Unveiling a legacy of fish introductions to mountain lakes using historical records and eDNA surveys in a National Park

Samuel J Brenkman^1*Jeffrey J. Duda²Rebecca McCaffery³Katie E. Kierczynski⁴Marshal Hoy⁵Trevor J Kumec⁶William Baccus⁴Caren S Goldberg⁷Carl O Ostberg⁵Steven Fradkin⁴

• ¹Four Peaks Environmental Science & Data Solutions LLC, Wenatchee, United States
• ²US Geological Survey, Western Fisheries Research Center, Seattle, United States
• ³US Geological Survey Fort Collins Science Center, Fort Collins, United States
• ⁴National Park Service - Olympic National Park, Port Angeles, United States
• ⁵US Geological Survey Western Fisheries Research Center, Seattle, United States
• ⁶Resource Environmental Solutions, Sacramento, United States
• ⁷US Geological Survey Pacific Northwest Environmental DNA Laboratory, Boise, United States

Across the western United States, introductions of non-native fish into historically fishless mountain lakes have impacted native biota. Understanding the impacts of fish introductions is essential for conservation in Olympic National Park, a Biosphere Reserve. We reconstructed fish plantings using records dating back to 1930, followed by environmental DNA (eDNA) surveys to estimate the current distribution of fish and amphibians in 117 remote mountain lakes. We used Bayesian multiscale occupancy models to determine how lake attributes and planting history related to fish and amphibian occupancy. The most frequently detected species were Brook Trout, Rainbow Trout, Cascades Frog, and Northwestern Salamander. eDNA sampling revealed 52 lakes with amphibians only, 45 with fish and amphibians, 14 with fish only, and 6 unoccupied. Of the 53 lakes with planting records, 38 had fish eDNA detected. Fish eDNA was also detected in 21 lakes lacking planting records, which could reflect incomplete records, unauthorized plantings, and false positive detections. Of the three species planted, Cutthroat Trout had the highest failure rate and did not become established in 23 of 28 historically planted lakes. In a subset of 9 lakes sampled for up to 7 years, those with known fish and amphibian presence showed consistent eDNA detections over time. The number of times a lake was stocked was the best predictor of occupancy for Brook and Rainbow trout, while higher occupancy for Brook Trout was also associated with lower elevations, lower solar radiation, and larger lake area. We did not observe widespread negative associations between amphibian occupancy and fish presence, although there was a negative relationship between fish presence and Rough-skinned Newt and Long-toed Salamander occupancy. Cascades Frog occupancy showed no relationship to fish presence or lake traits. Our results suggest mechanisms of fish persistence over time and highlight areas where native amphibians are impacted by introduced fish. These results can guide management options like targeted fish removals that benefit native fauna while still supporting recreational fishing. More broadly, our work demonstrates the value of combining historical records with contemporary surveys and the utility of eDNA for broad-scale surveys of species distribution in remote wilderness areas.