed by P3SRS administrators and building managers. The findings are expected to inform policy recommendations and program development for the Jakarta Provincial Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) and other relevant stakeholders. Ultimately, this research aims to strengthen collaborative disaster risk reduction efforts and support communities in disaster-prone urban areas to manage earthquake risks more independently and effectively. Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. Evaluate the earthquake disaster management policies, the allocation and utilization of disaster management funds, and the implementation of earthquake preparedness and response initiatives at the local government level.

2. Assess the perceptions and practices of P3SRS administrators and apartment/flat building managers regarding earthquake management, including the phases of preparedness, emergency response, and post-disaster recovery.

3. Examine the existence and effectiveness of EEWS and the implementation of emergency response plans within selected vertical residential buildings.

4. Analyse the coordination mechanisms and operational capabilities of building managers in managing earthquake-related risks, including communication, resource mobilization, and inter-agency collaboration during emergencies.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study design

This study employed a qualitative cross-sectional design using FGDs and in-depth interviews conducted from 15 to 30 September 2025. These methods were used to obtain comprehensive insights from purposively selected apartment and flat residents in Jakarta City regarding their earthquake management practices. Data were collected using standardized FGD and in-depth interview guidelines. Ethical approval was granted by the Ethics Commission for Health Research and Development (KEPPK) of the Sint Carolus School of Health Sciences (No. 172/KEPPKSTIKSC/IX/2025). All residents provided written informed consent prior to participation.

2.2 Participants

The sample consisted of three distinct groups. The first group comprised residential complexes affiliated with the Apartment Owners and Residents Association (P3SRS) across Jakarta’s four administrative regions: West, East, North, and South. The second group included flats and apartment building managers responsible for the daily management and maintenance of residential facilities. The third group consisted of local government authorities tasked with disaster prevention, along with members of disaster risk reduction forums actively engaged in community-based preparedness initiatives (BPBD Jakarta and FPRB Jakarta).

A total of 37 residents took part in 5 FGDs, representing members of one apartment and three flats management teams and residents from Kalibata City Apartment, Bidara Cina Flat, KS Tubun Flat, Penjaringan Flat, and Pengadegan Flat. In-depth interviews were also conducted with five informants representing one apartment and five flats, as well as two key informants from BPBD Jakarta and FPRB Jakarta, who provided expert insights into earthquake management practices. Residents were recruited using purposive sampling based on the following inclusion criteria: P3SRS association administrators or apartment and flat building managers, and willingness to participate in the study. The sample size was determined according to data saturation principles, whereby recruitment continued until no new information emerged from the data (Charmaz, 2006).

2.3 Qualitative data collection

An interpretivist qualitative case study was conducted to examine earthquake resilience in apartments and flats communities (administrator and manager), with emphasis on institutional capacity and governance contexts through CBDRR approach (Soni et al., 2025). Data were collected through FGD and in-depth interviews. To enhance the trustworthiness of the qualitative data, both source and method triangulation were applied. Source triangulation involved two categories of informants: P3SRS association members and apartment and flat building managers. While method triangulation was achieved by combining FGD with in-depth interviews to obtain comprehensive insights from different participant groups (Charmaz, 2006). Data saturation was achieved through iterative data collection and concurrent NVivo-based coding using purposive or theoretical sampling. Interviews ceased when successive transcripts (typically two to three) produced no new codes or themes, as confirmed through ongoing analysis and reflexive review.

The process was conducted over a predetermined period and followed established ethical and procedural standards. Prior to data collection, coordination meetings were held with the management of the selected apartment buildings and flats to obtain permission and ensure the participation of residents, administrators, and building managers. The research team provided information about the objectives, confidentiality, and voluntary nature of participation. Written informed consent was obtained from all residents before the interviews and FGDs began. All interview instruments were reviewed and evaluated by an experienced qualitative research expert before being implemented in the field to ensure clarity, validity, and relevance to the research objectives.

The FGDs were conducted at five selected locations in Jakarta, namely, Kalibata City Apartment and Pengadegan Flat (South Jakarta), Bidara Cina Flat (East Jakarta), KS Tubun Flat (West Jakarta), and Penjaringan Flat (North Jakarta), except Central Jakarta was not represented due to the flat manager refused to be interviewed. Apartment and flat’s locations were purposively selected to ensure representation of all administrative areas within DKI Jakarta Province, except Central Jakarta due to the unavailability of eligible participants. Each FGD was facilitated by a trained moderator, assisted by a note-taker and an audio recorder to ensure data accuracy. Residents included P3SRS administrators, management team members, and residents. Discussions lasted approximately 120 min and were held in residents’ meeting rooms under relaxed and comfortable conditions and in the afternoon on weekdays or in the morning on weekends.

The in-depth interviews were conducted with apartment and flat building managers, as well as key stakeholders, including representatives from the Jakarta Provincial Disaster Management Agency (BPBD Jakarta) and the Disaster Risk Reduction Forum (FPRB) Jakarta). Interviews took place at convenient locations for the residents and lasted about 60 min for building managers and 45–55 min for key informants. Throughout the data collection process, the research team adhered to confidentiality and ethical standards. All collected data were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and verified for accuracy before analysis.

2.4 Study variables and instruments

The following measures were implemented in the context of the FGD management protocol, encompassing the pre-, during-, and post-earthquake scenarios (Figure 1; Tables 1–3):

• Disaster Preparedness Guidelines in Apartments and Flats (Pre-Earthquake)

• Existence of earthquake preparedness guidelines and their rationale.

• Efforts by building/apartment managers to enhance preparedness for residents and staff (e.g., office boys, security guards, parking attendants, cleaning staff).

• Level of discipline and compliance among residents in following earthquake mitigation measures.

• Barriers and challenges in implementing earthquake preparedness programs.

• Factors that accelerate or support effective implementation of earthquake mitigation strategies.

• Family-Level Preparedness

• Steps taken by apartment residents at the household level to prepare for earthquakes.

• Identification and preparedness measures for earthquake-prone groups within families (e.g., infants, older people, people with disabilities).

• Efforts During an Earthquake

• Actions taken by building management when an earthquake occurs.

• Special measures for vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, nursing mothers, infants, toddlers, older people, and disabled individuals.

• Efforts after an Earthquake

• Post-earthquake measures for ensuring safety and recovery for all residents.

• Additional considerations and support for earthquake-prone or vulnerable groups.

• Emergency Response Plan

• Self-protection actions that Residents must take during an earthquake.

• Evacuation preparations for potential aftershocks or repeat earthquakes.

• Participation in first aid training and evacuation drills.

• Household preparedness for basic needs during emergencies, including:

o Important documents, clothing, cash, and essential family items.

o Alternative communication devices (HT/radio/mobile phone).

o Important contact numbers (hospital, police, fire department, utilities).

• Efforts already undertaken by P3SRS or residents’ associations to strengthen community preparedness.

Table 1

Table 1. Interview questions.

Table 2

Table 2. Themes and sub-themes obtained based on the interviews conducted with the P3SRS and building managers.

Table 3

Table 3. Themes and sub-sub-themes obtained based on the interviews held with the stakeholders.

Earthquake Early Warning System (EEWS)

• Type and form of EEWS implemented in the apartment/flat.

• Reasons for choosing the current EEWS system.

• Sources of earthquake information and alerts.

• Residents’ awareness and understanding of EEWS functionality.

• Perceived effectiveness of EEWS.

• Challenges in EEWS implementation and steps taken to address them.

• Actions taken by residents after receiving earthquake alerts.

Resource Mobilization and Community Capacity

• Availability of earthquake preparedness training and simulation exercises.

• Community strategies to strengthen resilience (e.g., savings, insurance).

• Availability of family, neighbours, or networks willing to assist during earthquakes.

• Willingness of residents to become Disaster Preparedness Cadres (KSB) and reasons for participation or reluctance.

• Interest in and expectations for training programs on disaster preparedness.

• Suggestions for improving disaster preparedness at the community level.

The following base was included in the management of scenarios for in-depth interviews concerning pre-, during-, and post-earthquake:

* Pre-Earthquake (Preparedness Phase)

* Suggestions for improving disaster preparedness at the community level.

* Legal Policies and Guidelines

* Existence of legal frameworks for disaster management in Jakarta (e.g., disaster management organization policies, emergency response action plans, disaster warning systems)

* Implementation status of these policies and regulations.

* Supporting and hindering factors in policy implementation.

* Related policies supporting earthquake preparedness (RTRW, Renstra, SNI).

* Funding for Preparedness

• Existence of allocated budgets for earthquake disaster preparedness in Jakarta.

• Amount of funding and accessibility.

• Challenges in fund utilization.

* Institutional Arrangements and Monitoring

• Presence of permanent and specialized disaster management agencies/units.

• Methods for threat identification, assessment, and monitoring (hazard sources, potential casualties, losses, service disruptions).

• Role of various resource organizations and clarity of tasks in contingency planning.

• Availability of updated resource inventories.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and Regulations

⁃ Availability and implementation of SOPs for:

⁃ Evacuation sites and temporary shelters.

⁃ Checking and maintaining evacuation facilities.

⁃ Provision, storage, and distribution of emergency supplies.

⁃ Disaster warning systems.

Organizational Structure and Socialization

⁃ Availability of disaster management organizations (names, roles, and functions).

⁃ Clear division of tasks and responsibilities (documented in SOPs).

⁃ Socialization/training for members on earthquake SOPs and organizational roles.

Preparedness Infrastructure

⁃ Existence and condition of evacuation sites, hazard maps, evacuation maps, hazard signs, and routes in apartment buildings and flats.

Resources and Facilities

⁃ Dissemination plans for evacuation maps and routes.

⁃ Disaster command posts and hotline information.

⁃ First aid and medical response plans (personnel, equipment, ambulances).

⁃ Search and Rescue (SAR) unit preparedness and SOPs.

⁃ Stockpiling of basic needs (food, water, medicines) and storage locations.

⁃ Procedures for emergency procurement and distribution of supplies.

⁃ Availability of emergency equipment (tents, communal kitchens, toilets).

⁃ Disaster warning technology and information dissemination procedures.

⁃ Community education and training programs for earthquake preparedness.

• During Earthquake (Response Phase)

• Activation of early warning systems and communication to the public.

• Implementation of emergency response action plans.

• Evacuation and sheltering procedures in real-time.

• Coordination among agencies and clarity in task execution.

• First aid, search and rescue deployment, and immediate relief distribution.

• Post-Earthquake (Recovery and Rehabilitation Phase)

• Damage and loss assessment (infrastructure, services, economy).

• Restoration of essential services and social/economic activities.

• Psychosocial support for affected communities.

• Resource replenishment and review of SOP effectiveness.

• Policy review and integration of lessons learned into future planning.

2.5 Data analysis

Data analysis began with the systematic organization of the collected information, followed by the transcription of all recorded discussions and interviews. The transcripts were carefully reviewed multiple times to gain a comprehensive understanding of the dataset and to identify meaningful segments that reflected various dimensions of the phenomenon under investigation. This initial stage of familiarization was followed by an iterative process of conceptualization, classification, and categorization, through which emerging patterns and relationships were identified. These analytical steps led to the formulation of key themes that encapsulated the core findings of the study. The themes were subsequently interpreted in relation to relevant theoretical frameworks to ensure analytical rigor and contextual depth. The entire analysis process was supported by NVivo 12 qualitative data analysis software, which facilitated systematic coding, data organization, and the execution of thematic analysis.

Trustworthiness was ensured through strategies addressing credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility was enhanced through iterative data analysis and regular discussions among the research team to achieve consensus on coding and interpretation. Transferability was supported by providing rich descriptions of the study context, residents, and procedures, and by employing maximum variation sampling to capture diverse perspectives (Creswell, 2009). Data analysis followed Saldaña’s coding principles (Saldana, 2021), codes were systematically developed and defined, relationships among codes were examined, and subthemes and overarching themes were generated through an iterative process. Dependability was strengthened by maintaining an audit trail of analytical decisions, while confirmability was supported through reflexive team discussions to minimize individual bias.

3 Results

The findings of the study are organized into three themes: (1) socio-demography characteristics of residents; (2) theme and sub-theme with local stakeholder; and (3) theme and sub-theme with P3SRS and building managers (Tables 1–3).

3.1 Socio-demographic characteristic

Table 4 summarizes the demographic characteristics of the participants. Ages ranged from 25 to 67 years, with the majority belonging to the productive age group and predominantly male. More than half of the participants had completed secondary education, while the remainder held a master’s degree. Approximately half were unemployed, and the others were employed either as civil servants or in the private sector. Most informants held leadership roles, such as managers of apartment complexes and flats or RT leaders. These demographic characteristics provide important context for interpreting the findings presented in the following sections.

Table 4

Table 4. Demographic characteristics of participants (n = 37).

3.2 Policies, institutional cooperation, and coordination mechanisms

In general, disaster management policies have been implemented for a considerable period through annual simulation exercises, the establishment of Building Emergency Response Task Forces supported by the BPBD, Public Infrastructure and Facilities Handling Units (PPSU), Rapid Response Teams (TRC), and sub-district offices, as well as private sector involvement. These efforts are further supported by the provision of public facilities, warehouses, emergency equipment, and funding for disaster simulations, with a strong emphasis on mitigation. Nevertheless, several challenges remain, including uneven implementation across sub-districts, low levels of disaster awareness among apartment residents, and the absence of a finalized earthquake contingency plan in West Jakarta.

Inter-institutional cooperation has functioned effectively among the Disaster Risk Reduction Forum (FPRB), BPBD Jakarta, the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), and the National Earthquake Center (Pusgen). Each institution plays a distinct role within established coordination mechanisms. FPRB and related agencies are involved across all phases of disaster management, including education and simulation activities in the pre-disaster phase, emergency response during disaster events, and recovery efforts in the post-disaster phase. BPBD serves as the primary coordinating body, supported by the Fire Department, the National Search and Rescue Agency (BASARNAS), and other local government agencies. This collaborative arrangement contributes to strengthening disaster preparedness and enhancing institutional capacity in Jakarta.

This institutional arrangement is reinforced by the Governor’s Decree No. 1245 of 2020, which formally assigns the village head (Lurah) as the person responsible for disaster management at the village level, thereby strengthening local leadership and accountability in disaster preparedness and response.

(Man, BPBD Jakarta)

3.3 Building structure and strength

Knowledge of building codes and structural safety emerged as an important consideration among participants. Both apartment and flats indicated that their perceptions of earthquake risk and their confidence in the building’s structural integrity influenced their decision to occupy the apartment. Overall, participants perceived the structural strength of apartment and flats buildings to be relatively good, as reflected in their reinforced concrete, earthquake-resistant designs. However, certain components, such as tin roofing, were considered fragile. None of the flats possessed a Certificate of Occupancy (Sertifikat Laik Fungsi/SLF), as they only held the Housing Occupancy and Use Designation Letter (SP5) documents, which raised concerns among residents. Building managers indicated that obtaining an SLF requires substantial financial resources. Participants generally agreed that apartment and flat buildings can withstand small earthquakes, typically exhibiting only minor cracks. Nevertheless, uncertainty remained regarding the structural resilience of these buildings during major seismic events exceeding magnitude 7 on the Richter scale. While participants expressed confidence in the reinforced concrete construction, which is designed to maintain stability and minimize damage during earthquakes, doubts persisted about safety under stronger and longer-duration seismic events. In terms of building maintenance, both structural and non-structural assessments have been conducted, including the use of SIJAGAT tool to evaluate schools and multi-story buildings.

If an earthquake like yesterday’s one in the Sunda Strait and Cianjur occurs again, we believe this building is strong enough. The walls only developed minor cracks during yesterday’s quake. However, we are uncertain how it would perform if a stronger earthquake happened in the future.

(Woman at Penjaringan Flat)

It’s not a certificate. The residents here only have an SP5 — that’s the Housing Occupancy and Use Designation Letter. It’s not an ownership certificate yet.

(Man at Bidara Cina Flat)

3.4 Standard operating procedures (SOPs)

Participants from the flats reported the absence of written SOPs for fire or earthquake preparedness issued by either building management or neighborhood administrators (RT). To address this gap, participants had participated in general evacuation simulations organized by the BPBD DKI Jakarta in collaboration with the Search and Rescue (SAR) Team. Security personnel and electrical maintenance officers are on duty 24 h a day to monitor building facilities. In contrast, Kalibata Apartment has established clear earthquake preparedness SOPs, with the management appointing Tenant Safety Officers (TSO) on each floor to assist in evacuating vulnerable groups, including older people, children, and pregnant women, to safe locations during earthquakes. At present, SOPs issued by the DKI Jakarta Regional Government are limited to evacuation routes and assembly point procedures. Moreover, most participants were unaware of the existence of earthquake preparedness SOPs. Nevertheless, they expressed a willingness to be actively involved in the development of such SOPs.

No written disaster preparedness guidelines for fire or earthquake events were available from either the UPRS management or the neighborhood administrators (RT) at the flat.

(Women at Pengadegan Flat)

The simulations exist, but we are not aware of any written documents. If such documents exist, they may have been submitted to the office, but we do not know.

(Man at Penjaringan Flat)

Trained Safety Officers (TSOs) systematically checked each floor and guided residents to evacuate via emergency stairwells, prioritizing vulnerable groups such as older people and young children.

(Man at Kalibata City Apartment)

In the category of SOPs and standards, several key aspects have been identified. First, regarding evacuation procedures, routes, assembly points, and evacuation areas have been established through a Governor’s Decree. However, the absence of specific SOPs for high-rise buildings still creates gaps in preparedness. Second, in terms of building maintenance, both structural and non-structural assessments had been initiated, including the use of SIJAGAT tools to evaluate the safety of schools and multi-story buildings. Third, in relation to warning systems, BPBD Jakarta is optimizing a combination of modern technology and local wisdom, such as the use of loudspeakers, water flow meters, and resident WAG to disseminate emergency information. Additionally, BPBD plays a central role in coordinating logistics within the framework of SOPs and disaster management standards.

3.5 Practices of earthquake management

3.5.1 At pre-earthquake (preparedness and mitigation)

Efforts to improve earthquake preparedness and mitigation in apartments and flats are carried out through regular simulations in collaboration with the DKI Jakarta Fire Department, BNPB, and BPBD Jakarta. For example, the evacuation drills that include evacuation route instructions, guidance on emergency stair use, and reminders not to use elevators during emergencies. Older participants on higher floors are advised to take shelter under tables or near concrete pillars. Information is shared through the integrated service post (posyandu) meetings, posters, and coordination with the Fire Department. Kalibata City Apartment, with a TSO since 2012, assists vulnerable residents such as older people and under-five children during evacuation. All sites have conducted earthquake simulations, led by managers and security staff, teaching residents to avoid elevators and use emergency stairs. Apartments also hold fire and evacuation drills, supported by flyers and preparedness training. Apartment conducts bi-annual training for its emergency response team (TSO), housekeeping, and residents, supported by a P2K3 reporting system and an emergency response board outlining specific evacuation actions

It’s called a general evacuation or simulation, and residents usually take part twice a year. We’ve informed everyone about the procedure for going down from the upper floors to the final exit, how to open the exit door, and where the meeting point is. The meeting point is clearly marked with signs along the emergency staircase route. During the drill, no one is allowed to use the elevator—everyone must use the emergency stairs.

(Man at Kalibata City Apartment)

There was an information session held by the Fire Department, attended by representatives from each floor of the apartment building. Evacuation drill: there are evacuation route instructions on each floor, instructions on how to use the emergency stairs, and not to use the elevator in the event of a fire or earthquake.

(Man at Pengadegan Flat)

Pre-earthquake preparedness at the family level among participants of the four flats remains limited. Most participants only prepare emergency bags containing important documents. At the apartment, one participant had an emergency bag with clothes, mineral water, medicines, and food, which are replaced every 3 months. Two others have document bags with essential certificates. Despite minimal preparation, they show awareness of disaster risks. Some families take preventive actions, such as removing hazardous items and relying on prior disaster experiences, including those from Aceh. Internal family communication during emergencies is maintained through WhatsApp Groups (WAG) and mobile phones. Daily practices also reflect preparedness, such as turning off electric stoves before leaving units, keeping flashlights ready, and storing important documents in easy-to-carry bags.

3.5.2 At emergency response earthquake

During the earthquake, most apartment participants followed management and security officers’ instructions to evacuate via emergency stairs to designated safe assembly points and to avoid elevators. Older people and children were prioritized for evacuation. While participants at flat were instructed to stay calm, take shelter under tables, and return to their units once conditions were safe. At the apartment, management used loudspeakers and alarms in each corridor to alert residents, while the control room broadcasted announcements to prevent panic. The management also coordinated with BPBD Jakarta and BMKG within 20 min to confirm the absence of aftershocks. In contrast, Bidara Cina Flat residents received no guidance from security or management and independently fled to open areas while shouting “earthquake.” After participating in a simulation, participants reported feeling calmer and more confident in responding to future earthquakes.

The panic that people used to feel before is gone now. These days, when there’s an earthquake, it’s more like, ‘Oh, an earthquake?’ So we’re not really surprised anymore. Before we had the training, everyone would just panic and shout, ‘Get out! Get out! Get out!

(Man at Penjaringan Flat)

All apartment and flats participants understood who belonged to earthquake-vulnerable groups, such as under-five children, pregnant women, older people, people with disabilities, and the people with certain disease, as these groups often cannot evacuate independently. Each building kept data on older people residents by floor to facilitate evacuation. During earthquakes, residents or health cadres often carried older people or disabled individuals down emergency stairs to safe areas. KS Tubun Flat and Kalibata City Apartment were equipped with wheelchairs and stretchers for emergency use. Older people residents unable to evacuate were advised to stay near concrete pillars inside their units. Spontaneous rescue efforts were common, showing strong community cooperation. In Kalibata City, TSO officers maintained detailed records of vulnerable residents and prioritized their evacuation, knowing which units housed older individuals living alone, with families, or those who were ill.

Tenant Safety Officers (TSOs) are assigned to each floor with the primary responsibility of identifying and recording residents belonging to vulnerable groups. At a minimum, TSOs are aware of which housing units on their respective floors are occupied by vulnerable individuals.

(Man at Kalibata City Apartment)

3.5.3 At post-earthquake

After confirming there were no aftershocks, apartment managers and neighbourhood association leaders instructed residents via loudspeakers to return to their units calmly, avoiding crowding on stairs and elevators. Vulnerable groups such as children, babies, pregnant women, and older people were assisted by other residents or community leaders to safely return using the elevator. At the apartment, TSO helped residents, including vulnerable groups, return to their units with support from 1–2 floor wardens on each level. Each TSO, serving voluntarily, was responsible for coordinating residents on their designated floor, working together with cleaning staff and security personnel to ensure an orderly and safe return process.

We have TSO officers who are responsible for managing each floor.

(Building manager at Kalibata Apartment)

There was not any specific division of roles during the emergency or after the earthquake, but the residents worked together to help each other. After the earthquake, people helped carry the older people, children, and sick residents back to their units.

(Woman at Pengadegan Flat)

3.6 Resource mobilization practice

Almost all participants said that family-level evacuation planning has not been implemented in most flats, except at apartment where management has prepared evacuation routes, emergency stairs, and assembly points. First aid and evacuation training were conducted by four flats and one apartment in collaboration with the local fire department. Preparations included providing emergency bags, contact numbers, flashlights, and requesting support for earthquake simulations. Only two flats have conducted earthquake evacuation drills with BNPB and BPBD Jakarta, assisted by local neighbourhood leaders (RT). Training materials covered disaster management, water rescue, independent evacuation techniques, and the Jakarta Siaga 112 emergency service. At the apartments, earthquake and fire drills are held three times a year with the Jakarta Fire Department and BPBD. Information on residents’ insurance or savings preparedness is limited, though many likely have BPJS Health insurance due to their lower-middle-class background.

There’s really no preparation, because earthquakes happen so suddenly. I usually just watch the news or TV to learn how to respond. We’re also confused about what kind of preparations we should make, since earthquakes are so unpredictable and irregular

(Building manager at Bidara Cina Flat)

The meeting point is the same for everyone in this apartment building. Each zone—A, B, and C—has its own emergency staircase on every floor, so it’s not far from our units. The evacuation plan itself is provided by the building management.

(Building manager at Kalibata City Apartment)

3.7 Earthquake early warning system (EEWS)

For EEWS, BPBD Jakarta combines modern technology and local wisdom, using loudspeakers, water flow meters, and WAG to share emergency information with residents. EEWS in all flats and apartment complexes relies on WAG and social media such as Instagram. At the apartment, a more advanced system is in place, including automatic sirens on the ground floor and in each corridor, as well as loudspeaker announcements that repeat safety messages. These follow SOPs for emergencies such as storms, earthquakes, fires, and stove safety. Participants can access an internal TV channel (Channel 1) for real-time updates. Pengadegan Flat has an emergency alarm system, but it has never been activated during an earthquake; residents instead receive information via WAG and social media after reaching the ground floor. Three other flat complexes lack a formal EWS, so participants depend on information from RT/RW leaders, television, and the local fire department.

Earthquake information in apartment and flats is first detected through vibrations felt by participants followed by checking updates from BMKG or BNPB via WAG or Instagram. Participants also warn each other by shouting and urging others to evacuate to the assembly point. In Pengadegan Flat, participants found the loudspeaker system ineffective as an early warning tool because they had already evacuated before the announcement began. Instead, the speakers were mainly used to manage crowd movement and remind participants to turn off stoves and other potential hazards before leaving their units.

There is no earthquake early warning system in the flat complex. Residents reported that they have never received any information, socialization, or training related to such a system. As a result, they lack understanding of how an earthquake early warning mechanism works or how to respond when one is activated.

(Man at Bidara Cina Flat)

The main obstacle is that we do not have standard operating procedures (SOPs) yet. Once the SOPs are in place, we can start getting the necessary equipment and tools according to those guidelines. The challenge is that, since this is about earthquakes, we cannot act alone, it involves coordination with other parties.

(Man at KS Tubun Flat)

3.8 Willingness to become a disaster preparedness cadre (KSB)

All public housing and apartment managers stated that residents were willing to serve as Disaster Preparedness Cadres to help ensure community safety. Building managers generally work only during office hours, while Maintenance and Electrical (ME) officers are on duty outside working hours. The head of RT 3 in one public housing complex also expressed readiness to become a cadre and suggested collaboration with the University of Indonesia and BPBD Jakarta to strengthen residents’ preparedness. In apartments, managers rely on the active participation of TSO to promote earthquake mitigation awareness. Registration for new TSO members remains open due to limited numbers. Kalibata City Apartment are also affiliated with MP2KI (Community Concerned with Safety and Fire Prevention) and IFSMA (Indonesian Fire Safety Manager).

Actually, BPBD Jakarta has also made some recommendations. But since we already have TSOs, we’ll just use them and make the most of their role. Still, if there are residents or volunteers who want to register, they’re welcome—we’re open to that. I think we should not only focus on earthquakes, but also on other emergency situations.

(Man at Kalibata City Apartment)

4 Discussion

Earthquake disaster resilience in apartments and flats is shaped by the interaction of residents’ associations (RT, RW, TSO, P3SRS), building managers, and institutional stakeholders. Five key indicators were identified: building and organizational capacity, government institutional capacity, earthquake management practices, EEWS, and resource mobilization. Among these, apartment and flats capacity particularly the presence and effective implementation of SOPs emerged as a critical determinant of preparedness. While routine simulations and the involvement of TSOs indicate formal preparedness, the extent to which these measures translate into consistent resident compliance and adaptive response remains uncertain (Kalibata City Apartment, 2025). To date, the Jakarta Public Housing and Settlement Agency, responsible for public housing in the city, has not developed SOPs or technical guidelines for earthquake preparedness, apart from the Minimum Service Standard for Public Housing (Jakarta Public Housing and Settlement Agency, 2025).

Standard Operating Procedures and systematic earthquake response protocols were absent in four flat buildings, except in cases where general emergency guidelines addressing earthquakes, fires, riots, and bomb threats already existed. Although these guidelines are intended to be distributed to residents during unit handover, their limited scope and inconsistent implementation highlight gaps in preparedness. The absence of building-specific SOPs in high-rise housing is critical, as SOPs are essential for reducing response time, improving coordination among emergency actors, and ensuring structured action to minimize damage and casualties during earthquakes. Effective SOPs provide clear operational guidance across all response phases, while community understanding of emergency protocols substantially contributes to risk reduction (Yang, 2019). In this regard, the establishment of an Earthquake Emergency Plan (EEP) represents a practical strategy for strengthening overall earthquake disaster risk reduction capacity (Qures et al., 2021).

Formal mechanisms such as emergency response plans, SOPs, and systematic earthquake response protocols function as a critical link between technical risk reduction measures and practical preparedness actions by building occupants and managers. The findings suggest that while emergency response plans in residential areas are beginning to emerge, their implementation remains limited. Evacuation practices rely primarily on emergency staircases, reflecting routines shaped by prior flood and fire experiences. However, persistent gaps such as the ad hoc search for emergency contact numbers—indicate the absence of structured, readily accessible information. Consistent with previous studies, prior disaster experience enhances community knowledge and preparedness (Yatnikasari et al., 2020; Nastiti et al., 2021), and similarly, first responders’ experiential learning has been shown to improve disaster response effectiveness (Sofuoglu et al., 2025).

Building strength represents the second component of apartment and flat capacity in this study. Most participants perceived apartment and flat buildings as sufficiently earthquake-resistant, with residents’ understanding of building codes and structural safety strongly shaping their risk perceptions and housing decisions (Blake et al., 2021). However, such perceptions may not fully reflect actual structural performance. Consistent with recent research, disaster resilience should be understood as an anticipatory capacity as much as a function of response and recovery, underscoring the need to strengthen predictive capabilities that can more accurately assess hazard-induced impacts on the performance of complex structural systems (Mayar et al., 2023).

Government institutional capacity plays a critical role in shaping earthquake disaster resilience in apartment buildings and flats. Supportive policies, guidelines, and SOPs can increase funding for mitigation, improve implementation effectiveness, and strengthen community resilience (Li and Tulsi, 2024). Policy instruments operationalize disaster preparedness, emergency response planning, early warning systems, and resource mobilization, including financing, organizational structures, human resources, and critical facilities required during emergencies (Ayuningtyas et al., 2021). However, effective policy implementation depends on the availability of clear operational guidelines. Earthquake resilience can therefore be strengthened through integrated governance that combines robust structural performance prediction, clear institutional frameworks, adequate resource allocation, and the formal integration of community-based organizations into disaster management, particularly in vertical housing contexts.

The findings demonstrate that FPRB and inter-institutional collaboration are central to coordinating disaster management efforts, involving government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and other key stakeholders. While collaborative governance has enabled advances such as fault line mapping for Jakarta and the development of emergency plans, its effectiveness remains uneven and highly dependent on sustained coordination and institutional commitment. Gaps in integration, particularly across policy implementation and operational levels, continue to limit the full potential of institutional capacity to reduce disaster risk (Pujiono Centre, 2022; Babu et al., 2019; Medel et al., 2020; Amil, 2024).

With respect to disaster preparedness financing, budget allocations are generally directed toward overall disaster management rather than earmarked specifically for earthquake preparedness. Available funds are predominantly used for capacity-building activities, such as training and public awareness programs, indicating a limited focus on risk-specific mitigation. Disaster risk financing represents a proactive disaster risk reduction strategy that emphasizes early hazard identification and the pre-arrangement of financial resources to meet community needs during and after disasters (Celestine, 2020). Adequate financial support is therefore a critical enabler of effective community disaster response, with funding typically sourced from government budgets, complemented by private-sector contributions through corporate social responsibility initiatives and community-based donations (Mutiarni et al., 2021).

Earthquake management practices in apartments and flats were relatively strong in the pre-disaster phase, yet overall preparedness remains limited by the absence of formal guidelines and insufficient technical capacity among building managers. As a result, preparedness initiatives tend to be passive and weakly structured, relying heavily on external agencies, while community-based organizations can enhance awareness and localized mapping only when supported by effective institutional coordination (Nefianto, 2025). Strengthening preparedness is therefore critical to proactive disaster risk reduction (Oktari et al., 2025).

The findings indicate that preparedness in apartments and flats is supported by strong social networks; however, resident participation remains uneven, partly due to varied emotional responses during emergencies. Family-level earthquake preparedness was found to be inconsistent: while some households had prepared basic items such as flashlights and emergency contact numbers and prioritized self-rescue and sheltering, most lacked emergency bags containing essential documents, which are critical in post-disaster contexts. This pattern is consistent with evidence from Iran, where household earthquake preparedness remains low (Moez et al., 2020). At the individual level, household preparedness is a key component of disaster risk reduction in earthquake-prone areas (Becker et al., 2012), contributing significantly to loss reduction and community resilience (Wu et al., 2017). Consistent with previous studies, families with prior earthquake experience demonstrated higher levels of preparedness than those without such experience (Shapir et al., 2018; Najafi et al., 2015).

During earthquake events, assistance mechanisms are largely characterized by mutual evacuation efforts, with residents supporting one another and prioritizing vulnerable groups such as children. Strong social cohesion, reflected in solidarity and cooperation, emerged as a key factor in effective emergency response. Social solidarity in permanent residential communities is shaped by shared disaster experiences, common living environments, and religious or community activities (Enjela, 2015; Hasan, 1993). These findings are consistent with evidence from Tehran, where community participation was shown to significantly enhance earthquake preparedness (Jamshidi et al., 2016).

In the post-disaster phase, particular attention is directed toward vulnerable groups requiring additional support during recovery. In flats, community organizations such as RT and RW play a central role in evacuation and post-earthquake assistance, while in apartment buildings similar functions are performed by TSOs. These organizations constitute an important form of social capital, fostering cooperation (guyub) that supports post-earthquake recovery (Agung et al., 2022). Consistent with previous studies, community leaders were also found to be actively involved in housing reconstruction following disasters (Roosli et al., 2017). The findings further indicate that Disaster Preparedness Cadres (KSB), comprising members of community organizations, have the potential to strengthen earthquake disaster risk reduction by improving residents’ knowledge of evacuation and self-rescue procedures. However, their effectiveness remains constrained by limited capacity, underscoring the need for sustained support and guidance from BPBD Jakarta.

Apartment and flats buildings generally lack standardized EEWS procedures and written SOPs, resulting in inconsistent warning mechanisms and weak evacuation management. Existing systems rely mainly on loudspeakers, WAG, and mobile phones, with limited use of alarm sirens, and post-earthquake actions remain largely uncoordinated. Given the growing vulnerability of vertical housing and the limited feasibility of short-term earthquake forecasting, EEWS are a critical element of urban disaster risk reduction and structural mitigation, including the potential integration of local wisdom–based warning systems such as kentongan and kulkul into formal frameworks (Gasparini et al., 2011; Nadifah et al., 2024; Masroer, 2020; Siagamin, 2025).

Resources mobilization such as preparedness and mitigation efforts in apartment buildings remain limited, as earthquake simulations have yet to be conducted, leaving residents largely untrained for real events. Existing drills are primarily fire-focused and involve only selected representatives, while resident responses during earthquakes remain variable, highlighting the need for continuous education, training, and improvements in preparedness facilities. Resource mobilization is a key determinant of community resilience to hydro-climatic hazards, including droughts and floods (Muzari and Ezra, 2024), and education plays a critical role in raising social awareness and providing essential information for effective earthquake preparedness (Coban and Yuksel, 2022).

5 Conclusion

The study found that all flat buildings did not yet have formal SOPs, written earthquake preparedness guidelines, SLF certification for earthquake-resistant strength, except an apartment that already have such documents. Government institutional capacity, including FPRB and inter-institutional collaboration, is central to coordinating disaster management, yet budget allocations often target overall disaster management rather than earthquake-specific preparedness.

Despite these structural and institutional gaps, residents generally show good earthquake preparedness, as reflected in their prompt evacuation via emergency stairways and designated routes to assembly points during seismic events. Preparedness in apartment and flats is supported by strong social networks. However, resident participation remains uneven, partly due to varied emotional responses during emergencies. During earthquake events, assistance is largely based on mutual evacuation efforts, with residents supporting one another and prioritizing vulnerable groups such as children. In the post-disaster phase, these vulnerable groups continue to receive targeted support to facilitate recovery, highlighting the role of social cohesion in effective disaster response.

Apartment and flat buildings generally lack standardized EEWS procedures, resulting in inconsistent warnings and weak evacuation management. Resource mobilization and mitigation efforts are limited, as earthquake simulations have not been conducted, leaving residents largely untrained for real events. To strengthen earthquake disaster resilience, BPBD Jakarta and FPRB should develop standardized evacuation protocols and conduct regular training, while flats management should establish Disaster Preparedness Cadres (KSB), install alarm sirens, and hold bi-annual earthquake simulations. Effective coordination among government agencies, building management, and resident associations is essential to implement guidelines, drills, and community training, enhancing preparedness and protecting residents in high-density, earthquake-prone urban settings.

The study offers several insights relevant to dense urban areas with vertical housing. Standardized SOPs and EEWS procedures are essential to ensure consistent and effective disaster response, while institutional coordination among government agencies, building management, and community organizations is critical for implementing preparedness measures and resource mobilization. Strong social networks support mutual assistance, but resident participation varies, highlighting the need for continuous education, engagement, and regular drills. Integrating formal and community-based early warning systems, addressing the needs of vulnerable groups, and allocating dedicated funding for earthquake-specific mitigation further strengthen community resilience and disaster preparedness in high-density urban settings.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Ethics Commission for Health Research and Development (KEPPK) of the Sint Carolus School of Health Sciences (No. 172/KEPPKSTIKSC/IX/2025). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

FF: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. IF: Writing – review and editing. LG: Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the University of Indonesia through the PUTI Q1 Scopus Grant (2025).

Acknowledgements

The authors also thank the participants, P3SRS, and building managers of the selected apartment and flats in Jakarta City for their active participation and valuable assistance during the study.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. I used Generative AI in the preparation of the manuscript.

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