River transition: a Costa Rica and Honduras comparative analysis of water quality and community management stages in river basins

This article explores the potential existence of a conceptual “River Transition Curve” model in water quality and community-based river management, using Costa Rica and Honduras as case studies. It draws parallels to the well-established Forest Transition Curve, which describes how forest cover changes over socio-economic development stages: initial deforestation, stabilization, and eventual reforestation. It is proposed that a similar pattern may exist for rivers, linking water quality and river health to economic development and land use change. Therefore, understanding the temporal evolution of rivers, comparable to forest transitions, could inform more effective watershed management policies. In the context of Central America, rivers face significant degradation due to pollution, overexploitation, deforestation, climate change, and infrastructure modifications like channelization. This study characterized water quality in the Liberia River (Costa Rica) and Tela watersheds (Honduras), identifying key management challenges. Furthermore, it conducted citizen perception sounding surveys on water management and held water education workshops in schools and communities within these watersheds. The results indicated chronic fecal contamination in all rivers studied in Honduras and Costa Rica, extending to coastal zones. This finding underscores the need for enhanced wastewater infrastructure management and stricter enforcement of water quality standards to protect environmental and community health. Surveys and workshops suggested that targeted water education significantly enhances community knowledge and empowerment, which are critical drivers for improved participatory water governance. Rather than proposing direct policy prescriptions, this study offers conceptual and empirical insights to inform future policy development and support more integrated and sustainable water governance in the region. It also highlights the need for further validation of the proposed river transition curve and emphasizes the importance of community engagement and water education for the protection of river ecosystems in Central America.

1 Introduction

The concept of “riverhood” means “the state of being a river” (Boelens et al., 2022) and can be interpreted as the river’s optimal natural state, although the term is increasingly being used to estimate the way rivers and societies function together as a socio-natural system (Tubino de Souza et al., 2025; Boelens, 2022). The riverhood of a river, in relation to its environmental condition, would include not only physicochemical and ecological parameters but also an assessment of river evolution from a perspective beyond utilitarian value, seeing rivers as living systems with ecological and cultural roles. These socio-natural systems started when Swyngedouw (2004) proposed the hydro-social cycle to describe how water is simultaneously natural and social, and Ostrom (2007, 2009) defined the Socio-Ecological Systems (SES) as a conceptual framework to describe how humans and nature form a single, integrated, and mutually interdependent systems. Subsequently, several authors, especially Sivapalan et al. (2011), proposed to combine water and society research approaches into a “socio-hydrology” new paradigm, considering it as an interdisciplinary approach to study coupled human-water systems. Human activities (supply, urbanization, agricultural use, hydraulic infrastructure, flood management, etc.) modify the water cycle, and in turn, changes in the water cycle influence social organization, infrastructures, management strategies, etc. This bidirectional feedback aims to model water-society co-evolution. Thus, it allows predicting the dynamics of the water-society system but integrating the social dimension and hydrology. Sivapalan et al. (2011) also proposed three main avenues of inquiry, historical socio-hydrology (learning from the past), comparative socio-hydrology (comparative analysis of human-water interactions across socio-economic gradients, as well as climatic and other gradients) and process socio-hydrology which aims to understand human-water system functions in the present to be able to predict possible trajectories in the future. With this last approach, the authors seek to provide water studies with a more realistic predictive capacity in societies that increasingly modify the environment.

Based on the concepts of socio-hydrology and riverhood, this article explores the possibility of outlining a temporal model of river degradation and recovery (River Transition Curve, see Figure 1) that could serve as a basis for policymaking. It is based on the concept of the Forest Transition Curve, a widely used theoretical model in forest policy (Mather, 1992; Mather and Needle, 1998), which describes the changes in forest cover of a territory over time as a function of socioeconomic development and land-use changes. The analysis is based on the “riverhood” (river’s natural integrity), which begins to degrade as a country enters its process of economic development, and which can later be partially restored through the involvement of local riverine communities in the improvement and/or recovery of that “riverhood” into watersheds in Central America. Furthermore, with the aim of proposing a socio-hydrological model, the three dimensions previously mentioned (Sivapalan et al., 2011) are taken into consideration. In the field of historical socio-hydrology, a joint evolutionary scenario (river-social and economic development) over time is proposed based on Di Baldassarre et al. (2013). These authors proposed a conceptualization of historical human-flood systems, by developing a conceptual model that incorporated both social and hydrological variables over time. Related to process socio-hydrology, four theoretical evolutionary phases are proposed for the river transition curve (river non-disturbed, river at the beginning of economic development, river starting its recovery and river evolving towards its new “riverhood”). This four phases model takes Kandasamy et al. (2014) as a reference when they analyzed the dynamics in the Murrumbidgee River basin (Australia) to illustrate a century of four “pendulum swing” phases between intensive agricultural development and environmental degradation. And in relation to comparative socio-hydrology, two basins in different countries of Central America (Costa Rica and Honduras) with different levels of economic and social development (Table 1), are compared. This approach is similar to the study of Wolfersberger et al. (2015), who compared forest transition and land-use change in 57 sub-basins of developing countries observed over four time periods, or Elshafei et al. (2015) in two sub-basins in the Lake Toolibin catchment in West Australia’s wheatbelt region. The proposed conceptual river transition curve would be framed by both the level of development in a territory, according to the Kuznets Curve (Kuznets, 1955) and adapted to the environment by the concept of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) (Grossman and Krueger, 1991); and the stage of the forest transition curve in the watershed where the river is located. Thus, the river transition would be framed by the forestry environmental condition of the basin, and the economic and urban development of the territory. In this conceptual model, we envision three key stages plus a final state of new riverhood (Figure 1):

Figure 1

Figure 1. Conceptual model of forest/river transition curve. The process begins with high forest cover in pre-industrial societies (river non-disturbed), followed by accelerated deforestation due to population growth and economic expansion (river at the beginning of economic development). Deforestation stabilizes as fertile land becomes scarce (river starting its recovery), eventually giving way to forest recovery driven by economic shifts, sustainable practices, and conservation policies (river evolving towards its new “riverhood”). X axe represents the level of economic and social development in time units (years). Y axe represents the level of naturalness of the river, (riverhood) where 100% represents the optimal achievable grade (starting point). Y decreases both in the water and forest transition curves reflecting the processes of the Kuznets curve at the territorial level, up to a certain point where naturalness of forests and rivers start to recover achieving a new riverhood.

Table 1

Table 1. Comparison of development indicators between Honduras and Costa Rica.

● Deforestation phase and initial deterioration of water quality, alongside the onset of irregular water flow due to reduced forest infiltration and water release capacity.

● Stabilization and urbanization phase, typical of countries entering a phase of economic growth. During this stage, deforestation peaks, leaving behind small forest “islands” that gain value as water providers. This phase is often accompanied by severe river pollution from waste and the morphological degradation of rivers (loss of their natural “riverhood”) due to channelization and damming.

● Recovery phase, which is accessible only given the sufficient strengthening of environmental awareness and local community capacities, reflected in the consistent prioritization of water education across all phases, and the establishment of effective governance, defined here as state territorial control. Under these conditions, the implementation of watershed reforestation, particularly the integrated restoration of forest ecosystems and hydrological regimes (enhanced through the rehabilitation of key riparian ecosystems, including mangroves, wetlands, and gallery forests), offers a pathway to reverse certain detrimental legacies accumulated during transitional periods.

The river transition curve suggests that there is a stage of degradation during which appropriate restoration measures for a river’s riverhood are lacking, while the country also lacks the economic resources necessary for restoration. If it is the case, it becomes essential to adopt recovery strategies that, instead of relying on costly technologies, promote attitudinal change among riverine populations. To address this, we propose two strategies aimed at reducing the “riverhood gap” experienced by rivers in developing territories: citizen participation and water education. In the domain of participation, we analyze social perceptions in relation to a country’s level of development, drawing on two case studies with similar climatic and ecological characteristics (Honduras and Costa Rica) but differing levels of development, as shown in Table 1. All development indicators are consistently higher in the case of Costa Rica.

This study aims to propose community-based river management and educational strategies tailored to different stages of national development, framed by the proposed conceptual river transition curve. The proposal is structured around foundational considerations: a concise overview of the state of water resources in Central America; the introduction and theoretical adaptation of the forest transition curve to conceptualize a parallel, hypothetical river transition curve; an assessment of current water education initiatives and citizen engagement in river stewardship across Central America, focusing on Costa Rica and Honduras; and a description of the river basins selected for analysis in each country. Following this contextual framework, the research is structured around three key components: the analysis of hydrological parameters in both basins, comparative surveys conducted among local populations, and the implementation of pilot water education workshops in each study area. The integration of these components enables us to suggest the river transition hypothesis and to introduce targeted recovery strategies aimed at achieving a conceptualized state of “riverhood”, a postulated endpoint of sustainable equilibrium between river systems and local communities. Water resources in Central America are essential for the region’s socioeconomic development, social well-being, and environmental sustainability (CEPAL, 2018). Central America has an approximate population of 45.1 million people, 59% of whom live in urban areas (World Bank, 2024). The growing demographic concentration creates significant pressure on water resources, which faces the challenge of sustainably supplying the population while preserving aquatic ecosystems. Although the region has abundant water sources, it still struggles with access, especially in rural areas. The state of rivers in Central America presents common issues such as pollution, overexploitation, water scarcity, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and the fragmentation and channeling of river courses (ACCH, 2023). At the same time, climate change vulnerability adds another layer of challenge to regional development, making it essential to manage water more efficiently to mitigate the social, economic, and environmental impacts of this phenomenon (GWP, 2024). If the evolution of Central American rivers, and by extension those in other developing countries, follow a pattern of water quality degradation followed by recovery in relation to income level and development stage, then clear guidelines could be developed for both governmental and community-based water management. This would also help clarify the distribution of responsibilities among different stakeholders and highlight the key points where citizen education should focus in relation to river systems. In this sense, although water management faces significant challenges in various Central American countries, even in those with abundant water reserves, such as our study countries (ACCH, 2023). Costa Rica has high per capita water availability, as well as relatively developed infrastructure and a more robust regulatory framework (Table 1). However, there are still limitations in access to potable water in rural areas, especially regarding wastewater treatment and sanitation (AyA, 2010). In contrast, Honduras, despite having important water resources, faces greater difficulties in water management and distribution, along with high levels of pollution, which worsens water insecurity and public health risks (GWP, 2024; ACCH, 2023).

Water education is thus a key element for citizen awareness and participation. It can be defined as the process of transferring knowledge about the environmental state and the physicochemical and biological properties of rivers in a simple and accessible way. This education should be introduced in schools so that residents can take responsibility for the care of their rivers and watersheds, thereby contributing to a healthier and more sustainable environment (Navarro and Martinez, 2023). Several studies have documented the use of participatory workshops and active methodologies as key strategies for fostering educational innovation in rural communities worldwide (Missingham, 2013; Sims and Sinclair, 2008; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020). These educational tools are especially effective in promoting contextualized learning, community participation, and the development of relevant competencies among students. Additionally, their successful implementation requires teacher training, inter-institutional collaboration, and strengthening local capacities. In the Latin American context, these strategies have been widely applied in environmental education initiatives and community-based river management (Shahady and Boniface, 2018; Llano-Arias, 2015; Rodríguez-Martínez and Arias-Castro, 2021).

This community-based river management can be defined as the essential practice that enables local communities to manage and protect their water resources (Ballestero, 2015), especially in rural areas where government coverage is limited. Water supply under this management model has proven effective in ensuring access to potable water and protecting water resources, particularly in rural communities. It is estimated that in Latin America there are approximately 145,000 Community Organizations for Water and Sanitation Systems (OCSAS), providing water to about 70 million rural inhabitants (CLOCSAS, 2022). In Central America, OCSAS supplies water to more than 15 million people, which represents over 37% of the region’s total population. These organizations are responsible for the construction, operation, and maintenance of water and sanitation systems, adapting to local needs and promoting active community participation (Acosta et al., 2019). Therefore, the OCSAS fulfills a triple function: providing potable water to marginalized communities, promoting community organization and participation in resource management, and raising awareness about the importance of water conservation.

The involvement of communities in the active monitoring of their natural resources is a strategy known in the literature as citizen science, which represents a powerful tool for addressing conservation challenges by strengthening both scientific knowledge and public engagement (Cooper et al., 2021). Its implementation not only contributes to generating valuable data for environmental management but also fosters collective action and community commitment to natural resource protection. It includes various levels of involvement, ranging from symbolic forms of participation (such as providing information or being consulted), to higher levels such as collaboration, co-creation of knowledge, and citizen empowerment (Haklay, 2013; Shirk et al., 2012). To maximize its impact, it is essential for citizen science project designs to align with scientific needs and varying degrees of community participation, promoting effective and sustainable collaboration between communities and scientists, and advancing toward more equitable forms of environmental governance (Arnstein, 1969; McKinley et al., 2017; Jacquin et al., 2023; Sebes et al., 2022; Bustos, 2023).

Therefore, this study aims to address aspects of water management and citizen participation in Central America, focusing on the cases of Costa Rica and Honduras. First, it characterizes and analyzes water quality in two watersheds from these countries: the Liberia River in Costa Rica and the watersheds of Tela in Honduras. Second, it evaluates how water education and citizen participation may influence the improvement of watershed management in Central America. This is explored through citizen perception sounding surveys on water management and community participation. Additionally, water education workshops were held in schools and communities within these watersheds to increase knowledge of river ecosystems and promote community empowerment in water management. Finally, trends in community water governance are described, and recommendations are suggested, within the conceptual framework of the suggested river transition curve hypothesis.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study areas

The study was conducted in two Central American countries, Costa Rica and Honduras, over a four-year period from 2020 to 2023. Specifically, in the province of Guanacaste in the North Pacific of Costa Rica (Figure 2) and in the department of Tela on the Northern Caribbean coast of Honduras (Figure 3).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Study area and sampling locations within the sub-basins of Costa Rica (Liberia, Blanco and Sardinal River sub-basins).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Study area and sampling locations within the sub-basins of Honduras (Lancetilla, Bañaderos/La Esperanza and Highland Creek River watersheds).

Costa Rica stands out in the region for its high coverage of access to potable water (96%). The Costa Rican Institute of Aqueducts and Sewerage (AyA) is the main governing body of water and sanitation management, but it has delegated functions to other entities, such as the Heredia Public Services Company (ESPH), municipalities, and the Administrative Associations of Aqueducts and Sewerage Systems (ASADAS) (Asamblea Legislativa de la República de Costa Rica, 1961). These ASADAS, known throughout Latin America as Community-Based Water and Sanitation Service Organizations (OCSAS), manage 1,890 aqueducts and supply water to approximately 30% of the Costa Rican population (Avina Foundation, 2021; AyA, 2010). Despite the country’s wide water service coverage, significant gaps in potabilization, disinfection, and water quality monitoring have been identified depending on the operator, canton, and province (Mora-Alvarado & Portuguez-Barquero, 2020). Regarding sanitation, 76.9% of the population is connected to septic tanks, 21.1% to sanitary sewers, 1.6% to another type of system, and 0.4% has no system at all (GWP, 2024). However, only 14% of the population has access to both sewer and wastewater treatment (AyA, 2016), which creates an environmental challenge for surface water bodies. Between 70% and 96% of domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastewater (depending on the source) is not properly treated before being discharged into rivers, significantly contributing to their pollution (Herrera-Murillo et al., 2021). Despite its ecological image, many rivers in Costa Rica are polluted, with the Tárcoles River being the most affected in Central America due to industrial waste and sewage. Furthermore, intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers, especially nitrogen, deteriorates water quality and promotes eutrophication of water bodies (Hearne and Madrigal-Ballestero, 2024).

The study was conducted in three watersheds within Guanacaste Province (Costa Rica): Liberia River, Blanco River, and Sardinal River watersheds (Figure 2). The Liberia River watershed (81,693 inhabitants) is in the Northern Pacific Region of Costa Rica. Typically, rain begins to fall in May and June, with a decrease in rainfall in July. The rainy season resumes from August to November, with September and October being the rainiest months. The average yearly precipitation is 1,585 mm, and the temperature is 27.8 °C. The topography and geological conditions in the Liberia River watershed result in intermittent hydrology for most of its tributaries. However, the Liberia River’s flow is anthropogenically regulated and maintained year-round through water transfers from neighboring highland watersheds. In its middle section, the river supplies approximately 40% of Liberia City’s water demand and serves as the receiving water body for two local wastewater treatment plants (CAIS-Liberia and AyA-Liberia) (Golcher-Benavides, 2018). Water samples were collected from 8 sampling points along a longitudinal gradient, ranging from the river headwaters (presumed to represent a low-impact baseline) to the mid-reaches. This spatial distribution was designed to assess and, where possible, detect both anthropogenic and natural impacts on the water body (see Figure 2 for the geographical coordinates of each sampling point). Sampling was conducted over a four-year period (2020–2023) during both the dry (December–April) and rainy (May–November) seasons to capture potential seasonal and interannual variability. The sampling frequency for these 8 points varied across the study period due to meteorological constraints (which occasionally prevented safe field access) and logistical challenges. However, a minimum of one sampling event per season was consistently maintained at each site. On each sampling day, water collection was performed synchronously across all points. Sampling proceeded sequentially, beginning at the uppermost headwater site and concluding at the most downstream points within the study area. The annual sampling campaigns were distributed as follows: in 2020, 2 campaigns were conducted (1 in rainy season in July and 1 in dry season in December); in 2021, 5 campaigns took place (3 during the rainy season in June, August, and October, and 2 during the dry season in February and December); in 2022, 5 campaigns were carried out (3 in rainy season in June, September, and October, and 2 in dry season in March and November); and in 2023, 3 campaigns were completed (1 in rainy season in September and 2 in dry season in February and April). The Blanco River watershed in La Fortuna de Bagaces (3,166 inhabitants) is located within the Holdridge life zone classification system, corresponding mainly to the Tropical Dry Forest or Premontane Dry Forest zone (Holdridge, 1971), given its elevations ranging from 200 to 850 meters above sea level and its climatic pattern with a marked dry season and annual precipitation between 1,300 and 2,000 mm. In this altitudinal and rainfall range, the estimated average annual temperature (24-28 °C) and rainfall regime fit the definition of this life zone, characterized by prolonged dry periods and vegetation adapted to these conditions. These climatic and altitudinal ranges, combined with the presence of a well-defined hydrographic network dominated by the Blanco River and secondary tributaries, make this site a representative setting for the analysis of hydrological, ecological, and agricultural processes specific to northwestern Costa Rica. Water sampling was conducted at one site near the Adolfo Berger Faerron School in La Fortuna de Bagaces (Figure 2) in July 2023. This activity was performed in collaboration with the school as a component of the water education workshops (Section 2.4). Sampling employed a participatory approach with children and parents to evaluate water quality through microbiological analysis. The Sardinal River watershed (20,480 inhabitants), located in the canton of Carrillo, province of Guanacaste, covers an area characterized by the tropical climate of Costa Rica’s North Pacific region, with a dry season extending from December to April and a rainy season from May to November. The average annual temperature is within the typical range of tropical zones in Guanacaste, ranging from 24 to 28 °C. The Sardinal River watershed is a representative area for hydrological, hydraulic, and risk management studies in the conditions of the Costa Rican North Pacific. Water sampling was conducted in July 2023 at one site near the communities of Nuevo Colon, Sardinal (Figure 2), as part of the water education workshops outlined in Section 2.4. The sampling was performed collaboratively with community children, families, and staff from the ASADA of Nuevo Colón, employing a participatory approach.

In Honduras, potable water coverage is around 89%, but service quality is inadequate and affects public health safety. Approximately 90% of water supply is intermittent; only 44% receives effective chlorination, and there is no monitoring or control system for water quality. Consequently, waterborne diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and the second cause of infant mortality (GWP, 2024). The General Water Law (Congreso Nacional de la República de Honduras, 2009) and the Framework Law for the Potable Water and Sanitation Sector (Congreso Nacional de la República de Honduras, 2003) guarantee water administration as well as service accessibility and affordability. However, there is a lack of water quality control, storage infrastructure, and flow regulation, so the country’s potable water demand is unmet (GWP, 2024). River Basin Councils have been formed as local bodies for water resource management, but they lack funding and training to work toward sustainability (GWP, 2024). Regarding sanitation, only 25.68% of the population has infrastructure, and most services are delivered through latrine systems (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). The main issue for rivers in Honduras is pollution. However, the country does not carry out regular water quality monitoring. The Choluteca, Chamelecón, and Ulúa rivers are among the most severely contaminated, receiving untreated wastewater from cities like Tegucigalpa and the Valle de Sula, industrial waste, agrochemicals used or manufactured in the basins, and solid waste and sediment dumped along the riverbanks (Ponce de Montoya, 2015; COSUDE−EPFL−OPS−CESCCO, 1992; Díaz et al., 2022). Additionally, deforestation and forest fires have caused a loss of vegetation cover, especially in watersheds like the Merendón River, which has increased sedimentation and water quality deterioration (O’Callaghan and Kelly-Quinn, 2009). Likewise, agriculture, mining, and extractive activities pollute rivers with heavy metals and other toxic chemicals, endangering both biodiversity and the health of local communities.

The study was conducted in three watersheds within the municipality of Tela (Honduras, 39,920 inhabitants): Lancetilla, Bañaderos/La Esperanza, and Highland Creek basins (Figure 3). The municipality of Tela has a population of 110,000 inhabitants, of which 58,000 reside in urban areas, with the remainder constituting the rural population The Lancetilla River watershed covers an area of 3500 hectares of great ecological importance in the region and plays a vital role in the local ecosystem, providing water for agriculture and human consumption. The basin is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna and includes the Lancetilla Botanical Garden, a national benchmark for biodiversity conservation (UNACIFOR, 2023). The Lancetilla River originates in the Nombre de Dios mountain range, is fed by 13 different streams, and spans a total length of 10.5 km until it reaches the sea (House and Midence, 2007). The Bañaderos/La Esperanza River watershed covers an area of 6520 hectares and is primarily drained by the La Esperanza River, which is 9.5 km long. It also has several tributaries and seasonal streams and flows into the Tornabé Lagoon (Ponce de Montoya, 2015) The Highland Creek basin covers an area of 2960 hectares and is economically significant as local communities engage in both intensive and extensive livestock farming here. A large portion of the basin is deforested due to various causes, including banana companies and human settlements. The Highland Creek River originates in the southern part of the municipality, runs 7.5 km, and discharges into the ocean. It has two main tributaries: Piedras Gordas and El Cedro. Water samples were collected from 8 sampling points along the Bañaderos/La Esperanza and Lancetilla rivers and from 9 points along the Highland Creek River, encompassing a longitudinal gradient from the headwaters (assumed to represent a low-pollution baseline, sampling points 0 or 1) to the river mouths (points 6 and/or 7). This spatial design was implemented to assess and detect both potential anthropogenic and natural impacts on the water bodies. Additionally, samples were collected in coastal waters approximately 500 meters from each river mouth (point 8) (see Figure 3 for the geographical coordinates of all sampling points). Sampling was conducted over three consecutive years (2021, 2022, and 2023) during both the dry (December–April) and rainy (May–November) seasons to capture seasonal and interannual variability. Each of the 8–9 points per river was sampled once per season. On a given sampling day, all points for a single river were sampled concurrently, following a sequential upstream-to-downstream order. All rivers were sampled within the same week, with one river surveyed per day.

2.2 Water quality analysis

Analyses of total and fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli) concentrations have been performed to assess water pollution from anthropogenic sources. E. coli is widely recognized as a reliable indicator of fecal contamination in water due to its exclusive presence in the intestines of warm-blooded animals (Edberg et al., 2000). Its detection suggests the potential presence of enteric pathogens, making it a critical parameter in microbial water quality assessments (WHO, 2022). In contrast, total coliforms, which include E. coli along with other genera such as Klebsiella and Enterobacter, serve as general indicators of sanitary quality but lack specificity for fecal contamination, as some members can persist in environmental waters (Leclerc et al., 2001). While total coliforms may signal overall microbial pollution, E. coli remains the definitive indicator of recent fecal contamination and associated health risks (Ashbolt et al., 2001).

As outlined in Section 2.1, water samples were collected from all designated sites in the Liberia, Banco and Sardinal rivers (Costa Rica) and the Bañaderos/La Esperanza, Lancetilla, and Highland Creek rivers (Honduras) at the established frequency. Water samples for microbiological analysis were collected aseptically in 250 mL sterile opaque containing bottles, preserved at 0-4 °C in the dark during transport, and analysed within 6–8 hours of collection, with field blanks and duplicates included for quality control. The presence of total coliform bacteria and E. coli was determined using two methodological approaches. In the Tela watersheds (Honduras) and in the Blanco and Sardinal rivers (Costa Rica), the presence of bacteria was determined using the specific MC-Media Pad^® EC detection medium (Merk) and incubated for 24 hours at 37°C. In the Liberia River, the presence of bacteria was assessed using the Colilert^® defined substrate method (IDEXX Laboratories, Westbrook, ME), following Standard Methods 9223 B (APHA et al., 2017). A 100 mL water sample was mixed with Colilert^® reagent and sealed in a Quanti-Tray^®/2000 using a Quanti-Tray Sealer, in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Trays were incubated at 37 ± 0.5 °C for 24 hours. After incubation, trays were examined under ambient light and UV illumination (366 nm).

Descriptive calculations (means and standard deviations) and analysis of variance followed by Tukey’s post hoc test were conducted to assess the existence of significant differences between the bacteria concentrations according to the year, river, season and watershed areas. All analyses were performed using the statistical software Jamovi, version 2.6.44.

2.3 Citizen perception: an exploration on the river transition hypothesis

This research employs a comparative survey methodology justified by three pillars of literature. The selection of distinct study sites (Honduras and Costa Rica) is informed by Bruyneel and Kull’s (2022) analysis of how context shapes human-nature interactions. The use of a questionnaire to capture these interactions follows the established psychological metrics of Clayton and Myers (2015). Lastly, the comparative design itself is supported by Larson et al. (2019), who confirm its utility for analyzing how environmental perceptions vary across cultures and geographies.

To explore the citizens’ social perception in the context of river transition of the surface water bodies in the communities of Tela (Honduras) and Liberia (Costa Rica), a sounding questionnaire was designed and implemented. It was completed electronically (via Google Forms) during the period of September–October 2024 (Tela) and October–November 2024 (Liberia). The questionnaire was applied to adult men and women who had lived in the community for more than one year. This exploration aimed to have a primary cross-cultural comparison of perceptions and relationships with water among different regions of Central America. Also, the exploratory nature of this survey is suited for characterizing complex and understudied topics like the river transition hypothesis.

Given the study’s focus on engaging hard-to-reach populations (e.g., rural communities with variable institutional ties), a hybrid digital snowball sampling approach was employed, combining chain-referral methods with WhatsApp, based dissemination, a platform widely adopted in Central America for community organizing (Salganik, 2018; Baltar and Brunet, 2012). Key informants were identified through partnerships with local stakeholders like OCSAS (ASADAs in Costa Rica, River Basin Councils in Honduras) and grassroots groups (e.g., “Observatorio Ciudadano del Agua en el Río Liberia” OCA-Río Liberia). Seed subjects meeting inclusion criteria (≥1 year residency; direct interaction with local water sources) were selected. To mitigate network homophily bias, sociodemographic diversity (age, sex, occupation) was prioritized. The survey (Google Forms) was disseminated via pre-existing WhatsApp groups (e.g., water committees, agricultural cooperatives) by these participants, who facilitated chain-referral propagation. In areas with limited digital access (e.g., remote parts of Tela), paper surveys were distributed through local leaders, maintaining the snowball logic. Recruitment ceased upon reaching theoretical saturation (no new themes in responses), yielding 67 respondents in Liberia (Costa Rica) and 97 in Tela (Honduras). The questionnaire is shown in the supplementary materials (Table 1).

The questionnaire consisted of four main sections:

1. General Information: gathered data on the respondent’s neighborhood or community of residence, length of residency, occupation, and educational level.

2. Water Body Usage and Knowledge: inquired about visitation habits and basic biophysical knowledge of the water body.

3. Perception of River Condition: asked about the perceived state of the river from both an organoleptic (sensory) and social perspective (e.g., associated dangers or risks).

4. Responsibility and Participation: explored the perceived personal responsibility for the river’s condition and individual involvement in conservation or restoration efforts. It also assessed perceptions of traditional recovery actions (e.g., clean-up campaigns, reforestation, awareness programs) and the perceived role of competent institutions responsible for water, environmental, and land management. Questions on existing water-related conflicts were also included.

2.4 Water education workshops

The planning of interactive workshops was conducted in collaboration with Water Associations, Committees, and local schools in both Costa Rica and Honduras, as well as with the Water Citizen Observatory group OCA-Río Liberia, in Costa Rica. School selection was conducted via a participatory consultation process with the Water Associations Committees, which provided formal and voluntary consent for their involvement. An explicit inclusion criterion required that the selected educational centers be located in proximity to a river or stream. The target population consisted of children aged 5 to 14 years. The overarching objective of these workshops was to foster community-based collaboration by raising awareness and strengthening fundamental hydrological knowledge among participants, while simultaneously underscoring the pivotal role of grassroots organizations in advancing sustainable water governance and ecosystem management.

During the years 2022, 2023, and 2024, a series of interactive workshops were implemented to engage target populations. Workshops were adapted to the students’ level of prior knowledge and to the materials available in each context. The methodological process was structured into four main phases:

1. Introduction and conceptual framework: Each workshop began with an educational segment, providing an initial explanation of the water cycle and its common disturbances. An interactive introductory lecture was delivered to present and explain fundamental hydrological concepts, focusing on the water cycle and water quality. This session served both to conduct an initial assessment of participants’ knowledge and to provide the theoretical foundation required for the subsequent activities.

2. Experimental component (fieldwork): This foundational knowledge was reinforced through hands-on, practical activities conducted directly in the river environment. Participants engaged in a field visit to a nearby stream, where they conducted practical activities including flow measurement and water velocity assessment following Turnipseed and Sauer (2010). They also collected water samples for subsequent microbiological analysis and participated in interactive games designed to illustrate the physicochemical properties of water. Furthermore, systematic sampling of benthic macroinvertebrates was carried out (Springer, 2010; Hanson et al., 2010), a key indicator of aquatic ecosystem health. Following these field-based activities, children and youth transitioned to experimental stations, where they learned to identify the collected macroinvertebrates using the Vásquez et al. (2010a, 2010b) guide and assessed water quality based on biotic indices. Simultaneously, they conducted practical water quality analyses utilizing MC-Media Pad^® technology for the detection of fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli.

3. School-Based Laboratory activities: Classrooms in participating schools were adapted to function as temporary laboratories, equipped with the necessary materials to carry out the planned exercises. Stereoscopes and magnifying glasses were provided for macroinvertebrate observations, and recyclable materials were used to construct homemade rain gauges, fostering an understanding of hydrological monitoring. Students were divided into three subgroups to conduct experimental activities, including rain gauge construction and microbiological testing with MC-Media Pad^® EC detection medium (Merk). These hands-on experiments provided tangible tools for observing local precipitation and reinforced the connection between scientific concepts and the students’ immediate environment.

4. Final Evaluation and Knowledge Assessment: The concluding phase consisted of each subgroup reporting its procedures and outcomes to the rest of the participants, followed by a participatory evaluation of the workshops. This stage was tailored to the heterogeneity of age groups (5–14 years) and included a structured feedback session. Participants reflected the knowledge acquired, enabling both qualitative assessment of learning outcomes and reinforcement of key hydrological concepts.

In Costa Rica, two workshops were conducted in the Sardinal river watershed in the communities of Artola and Nuevo Colón. Workshops were primarily aimed at children aged 5 to 14 years from the community of Sardinal. A total of 30 participants attended, accompanied by their parents. The workshops were organized in collaboration with the corresponding local ASADA. Another workshop was performed in the Blanco River watershed in the community of Fortuna, Bagaces, where the local ASADA, the elementary local school and the National Bank of Costa Rica collaborate in the organization, logistic of the activity. In total, 32 children from 5 to 12 years of age participated.

Additionally, since 2022, diverse capacity-building activities have been implemented in collaboration with the OCA-Río Liberia community-based group. These include river clean up campaigns, riparian reforestation programs, effective microorganism (EM) mud ball, macroinvertebrate-based water quality monitoring, and related participatory interventions. Workshops are conducted regularly to sustain these efforts.

In Honduras, workshops were systematically implemented in rural school settings on an annual basis, within the communities of Lancetilla (Lancetilla River) and La Esperanza (Bañaderos/La Esperanza River). The consistent participant pool consisted of 85 students aged 5–14 years.

3 Results

3.1 Water quality analysis

The data indicate chronic fecal contamination in all three rivers studied in Honduras, with the Lancetilla and Highland Creek rivers being the most severely affected (Figure 4). The Highland Creek River showed significantly higher concentrations of total coliforms and E. coli (p < 0.05), followed by the Lancetilla River and the Bañaderos/La Esperanza River, which had the lowest concentrations. No significant differences were found in bacterial concentrations among the sampled years (2021 to 2023, p > 0.05) or between the rainy and dry seasons (p > 0.05). However, significant differences were observed in relation to the basin section, with the highest concentrations of total coliforms and E. coli occurring in the lower basin (river mouths, p < 0.01). No significant differences were found between the upper and mid-basin sections (p > 0.05).

Figure 4

Figure 4. Concentrations of total coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli (colony-forming units UFC/mL) in the studied rivers of Honduras. (A) Bañaderos/La Esperanza River: Sampling points are shown in Figure 3 and extend from the river headwaters (1-BL) to the river mouth discharging into the sea (6-BL and 7-BL; 8-BL would be within the marine environment). (B) Highland Creek River: Sampling points are shown in Figure 3 and extend from the river headwaters (0-HC and 1-HC1) to the river mouth discharging into the sea (6-HC; 7-HC and 8-HC would be within the marine environment). (C) Lancetilla River: Sampling points are shown in Figure 3 and extend from the river headwaters (1-LAN) to the river mouth discharging into the sea (7-LAN; 8-LAN would be within the marine environment). Asterisk and star symbols denote concentrations exceeding 500 CFU/ml of total coliforms and E. coli, respectively.

The Highland Creek River consistently exhibited extremely high E. coli concentrations (>500 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL, reaching up to 7×10³ CFU/mL at sampling point 6-HC (Figure 4B), corresponding to the river’s discharge into the sea (Figure 3). The Bañaderos/La Esperanza River showed the highest E. coli concentrations (143 CFU/mL) at points 6-BL and 7-BL (Figure 4A), which coincided with its outflow into the Tornabé coastal lagoon (Figure 3). Similarly, the Lancetilla River recorded peak E. coli levels at sampling points 6-LAN, 7-LAN, and 8-LAN (Figure 4C), corresponding to its discharge zone near Tela’s coastal beach (Figure 3). Regarding the coastal water sampling sites (7-HC, 8-HC, 8-BL, and 8-LAN), elevated concentrations of total coliforms (273 CFU/mL) and E. coli (68 CFU/mL) were observed at distances of 500–600 m from the river mouths. While these concentrations were lower than those found directly at the discharge points, they still exceeded the established limits for recreational water quality. The measured E. coli concentrations systematically exceeded Honduran regulatory limits: 0 CFU/mL for drinking water, 10 CFU/mL for recreational/agricultural use (SERNA, 2001), and 50 CFU/mL for wastewater discharges (SERNA, 1996).

At the Liberia River site (Figure 5), high spatial and temporal variability was observed in total coliform and E. coli concentrations between 2020 and 2023. Across the eight sampling points (1-LIB to 8-LIB), several measurements exceeded the method’s upper detection limit (>500 CFU/mL) for total coliforms, as indicated by asterisks. These high values were recorded in all study years and were significantly most frequent (p<0.01) at downstream sites (mid-basin section), particularly from 4-LIB to 8-LIB. E. coli levels also exceeded 500 CFU/mL in some samples, though less frequent than total coliforms. Significantly higher values of E. coli concentrations were also found in the mid-basin sections (p<0.01) compared to the upper sections. Both indicators were consistently detected across most sampling points, indicating persistent fecal contamination in the river. The years 2020 and 2021 showed a significantly greater density of elevated values of total coliforms (p<0.001), especially at 5-LIB and 6-LIB, suggesting an intensification of contamination sources during this period. However, no significant differences in E. coli concentration (p>0.05) were observed across all years. The spatial pattern suggests a significant progressive increase in microbial concentrations from upstream (1-LIB and 2-LIB) to midstream and downstream sections (p<0.01). This trend may be associated with point or non-point pollution sources, likely linked to urban runoff, agricultural activities, or insufficient sanitation infrastructure in the Liberia urban area. Overall, the data indicate that microbial contamination in the Liberia River arises from both diffuse and point sources, with no significant improvement over the study period. This stagnation suggests either a lack of effective mitigation strategies or that implemented measures are insufficient. From a public health standpoint, these microbial loads represent considerable risk, especially given the river’s potential for recreation, agriculture, or water supply. The observed values exceeded the thresholds established for Class A water bodies intended for primary contact recreation (MINAE & Ministry of Health, 2007).

Figure 5

Figure 5. Concentrations of total coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli (colony-forming units UFC/mL) in the Liberia River (Costa Rica): Sampling points are shown in Figure 2 and extend from the river headwaters (1-Lib) to the middle section of the Liberia river basin (8-Lib) monitoring the upper-middle section of the river basin. Asterisk and star symbols denote concentrations exceedi ng 500 CFU/ml of total coliforms and E. coli, respectively.

3.2 Citizen perception: an exploration on the river transition hypothesis

Analysis suggest distinct socio-ecological relationships with local rivers between these communities (Table 2). In Liberia, river engagement was characterized by predominantly recreational use (20.9%), with only 6% reporting economic activities. Moreover, Tela demonstrated diversified river-dependence: recreational use (58.8%) and fishing (3.1%) constituted vital livelihood dimensions (Figure 6); plus 16.5% of respondents reporting economic activities related to the river. This economic divergence manifested in visitation patterns (Table 2), where Tela residents reported significantly higher visitation rates (70.1%) compared to Liberia’s (46.4%).

Table 2

Table 2. Empirical indicators generated from questionnaire responses in river basin communities of Liberia (Costa Rica) and Tela (Honduras) and its relationship with the stages of the river transition curve.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Distribution of river visitation purposes by activity type in Tela (Honduras) and Liberia (Costa Rica).

Hydrological knowledge systems further distinguished these communities. When queried about river source locations and discharge points, Liberia responded to have visited the upper river basin (41.8%) whereas Tela respondents were fewer (12.4%). Nonetheless, Tela residents demonstrated superior spatial awareness of source locations and river mouth discharge points (78% and 80% accuracy respectively) versus Liberia counterparts (65% and 67%). This knowledge gap correlated with physical engagement: barriers to upper basin access cited disinterest (30.9% in Honduras and 35.8% in Costa Rica) and terrain constraints (27.8%, in Honduras, 8.9%, in Costa Rica) limiting access in both sites, while insecurity concerns emerged exclusively in Liberia (7.5%, Table 2).

Perceptual analyses revealed contrasting environmental assessments. Liberia residents predominantly described rivers as “polluted” or “dirty” (79.1% in Liberia and 14.5% in Tela), emphasizing urban impacts. In Liberia, respondents rated the impact of solid waste as 5.8 on average (on a scale of 1 -non-relevant- to 10 -highly relevant-), whereas in Tela, the average rating was 4.6 (Figure 7A). The perceived impact of wastewater was rated higher in Liberia (6.3/10) than in Tela (4.8/10). Survey responses from Tela exhibited greater perceptual diversity regarding river health (Figure 7B), with a significant subset describing rivers as ‘healthy’ or ‘very healthy’ (17.5% in Tela versus 6% in Liberia); however, persistent concerns emerged about anthropogenic pressures, particularly deforestation and livestock ranching (Table 2).

Figure 7

Figure 7. Local community perceptions of river environmental conditions categorized by stressor type and visual indicators in Tela (Honduras) and Liberia (Costa Rica). (A) Perceptions of the local impact were measured from 1 (non-relevant) to 10 (highly relevant). (B) Distribution of perceived river characteristics: water odor, water chromaticity, riparian vegetation presence, and solid waste accumulation (assessed on a scale from Optimal: no solid waste to Deficient: excessive accumulation).

Risk perceptions differed substantially between study sites (Table 2). Respondents in Liberia reported significantly higher levels of concern regarding safety risks (40.3% versus 3.1% in Tela), particularly associated with disease vectors (mean concern: 7.1/10 versus 4.6/10 in Tela, 10-point scale), physical violence, sexual violence, and drug trafficking operations. Data analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between age, river contact frequency, and environmental degradation awareness. Older individuals and frequent river users exhibit heightened perception of ecological deterioration. This relationship achieved statistical significance in Tela (p<0.05), confirming that advanced age correlates with increased pollution awareness. While Liberia showed a similar directional trend, the association was marginally non-significant (p=0.09), indicating a weaker but still positive relationship between age and environmental consciousness.

Civic engagement patterns reflected institutional expectations. Both communities reported minimal citizen audit implication (Tela: 4.2%%; Liberia: 13.4%), yet collective actions were more abundant (Figure 8). Tela and Liberia respondents involvement emphasized community-oriented practices (mainly cleanups: 37.0% for Tela respondents and 41.1% for Liberia´s). Institutional trust in river stewardship is generally low (Table 2); however, Liberia demonstrates higher expectations of governmental responsibility, showing moderate trust levels (mean score: 5/10), compared to Tela’s lower trust valuation (3/10). Figure 9 shows how overall, Costa Ricans have stronger public expectations of state-led conservation obligations than Hondurans. This civic divergence extended to conflict awareness, where Liberia reported more recognized river-related disputes (19.4% versus 3.1% in Tela, Table 2), potentially indicating either heightened consciousness or greater institutional transparency.

Figure 8

Figure 8. Categorization of citizen-implemented river restoration actions in Tela (Honduras) and Liberia (Costa Rica). Other actions include sharing information on social media, avoiding littering, and discussing appropriate river behavior with peers.

Figure 9

Figure 9. Perceived institutional reliability in river governance systems among Tela (Honduras) and Liberia (Costa Rica). Scale: 1 = minimum, 10 = maximum trust.

The cultural embeddedness of rivers manifested most distinctly in nutritional practices. In Tela, 22% consumed river-sourced proteins (fish), signifying enduring biocultural connections absent in Liberia (1.2%, Table 2). This subsistence relationship is inversely correlated with environmental information-sharing networks in Tela, where 3.1% reported disseminating environmental knowledge versus 20.9% in Liberia.

Comparative analysis suggests distinct community-river relationships between Tela and Liberia (Table 2). Tela demonstrates a more direct and active engagement, characterized by extensive geographical knowledge of the river (including its headwaters and outflow), higher reliance on subsistence practices (notably food consumption), and frequent recreational/subsistence use (Table 2). This community exhibits greater involvement in river-related economic activities (tourism, agriculture) and implements diverse local initiatives (educational programs, cleanups, and formal complaints). While residents express predominantly positive or mixed perceptions of river health (e.g., “regular” or “healthy”), significant non-response rates indicate institutional misinformation or weak governance frameworks. Conversely, Liberia displays a more critical perspective, with residents uniformly describing the river as “dirty” or “polluted” (Table 2). Despite lower visitation frequency, minimal subsistence use, and limited economic dependence, this community exhibits heightened awareness of ecological degradation and social conflicts. Strong institutional expectations, particularly toward municipal authorities, coexist with passive individual actions and low community participation. Residents emphasize institutional accountability for river management, yet this contrasts sharply with their limited direct involvement in remediation efforts.

3.3 Water education workshops

Annual workshops have been conducted in schools and communities across Tela (Honduras) and Guanacaste (Costa Rica). Each year, these sessions were delivered to 80–100 students. The implementation proved highly effective, yielding significant benefits for both educators and participants.

The activity served as a hands-on learning experience, which not only raised environmental awareness among students, but also engaged teachers, parents and accompanying adults, fostering dialogue and community reflection on the importance of protecting water resources and improving local sanitation practices. As part of workshop activities, microbiological water quality analyses were conducted in rivers adjacent to all participating schools (Blanco River and Sardinal River in Costa Rica; Lancetilla River and Bañaderos/La Esperanza River in Honduras). All sites exhibited critically elevated contamination levels, with total coliform counts exceeding 500 CFU/mL, indicating severe organic contamination, while the elevated concentrations of E. coli (50–200 CFU/mL) at these sites confirms recent fecal contamination. These findings raise significant public health concerns, as children regularly engage in recreational bathing activities in these waterways.

Post-intervention assessments revealed that most children correctly answered all questions following theoretical and practical instruction, demonstrating successful knowledge retention. The workshops fostered heightened awareness among students regarding water quality and water pollution as an environmental challenge. Participants exhibited sustained interest in the subject, expressing a desire for further learning opportunities. Schoolteachers unanimously evaluated the workshops as highly productive and valuable. Moreover, they reported extended impact beyond the classroom, with key messages reaching students’ families. Educators formally requested annual repetition of the initiative and proposed integrating selected activities into regular curricula and they emphasized the need for additional training support from program facilitators. Overall project evaluation by all stakeholders was very favorable, with strong consensus on the program’s merit and expressed commitment to its continuation.

This process further reinforced the social capital of local OCSAS, equipping them to fulfill statutory mandates on participatory governance. By engaging in these educational initiatives, the organizations not only enhanced their public visibility but also solidified their role in water conservation advocacy, a critical shift, given their frequent characterization as entities limited to water supply provision. Concurrently, faculty at the National Autonomous University of Honduras (UNAH), Tela Campus, assessed the environmental education exchange and training experience as highly constructive. This collaboration has initiated a “Water Guardians” program targeting basic education students in upper and middle reaches of the Tela watersheds (Honduras). Furthermore, in Costa Rica these experiences provided the foundation for the formulation of the AQUALAB project, which is an educational project that strengthens STEAM (Science Technology Engineering, Arts and Mathematics) skills from early ages through an integral, interdisciplinary, and contextualized approach. It engages teachers, students, and families in collective knowledge-building and critical thinking, enriching curricula and teaching practices in hydrological education. The initiative also promotes equity by supporting vulnerable communities and linking academic training with real-world needs to ensure sustainability. Currently is being implemented by HIDROCEC-UNA (National University of Costa Rica) in collaboration with the regional STEAM commission of the Ministry of Public Education of Costa Rica. This initiative reflects the translation of experiential learning into institutional innovation, strengthening the integration of hydrological education within broader STEAM frameworks, and fostering sustainable engagement with local communities.

The workshops constitute transferable pilot programming featuring replicable design, contextual adaptability, and scalability potential for basin communities throughout Central America.

4 Discussion

Chronic and persistent fecal contamination of surface waters represents a critical public health and ecological challenge in Central America, with significant implications for coastal ecosystems. The Liberia River (Costa Rica) and the 3 rivers in Tela, Honduras (notably the Highland Creek and Lancetilla rivers), exemplify this issue, though distinct contamination pathways and magnitudes.The spatial distribution of microbial contamination in the Liberia River (Costa Rica) reveals critical insights into the influence of point and diffuse pollution sources across the sub-basin. Notably, sampling point 4-LIB, located downstream from the discharge of the CAIS (Liberia prison) wastewater treatment plant, consistently exhibited elevated concentrations of both total coliforms and E. coli, frequently exceeding the upper detection limit (>500 CFU/mL). This pattern strongly suggests a direct microbial impact from the institutional effluent, highlighting the need for improved treatment performance and monitoring of such point sources. Furthermore, the highest levels of microbial contamination were detected at 8-LIB, the flow measurement point situated at the outlet of the sub-basin. This site integrates the cumulative impact of all upstream contributions, including discharges from the municipal wastewater treatment plant. The persistent detection of fecal indicator bacteria at this site, and the frequent exceedance of the Costa Rican regulatory thresholds for Class 1 surface waters intended for primary contact (MINAE & Ministry of Health, 2007), raise significant concerns regarding water safety for potential recreational or downstream uses. These results underscore the need for more robust management of wastewater infrastructure and stricter enforcement of water quality standards to protect both ecological and human health.

In Honduras, the contamination exhibited a statistically significant spatial pattern, with peak bacterial concentrations (p < 0.01) consistently measured at river mouths and in adjacent coastal waters (500–600 m offshore), surpassing in all cases the limits established by regulatory standards (SERNA, 2001). This pronounced downstream accumulation suggests the integrating effect of multiple upstream pollution sources (agricultural wastewater and deficient sanitation) along the longitudinal gradient. Elevated fecal bacterial inputs in coastal waters, as documented in this study, are correlated with nutrient loading and constitute significant drivers of Caribbean coral reef degradation (Souter et al., 2022). Concurrently, these conditions pose substantial risks to coastal communities and tourism economies, as elevated E. coli concentrations significantly increase incidence of waterborne gastroenteritis (Kong et al., 2025).

Another difference between the countries lies in the observed temporal trends. In Honduras, no significant interannual (2021-2023) or seasonal variations (rainy vs. dry season) in bacterial concentrations were detected (p>0.05), indicating a stable, year-round contamination pressure. Conversely, the Liberia River exhibited significant interannual variability for total coliforms, with a higher density of extreme values (>500 CFU/mL) in 2020 and 2021 (p<0.001). This suggests a possible transient intensification of contamination sources during that period, though E. coli levels did not follow the same significant trend across years.

The lack of significant improvement over the study period in all the basins studied point to the ineffectiveness or insufficiency of current mitigation measures. This stagnation represents a considerable and ongoing public health risk, necessitating urgent, targeted interventions informed by the specific spatial and temporal contamination patterns identified for each river. The integration of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) could contribute to improving water quality and offer cost-effective alternatives in vulnerable regions (Bernhardt et al., 2019). Constructed wetlands, riparian buffer zones, and decentralized green infrastructure can effectively reduce pathogen transport from both urban and rural areas before reaching the main river channel (WWAP, 2018). In particular, restoring and conserving vegetated riparian corridors upstream and adjacent to major point discharges, such as those from the Liberia prison facility and the municipal wastewater treatment plant, may significantly reduce microbial inputs and enhance the river’s self-purification capacity.

Additionally, strengthening the involving of local communities in water quality monitoring through Water Citizen Observatory group (OCA-Rio Liberia) and watershed stewardship programs can enhance early detection of pollution hotspots and foster long-term resilience of the river systems. In LatinAmérica several authors have explored water quality management through community engagement. Alvarado-Arias et al. (2023) have explored citizen ´s social perception of several rivers using a cartographic approach linked to participation through GIS software, and the SolVES (Social Values for Ecosystem Service) tool based on surveys integrating social perceptions with spatial-environmental variables in the surroundings of an urban river section. Alvarado-Arias et al. (2025) use this method to develop a participatory governance of urban rivers based on “citizen science”. That is to involve the community not as a passive recipient of policies, but as an active actor in the evaluation, monitoring, valuation and management of their water bodies and to present a theoretical and methodological framework for urban water management, so that the complexity of the “hydro-social” territory were recognized. Shahady and Boniface (2018) proved Community-based monitoring in Costa Rica as crucial for assessing river water quality. Blanco et al. (2019) showed how citizen science initiatives were able to provide low-cost, georeferenced data to support watershed management. Mena-Rivera et al. (2017, 2018) integrated assessments combining chemical, microbiological, and biological indicators reveal severe degradation linked to urban discharges, and IWA (2023) studied how rural aqueduct committees (ASADAS/CAARs) further highlighted both the strengths and challenges of local water governance. In Costa Rica, Kuzdas et al. (2014) evaluated the sustainability of the water governance regime in our study region of Guanacaste, pointing weak regulatory institutions and unclear legal frameworks, which create gaps in responsibility and difficulties in controlling pollution and regulating water use, deficiencies in leadership and in establishing collective goals, which hinder joint planning and effective water-education processes and little integration of downstream rural communities and weak coordination between local and regional actors. In Honduras we could not find any relevant literature of our study area analyzing governance, which is consistent with the hypothesis of the river transition curve, as Honduras basin is in a previous stage of the transition curve and no system of participated governance has been yet established.

The environmental education workshops conducted in Honduras and Costa Rica successfully incorporated playful and participatory methods that fostered reflection, trust, and a strong connection to the real-life contexts of students and their parents. These workshops proved useful in identifying risk practices and promoting the search for solutions, particularly in relation to the environmental degradation of water resources in local rivers (Cabrera Cruz et al., 2018). The detection of critically elevated microbiological contamination levels in rivers near participating schools underscores the urgent need to improve water quality through sustainable management strategies and community engagement. Children’s routine exposure to fecal-contaminated water poses a serious public health risk (WHO, 2022) and highlights the importance of integrating environmental education into school curricula. The positive outcomes observed in both Costa Rica and Honduras underscore the potential of experiential, community-engaged environmental education as a catalyst for behavioural change in water resource protection. The workshops effectively combined scientific content with participatory methodologies, enabling students to connect theory with their immediate environmental reality. This finding aligns with broader evidence indicating that hands-on, place-based approaches are particularly effective in enhancing environmental literacy and fostering pro-environmental behaviours among youth (Ardoin et al., 2020; Ballantyne and Packer, 2009). Furthermore, the active involvement of parents and community members extended the educational impact beyond school settings, fostering intergenerational learning and community dialogue, an essential component in building water governance capacity at the local level (UNESCO, 2020; McCaffrey and Pearson, 2019). The documented knowledge retention and growing student interest post-intervention, demonstrate how early and sustained engagement can increase environmental awareness and potentially foster long-term stewardship. Given the program’s adaptability, cost-efficiency, and positive reception by educators, its replication across other watersheds in Central America, could serve as a strategic step toward inclusive water security, environmental justice, and community resilience (Mezirow, 2000; Scott, 2013).

A preliminary conceptual comparison of the Tela (Honduras) and Liberia (Costa Rica) watersheds, suggests that divergent human-river relationships may underpin comparably severe pollution levels. Rather than indicating a need for uniform remediation policies, this similarity in outcome might mask fundamentally different socio-hydrological contexts. Initial observations from water assessments and stakeholder engagements tentatively propose a distinction: the Tela watershed may retain elements of resource dependency now threatened by rural land-use changes, whereas the Liberia watershed appears to reflect a more urbanized disconnection, where rivers are transitioning from subsistence resources to contested recreational spaces. This tentative interpretation could point toward a contrast between territorially integrated (Honduras) and functionally fragmented (Costa Rica) river relationships, illustrating how varied development trajectories might differentially reshape human-hydrological connections. Such a potential divergence would underscore the value of diagnostic governance frameworks attuned to watershed-specific socio-ecological histories (Boelens et al., 2016).

As a conceptual exercise, Table 3 outlines the proposed river transition curve (Figure 1), its hypothesized causes, effects, and potential recovery measures aligned with different stages. Within this conceptual model, the Tela watershed could be tentatively positioned in an early transition phase (Phase 1–2 of Table 3 and Figure 1). This suggestion is based on the premise that persistent biocultural linkages, such as fishing practices and local ecological knowledge, may be acting as buffers against governance deficiencies, a dynamic resonating with Ahlborg and Nightingale’s (2018) concept of “hybrid governance”. If validated through further socio-hydrological modelling, strategic interventions here could focus on formalizing grassroots initiatives through participatory councils and adaptive co-management (Ostrom, 2009) to prevent further socio-ecological decoupling. The Liberia watershed could be preliminarily conceptualized in an intermediate transitional stage (Phase 2–3 of Table 3 and Figure 1), characterized by urban disconnection, greater institutional reliance without proportional community mobilization. Its proposed restoration pathway would consequently emphasize rebuilding communal bonds through citizen science (Conrad and Hilchey, 2011) while leveraging existing institutional capacity for regulatory enforcement.

Table 3

Table 3. Proposed causes, effects, and recovery measures according to the conceptual river transition stages.

This differential conceptual positioning highlights the framework’s potential diagnostic value, suggesting that social parameters, alongside ecological metrics, could be critical for policy efficacy. If validated through further socio-hydrological modelling, such an approach could enable policymakers to prioritize investments more efficiently, as suggested in the phase-adaptive measures proposed in Table 3. The concept of “riverhood” (Boelens et al., 2022) is proposed as a conceptual endpoint for river transition, not a return to wilderness, but a prospective equilibrium where managed rivers sustainably support coupled human and ecological needs. Therefore, effective river restoration in Central America may require acknowledging transitional socio-ecosystem diversity through dedicated socio-hydrological frameworks.

While extensive validation across heterogeneous watersheds remains essential, the proposed conceptual socio-hydrological framework provides a preliminary approach for contextualizing and informing river rehabilitation strategies.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for the study involving human samples in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements as the study had obtained all necessary approvals from the internal regulatory bodies of Universidad Nacional of Costa Rica and Universidad Nacional Autónoma of Honduras; these bodies govern and authorize the execution of social outreach and research projects conducted in collaboration with external institutions. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin.

Author contributions

NN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AS-S: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CG: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. PF: Data curation, Writing – review & editing. PM: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Validation.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The authors declare that this study was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (Spain) within the framework of the project “PID2023-148547NB-I00 Assessment of coastal ecosystems and their services on the northern coast of Honduras: an integrated approach (HONDECAS)” and the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Spain), under the project “M3333 Evaluación del estado de los ecosistemas costeros y sus servicios en el norte de Honduras (HONDMARES)”. In Costa Rica this study was supported by the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica within the framework of the projects “0577-21 Fortalecimiento de la gestión del agua de las Federaciones, Liga y Uniones de la Región Chorotega (FLUS Chorotega) para el mejoramiento de la gobernanza del agua en la región” and “0104-22 Fortalecimiento de capacidades de los Observatorios Ciudadanos del Agua como mecanismo de empoderamiento ciudadano para la recuperación de los ríos interurbanos mediante la conjunción de la ciencia ciudadana, el intercambio de saberes y la gestión del riesgo de desastres en la Región Chorotega (OCAs-Chorotega)”.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend sincere appreciation to collaborating institutions in both study regions: In Honduras, the Josefa Lastiri de Morazán and Manuel Bonilla educational centers (Tela), Lancetilla Botanical Garden and Research Center (JBCIL), and Tela Municipal Water Directorate (DIMATELA); in Costa Rica, the Adolfo Berger Faerrón School (Bagaces), ASADA Fortuna of Bagaces and ASADA of Nuevo Colón.

Conflict of interest

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The author NN declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

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