Exploring the relationship between home environmental characteristics and restorative effect through neural activities

Abstract

As society and the economy have advanced, the focus of architectural and interior environment design has shifted from practicality to eliciting emotional responses, such as stimulating environments and innovative inclusive designs. Of particular interest is the home environment, as it is best suited for achieving restorative effects, leading to a debate between interior qualities and restorative impact. This study explored the relationships between home characteristics, restorative potential, and neural activities using the Neu-VR. The results of the regression analysis revealed statistically significant relationships between interior properties and restorative potential. We examined each potential characteristic of the home environment that could have a restorative impact and elucidated the environmental characteristics that should be emphasized in residential interior design. These findings contribute evidence-based knowledge for designing therapeutic indoor environments. And combining different restorative potential environments with neural activity, discussed new neuro activities which may predict restorativeness, decoded the new indicators of neuro activity for environmental design.

1. Introduction

The home environment, which not only provides a place of residence but is also connected to broader research fields such as restorativeness, kinship, storage, stimulation, intimacy, and productivity (Graham et al., 2015), has been a subject of study for decades. Early research found its connections with physical health (Board, 1949) and mental development (Burks, 1948). To date, the growing number of interdisciplinary studies has formed a burgeoning area because the functions of residence, amenities, and psychological meanings relate to numerous aspects of daily life (Altman and Werner, 2013). Meanwhile, some research highlighted the importance of the home environment and called for concern, such as addressing issues for an aging society (Gitlin, 2003), developing new strategies for treating diseases [e.g., dementia (Gitlin and Corcoran, 1996), chronic disease (Hussain et al., 2015)], and applying smart home technologies for improved life quality (Sovacool and Furszyfer Del Rio, 2020).

Recently, growing scientific concerns have emerged regarding emotional reactions to architectural or interior environments due to the severe neurodivergence and isolation of the global pandemic, such as innovative inclusive designs (Narenthiran et al., 2022) and restorative built settings (Bornioli and Subiza-Pérez, 2022). Regarding restorative environment, it refers to environment can facilitate to restore physical and mental health and has been flourishing (Menardo et al., 2021). With respect to restorative effects in home environments, a study argued that the home may be the most qualified place for restorativeness (Staats, 2012, p. 452). A case of home environment modification supported this viewpoint, finding positive results for health and wellbeing compared to the situation before (Carnemolla and Bridge, 2016). Furthermore, more solid connections between home environment and restorative effects were revealed in the literature. According to investigations into various types of home environmental evaluations, some researchers discovered restorative effects, such as a second home cabin (Bjerke et al., 2006) and a second home in a rural area (Pitkänen et al., 2020). Additionally, the home environment could prevent long-term mental problems and benefit psychological restorativeness for victims of natural disasters (Delgado, 2022), people isolated by the pandemic (Meagher and Cheadle, 2020), and immigrants (Wood and Martin, 2020). From these previous studies, we found connections between home environment and restorativeness, and showed evidence of home restorativeness.

Home restorativeness encompasses not only the holistic atmosphere of the home environment but also specific environmental characteristics. From the history of restorative experiences, the element of nature is essential, as numerous studies have discussed the positive effects of natural environments on aspects such as psychophysiological status (Ulrich, 1981), attention restoration (Hartig et al., 1991), and cognitive benefits (Berman et al., 2008). Consequently, incorporating nature into interior design may facilitate the restoration of adverse symptoms (Craig et al., 2022). For example, natural elements in window views (Kaplan, 2001), window views of the sky (Masoudinejad and Hartig, 2020), natural lighting (Abdelaziz Mahmoud et al., 2023), indoor plants (Shibata and Suzuki, 2001), and private gardens at doorsteps (Stigsdotter and Grahn, 2004) have all been found to have restorative effects on residents. In addition to visual perception, the acoustics of natural sounds can help people connect with nature and foster psychological stress restoration (Alvarsson et al., 2010), as well as improve self-rated health conditions (Dzhambov et al., 2021). Furthermore, the incorporation of natural materials in interiors can benefit individuals. Wood, a commonly used interior material, can evoke bright and pleasant emotions, and convey warm feeling (Watchman et al., 2017) and has demonstrated potential roles in stress restoration (Burnard and Kutnar, 2015).

Interior characteristics and restorativeness extend beyond the mere implementation of natural elements. A study conducted in Scotland discovered that housing fixtures, overcrowding, dwelling type, and access to gardens were linked to residents’ anxiety and self-assessed health issues (Macintyre et al., 2003). For patients’ rooms, warm colors and larger spaces with greater width-length ratios might enhance restorative quality (Gao and Zhang, 2020). For rooms intended for the elderly, accessibility is a crucial factor due to its connection with health-related concepts (Stineman et al., 2011). At a smaller scale, furniture design (Dazkir and Read, 2012), artwork (Nejati et al., 2016), and lighting patterns (Abboushi et al., 2019) have demonstrated links to restorativeness. Additionally, waterscapes, often overlooked in buildings, play an unexpectedly significant role in restorativeness, including both in-building waterscapes (White et al., 2010) and sea views (Nang Li et al., 2012).

It is evident that environmental characteristics are associated with restorative performance based on existing literature. However, many studies rely on subjective data forms (Table 1), which may introduce biases due to subjective decision-making or estimation processes (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974). Rad et al. (2021) suggested improving design by focusing on human preferences and employing neuroscientific insights instead of subjective feedback in architecture to develop more suitable and universal designs for neuro-architecture. Consequently, with the advancement of virtual reality (VR) and neurotechnology, neuroarchitecture, which measures environmental effects by recording neurophysiological data (Edelstein and Macagno, 2012), has emerged as a new discipline with a promising framework in the environmental design field (Bower et al., 2019; Karakas and Yildiz, 2020; Higuera-Trujillo et al., 2021). This approach enables in-depth environmental design studies through the analysis and discussion of neurophysiological data, such as examining design variables for stress reduction in hospital waiting rooms (Higuera-Trujillo et al., 2020). In this study, we aimed to identify relations between interior characteristics and restorative potential, and neural activities, to facilitate an in-depth and comprehensive exploration of home environmental restorativeness by examining the relationship among these three variables. Based on this main research aim, several subsidiary issues were discussed in this study:

• •

  To find the home characteristics which may convey the positive impacts on restorative potential.

• •

  To explore the connections between restorative potential and neural activities, discuss the neural indicator for restorativeness.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Experimental design

We chose modeling home environments from a model base,¹ which hosts numerous building environmental 3D models and serves as a primary platform for designers to share and exchange ideas. The model base features 16 different interior design styles (Chinese, European, Simple European, Mediterranean, Modern, Industrial, American, Japanese and Korean, New Chinese, New classical, European classical, Northern Europe, French, Post-modern, Light luxury, and Southeast Asian). We selected the most recommended living room and bedroom models for each style, resulting in a total of 32 models for this investigation. These models represent popular styles and home design images frequently used in China.

The experiment was divided into two parts. First, participants were asked to rate the restorative potential of each selected environment using a questionnaire comprising a set of restorative component rating scales. After measuring the degrees of environmental characteristics, we used regression analysis (Liang and Zeger, 1993) to determine the relationships between home characteristics and restorative potential. In the second part of the experiment, we selected the environments with the highest and lowest scores based on the restorative component rating results and tested neuro reactions to these two environments to show the connections between restorativeness and neuro activities. This two-part approach might afford an in-depth discussion of the relationships among home environmental characteristics, restorativeness, and neuro activities.

2.2. Measures and participants

To measure the restorative potential, we used the questionnaire developed by Laumann et al. (2001) to evaluate the restorative components of an environment based on Kaplan and Kaplan’s (1989) restorative theory in this study. The questionnaire included 22 rating scales and was posted on a web platform² along with pictures of all modeling environments. A total of 66 participants (22 males and 44 females, M = 23 years old), all from a Chinese college, completed the questionnaire.

Regards to home characteristics, we identified potential elements related to restorativeness from the literature. Celikors and Wells (2022) found that a small portion of restorative qualities was associated with low-level visual features, but the potential and limits of this feature for restorativeness remained unknown. In a residential streetscapes study, Lindal and Hartig (2013) found that the effect of building height on restorativeness was partially mediated. Lee et al. (2012) discovered that some fabrics could extract semantic scales of nature, joyfulness, softness, etc. Combining these three potential characteristics with the features we summarized earlier, we established a set of 15 environmental characteristic scales (Table 2). Then, we invited two associate professors with 15 years of teaching and working experience in the interior design field to discuss and evaluate the degree of these characteristics as shown in each selected home design model picture (the Cohen’s kappa coefficient = 0.957). This expert evaluation helped us better understand the relationships between home characteristics and restorative potential and provided insights for the next phase of the study, which involved analyzing neuro reactions in the best and worst scoring environments.

The application of Neu-VR in this study allowed researchers to collect objective data on the nervous reactions of participants when they experienced various home environments. By monitoring cerebral hemoglobin concentration, pupil radius, attention shift frequency, blink frequency, and eye gaze position, the study was able to gain valuable insights into the participants’ neurophysiological responses to the environments. 15 participants (5 females and 10 males, M = 28 years old) participated in this phase of the study. The data collected through Neu-VR complemented the subjective feedback obtained from the questionnaire, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between home environmental characteristics, restorativeness, and neuro activities.

By combining the results from both the questionnaire and the neurophysiological data obtained through Neu-VR, the study aimed to create a more holistic view of the factors that contribute to restorative home environments. The findings can then be used to inform future interior design and architectural practices, ultimately creating more restorative and beneficial spaces for occupants.

3. Result

3.1. Home characteristic and restorative potential

Initially, the zero-order correlation analysis method was employed to identify the relationship between home characteristic ratings and restorative potential (Table 3). In this investigation, three types of view characteristics were considered: overall window view, natural view, and sky view. The results of the correlation analysis revealed no significant association between natural window view and restorative potential. However, sky view, overall window view, and window size were found to be related to restorative potential. Regarding the color categories assessed in each home image, both warm and cool colors were evaluated. Factors such as greenness, warm colors, room size, and access to outdoor space demonstrated significant relationships with the restorative potential of homes. In contrast, wood material, cool colors, furniture form, artwork, visual features, room height, and textile materials did not show any correlation with restorative potential.

To identify home characteristics that can predict restorative potential, we employed backward regression to eliminate characteristics that did not have a significant impact. The analysis yielded a model with a high confidence interval of p < 0.001 (R² = 0.843, F = 18.397) (Table 4). Considering the regression coefficients and significance levels, four predictors of home environment were identified as significant characteristics (p < 0.05) that can predict restorative potential: overall window view, warm colors, room size, and access to outdoor space. These characteristics were all positively associated with restorative potential, indicating that enhancements in these home characteristics are perceived to increase restorative potential.

3.2. Neuro data

We asked the 15 participants to experience two home environments with the worst (X) and best (O) restorative potential scores in Neu-VR (Figure 1). They experienced both environments in a random order, with each exposure lasting 3 min. The data for cerebral hemoglobin density, pupil radius, attention shift frequency, blink frequency, and eye gaze position were recorded by the Neu-VR sensors. After conducting a paired sample t-test analysis, we obtained the results for differences in pupil radius, attention shift frequency, blink frequency, and cerebral hemoglobin density at four positions (Table 5).

FIGURE 1

The mean value of pupil radius for environments O and X were 1.82 ± 0.17 and 2.13 ± 0.21 mm, respectively. Environment O exhibited a pupil radius 0.31 less than environment X (95% Confidence Interval: −0.38 to −0.23), with the difference being statistically significant (p < 0.001). The mean value of attention shift frequency for environments O and X were 9.26 ± 2.25 and 10.86 ± 2.65 times, respectively. Environment O exhibited an attention shift frequency 1.60 less than environment X (95% Confidence Interval: −2.71 to −0.49), with the difference being statistically significant (p = 0.01). Although there were statistical differences between blink pairs (p = 0.01) and hemoglobin density at position R3 (p = 0.04), their p-values of correlation were greater than 0.05. No statistical differences were observed between pairs of hemoglobin density at positions L1, L3, and R1.

4. Discussion

4.1. Restorative factors

This study is among the few that explore home characteristics and restorativeness using both subjective and objective data. The results identified several home characteristics as strong predictors of restorativeness. Firstly, our findings from the regression analysis indicated that window view is statistically associated with home restorativeness, which is consistent with previous research on window views. Numerous benefits of window views have been documented, such as opportunities for restorativeness, residential satisfaction, and wellbeing (Kaplan, 2001). Additionally, window views of green spaces have been shown to have relaxing effects and reduce stress levels (Elsadek et al., 2020). Sky views have been found to have the highest restorative potential in urban contexts compared to views of people and street trees (Masoudinejad and Hartig, 2020). Other positive effects of window views include work ability and satisfaction (Lottrup et al., 2015), thermal comfort and cognitive performance (Ko et al., 2020). In contrast, office environments without window views can induce tension and anxiety, as evidenced by electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG), and blood volume pulse (BVP) data (Chang and Chen, 2005).

In addition to mental benefits, window views have been linked to potential physical recovery, such as decreased negative evaluative comments from nurses for surgery patients (Ulrich, 1984), improvement of self-reported physical health for coronary and pulmonary patients (Raanaas et al., 2012), and reduced usage of analgesics and pain relief for cesarean women (Wang et al., 2019). Moreover, windows are associated with another restorative factor, natural lighting, which is considered the best light source (Abdelaziz Mahmoud et al., 2023). As different angles and ratios can lead to various views, window design for restorativeness may involve multiple dimensions. Our correlation results showed a significant relationship between window size and restorative potential, although no significant effect was found in the regression analysis. Some researchers have discussed the effects of window size in terms of minimum window size design (Ne’eman and Hopkinson, 1970), energy balance (Persson et al., 2006), and glare of sunlight presence (Boubekri and Boyer, 1992). To determine whether larger windows are more restorative, further research is needed to investigate the correlations between specific designs. Consequently, several studies have concluded that window views are associated with psychophysiological wellbeing for residents and have proposed multi-criteria evaluation methods for window design (Ko et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2022). And the virtual window view was also discussed (Radikovic et al., 2005).

The second element was warm color, which is consistent with the design of patient ward where inpatients preferred warm colors over cold or white (Gao and Zhang, 2020). According to the extent element of restoration theory, environmental components can easily occupy an occupant’s mind (Herzog et al., 2003). Warm colors exhibited excellent attention-guiding qualities (Pal et al., 2012), which may explain their use in learning materials designed to evoke positive emotions and enhance understanding during media learning (Plass et al., 2014; Münchow et al., 2017). Color and mood are interconnected concepts (Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994), and even colors within the same scheme can elicit different emotional responses (Naz and Epps, 2004). For restorativeness, light warm colors are recommended based on findings that pale colors evoked feelings of relaxation, calmness, and pleasantness (Al-Ayash et al., 2016) and that light colors were more likely to elicit positive moods such as joy and relaxation (Jonauskaite et al., 2019).

The third characteristic was room size, which is associated with various aspects of daily life, including emotional response to sound (Tajadura-Jiménez et al., 2010), air quality (Cherrie et al., 2011), and self-reported stress (Sundstrom, 1975). And room size directly impacts physical openness and spatial quality (Franz et al., 2005). Regarding room size and restorativeness, Gao and Zhang (2020) found that larger rooms may facilitate patient recovery. Nehrke et al. (1979) suggested that room size may influence health status, as small rooms can convey a sense of limitation (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007) and exacerbate small-space stressors such as lighting, noise, vibration, radiation, and low air quality (Li et al., 2022). These stressors can be magnified in long-term isolation, leading to sleep disorders and other adverse effects (Meng et al., 2020; Palinkas and Suedfeld, 2021). These findings emphasize the importance of room size in designing a restorative home environment.

The final characteristic was access to outdoor space. Nejati et al. (2016) found that rooms with access to outdoor space had significantly greater restorative potential than those without. This element is linked to other restorative cases, such as cabins (Bjerke et al., 2006) and rural second homes (Pitkänen et al., 2020), where offer easy access to outdoor spaces. Additionally, private gardens at the doorstep have been shown to reduce stress (Stigsdotter and Grahn, 2004). Numerous studies highlight the importance of access to outdoor spaces for all age groups (Mapes, 2010; DEFRA, 2011). Tremblay et al. (2015) stated that outdoor spaces are crucial for children’s health, as they encourage more movement, less sitting, and longer playtimes, lowering obesity risk (Porter et al., 2018) and promoting positive mental health (Hinkley et al., 2018). Compared to indoor physical activity, exercising outdoors has been shown to alleviate tension, anger, and depression better (Thompson Coon et al., 2011). Long-term outdoor activity benefits have also been observed in Positive Youth Development programs (Armour and Sandford, 2013). Consequently, access to green outdoor spaces in the workplace has been shown to improve worker wellbeing and reduce stress (Lottrup et al., 2013).

4.2. Neuro data

Upon obtaining the results for each environment’s restorative potential score, both the environments with the highest and lowest restorative potential scores were input into the Neu-VR system to evaluate participants’ reactions. The difference in pupil radius between environments O and X was 0.31 mm, a statistically significant value. Pupillometry has shown its history and validity of measuring active state of neocortex (Larsen and Waters, 2018) and neurobiologists found the associations between restorative environment and brain activity (Martínez-Soto et al., 2013). Beatty (1982) observed a pupil dilation of approximately 0.3 mm when comparing relaxed and cognitively-loaded conditions. The 0.31 mm difference between the two environments surpasses the 0.3 mm threshold. Although pupil size is predominantly influenced by light luminance (De Groot and Gebhard, 1952) and visual environment (Larsen and Waters, 2018), the possibility of using pupil size to measure restorativeness should be considered, given that light is a factor in restorativeness. Further examination of this potential indicator is warranted.

A statistically significant difference was observed in recorded attention shift frequency between environments O and X, with the former exhibiting a lower frequency of 1.60 shifts per second. According to Neu-VR equipment specifications, attention shift frequency corresponds to the frequency of visual focus changes. This concept is analogous to the fixation-click count employed in visual monitoring research to evaluate visual attention in air traffic controller training (Wee et al., 2020). Fascination, a component of Attention Restoration Theory, posits that a captivating environment effortlessly holds an individual’s attention (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). And eye movement as effective an interference (Lawrence et al., 2004), consequently, lower attention shift frequencies may indicate a more restorative environment. Further testing with robust restorative environment designs is required to validate this predictor. Despite the statistical differences in blink and hemoglobin density measures, correlations between these metrics suggest the presence of other influencing factors. As such, they cannot be utilized as reliable indicators of environmental restorativeness.

Gaze position data were collected, and heatmaps for environments X and O were generated. Figure 2 (X) displayed dispersed gaze positions, with a significant proportion focused on the metal frame and textual artwork. One hypothesis posited that metal may convey negative effects on restorativeness due to its association with adverse outcomes [e.g., unhealthy, enclosed, and depressive imagery of white steel (Sakuragawa et al., 2005); cold, industrial, and unpleasant connotations of steel (Wastiels et al., 2013)]. Further research with objective data is needed to investigate this hypothesis. In contrast, Figure 2 (O) revealed centralized gaze positions on window views and artworks, consistent with the high perceived restorativeness of seascapes (Nang Li et al., 2012) and artwork (Nejati et al., 2016).

FIGURE 2

5. Conclusion and limitation

This study identified four key characteristics essential for designing a restorative home environment, including favorable window views, light warm colors, spacious room sizes, and outdoor access. Although the window design is driven by multicriteria, interior designers and architects could consider the rule that something is better than nothing for designing a restorative home. While both pupil radius and attention shift displayed statistically significant differences between the best and worst restorative environments, further research is necessary to validate the reliability and applicability of these two potential measures.

This study explored the relationships between home characteristics restorativeness, and Neu-VR data for measuring restorativeness. Several limitations were identified concerning the methodology and results. Firstly, increasing the sample size for the two experiments would enhance the validity of the findings in demonstrating the relationships between restorative potential and environmental characteristics, restorativeness and neuro-data. Secondly, different regions’ participants may have different attitudes to the same design style. region variation was not considered in this investigation because of all Chinese participants. Thirdly, no prior literature provided valid examples of pupil radius, attention shift frequency, and restorativeness in relation to neuro-data. Although the results showed potential, further research is required to investigate these predictors. Lastly, regarding negative restorativeness characteristics, although the heatmap of gaze positions offered a hypothesis, low restorative potential designs were not examined. The study’s novelty lies in its attempt to investigate the relationships between home characteristics, restorative potential, and neural activities using Neu-VR. Four environmental characteristics, that should be emphasized in residential interior design, were found to predict home restorativeness, and two neurodata types showed potential for expressing restorativeness. These findings cement evidence-based knowledge for designing restorative home environments and contribute to new measures of neuro activity for environmental design.

References

• 1

  AbboushiB.ElzeyadiI.TaylorR.SerenoM. (2019). Fractals in architecture: The visual interest, preference, and mood response to projected fractal light patterns in interior spaces.J. Environ. Psychol.6157–70. 10.1016/J.JENVP.2018.12.005

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 2

  Abdelaziz MahmoudN. S.El SamanoudyG.JungC. (2023). Simulating the natural lighting for a physical and mental Well-being in residential building in Dubai, UAE.Ain Shams Eng. J.14:101810. 10.1016/J.ASEJ.2022.101810

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 3

  Al-AyashA.KaneR. T.SmithD.Green-ArmytageP. (2016). The influence of color on student emotion, heart rate, and performance in learning environments.Color Res. Applic.41196–205. 10.1002/col.21949

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 4

  AltmanI.WernerC. M. (2013). Home environments, Vol. 8. Berlin: Springer Science and Business Media.

  • Google Scholar

• 5

  AlvarssonJ. J.WiensS.NilssonM. E. (2010). Stress recovery during exposure to nature sound and environmental noise.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health71036–1046. 10.3390/ijerph7031036

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 6

  ArmourK.SandfordR. (2013). Positive youth development through an outdoor physical activity programme: Evidence from a four-year evaluation.Educ. Rev.6585–108. 10.1080/00131911.2011.648169

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 7

  BeattyJ. (1982). Task-evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources.Psychol. Bull.91276–292. 10.1037/0033-2909.91.2.276

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 8

  BermanM. G.JonidesJ.KaplanS. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature.Psychol. Sci.191207–1212. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 9

  BjerkeT.KaltenbornB. P.VittersøJ. (2006). “Cabin life: Restorative and affective aspects,” in Multiple dwelling and tourism: Negotiating place, home and identity, edsMcIntyreN.WilliamsD. R.McHughK. E. (Wallingford: CAB International), 10.1079/9780845931202.0087

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 10

  BoardL. M. (1949). The home environment and accidents.Public Health Rep.64383–387. 10.2307/4586897

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 11

  BornioliA.Subiza-PérezM. (2022). Restorative urban environments for healthy cities: A theoretical model for the study of restorative experiences in urban built settings.Landsc. Res.1–12.

  • Google Scholar

• 12

  BoubekriM.BoyerL. L. (1992). Effect of window size and sunlight presence on glare.Light. Res. Technol.2469–74. 10.1177/096032719202400203

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 13

  BowerI.TuckerR.EnticottP. G. (2019). Impact of built environment design on emotion measured via neurophysiological correlates and subjective indicators: A systematic review.J. Environ. Psychol.66:101344. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101344

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 14

  BurksB. S. (1948). The relative influence of nature and nurture upon mental development.1928.

  • Google Scholar

• 15

  BurnardM. D.KutnarA. (2015). Wood and human stress in the built indoor environment: A review.Wood Sci. Technol.49969–986. 10.1007/s00226-015-0747-3

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 16

  CarnemollaP.BridgeC. (2016). Accessible housing and health-related quality of life: Measurements of wellbeing outcomes following home modifications.Int. J. Arch. Res.10:38. 10.26687/archnet-ijar.v10i2.977

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 17

  CelikorsE.WellsN. M. (2022). Are low-level visual features of scenes associated with perceived restorative qualities?J. Environ. Psychol.81:101800. 10.1016/J.JENVP.2022.101800

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 18

  ChangC. Y.ChenP. K. (2005). Human response to window views and indoor plants in the workplace.Hortscience401354–1359. 10.21273/hortsci.40.5.1354

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 19

  CherrieJ. W.MacCalmanL.FransmanW.TielemansE.TischerM.Van TongerenM. (2011). Revisiting the effect of room size and general ventilation on the relationship between near- and far-field air concentrations.Ann. Occupat. Hygiene551006–1015. 10.1093/annhyg/mer092

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 20

  CraigC. M.NeilsonB. N.AltmanG. C.TravisA. T.VanceJ. A. (2022). Applying restorative environments in the home office while sheltering-in-place.Hum. Fact.641351–1362.

  • Google Scholar

• 21

  DazkirS. S.ReadM. A. (2012). Furniture forms and their influence on our emotional responses toward interior environments.Environ. Behav.44722–732. 10.1177/0013916511402063

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 22

  De GrootS. G.GebhardJ. W. (1952). Pupil size as determined by adapting luminance.J. Optic. Soc. Am.42492–495. 10.1364/JOSA.42.000492

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 23

  DEFRA (2011). The natural choice: Securing the value of nature.London: DEFRA.

  • Google Scholar

• 24

  DelgadoM. (2022). Home is restoration: Towards a health-based model of the importance of home for survivors of natural disasters.Soc. Sci. Humanit. Open6:100351. 10.1016/J.SSAHO.2022.100351

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 25

  DzhambovA. M.LercherP.StoyanovD.PetrovaN.NovakovS.DimitrovaD. D. (2021). University students’ self-rated health in relation to perceived acoustic environment during the COVID-19 home quarantine.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health18:2538. 10.3390/ijerph18052538

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 26

  EdelsteinE. A.MacagnoE. (2012). “Form follows function: Bridging neuroscience and architecture,” in Springer optimization and its applications, Vol. 56edsRassiaS. T.PardalosP. M. (Berlin: Springer), 10.1007/978-1-4419-0745-5_3

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 27

  ElsadekM.LiuB.XieJ. (2020). Window view and relaxation: Viewing green space from a high-rise estate improves urban dwellers’ wellbeing.Urban For. Urban Greening55:126846. 10.1016/J.UFUG.2020.126846

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 28

  FranzG.Von Der HeydeM.BülthoffH. H. (2005). An empirical approach to the experience of architectural space in virtual reality-exploring relations between features and affective appraisals of rectangular indoor spaces.Autom. Construct.14165–172. 10.1016/j.autcon.2004.07.009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 29

  GaoC.ZhangS. (2020). The restorative quality of patient ward environment: Tests of six dominant design characteristics.Build. Environ.180:107039. 10.1016/J.BUILDENV.2020.107039

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 30

  GitlinL. N. (2003). Conducting research on home environments: Lessons learned and new directions.Gerontologist43628–637. 10.1093/GERONT/43.5.628

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 31

  GitlinL. N.CorcoranM. A. (1996). Managing dementia at home: The role of home environmental modifications.Top. Geriatr. Rehabil.1229–39. 10.1097/00013614-199612000-00006

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 32

  GrahamL. T.GoslingS. D.TravisC. K. (2015). The psychology of home environments: A call for research on residential space.Perspect. Psychol. Sci.10346–356. 10.1177/1745691615576761

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 33

  HartigT.MangM.EvansG. W. (1991). Restorative effects of natural environment experiences.Environ. Behav.233–26.

  • Google Scholar

• 34

  HerzogT. R.MaguireC. P.NebelM. B. (2003). Assessing the restorative components of environments.J. Environ. Psychol.23159–170. 10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00113-5

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 35

  Higuera-TrujilloJ. L.LlinaresC.MacagnoE. (2021). The cognitive-emotional design and study of architectural space: A scoping review of neuroarchitecture and its precursor approaches.Sensors21:2193. 10.3390/s21062193

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 36

  Higuera-TrujilloJ. L.MillánC.Montañana i AviñóA.RojasJ. C. (2020). Multisensory stress reduction: A neuro-architecture study of paediatric waiting rooms.Build. Res. Inform.48269–285. 10.1080/09613218.2019.1612228

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 37

  HinkleyT.BrownH.CarsonV.TeychenneM. (2018). Cross sectional associations of screen time and outdoor play with social skills in preschool children.PLoS One13:e0193700. 10.1371/journal.pone.0193700

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 38

  HussainM.AliT.KhanW. A.AfzalM.LeeS.LatifK. (2015). Recommendations service for chronic disease patient in multimodel sensors home environment.Telemed. Ehealth21185–99. 10.1089/tmj.2014.0028

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 39

  JonauskaiteD.AlthausB.DaelN.Dan-GlauserE.MohrC. (2019). What color do you feel? Color choices are driven by mood.Color Res. Applic.44272–284. 10.1002/col.22327

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 40

  KaplanR. (2001). The nature of the view from home psychological benefits.Environ. Behav.33507–542. 10.1177/00139160121973115

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 41

  KaplanR.KaplanS. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Google Scholar

• 42

  KarakasT.YildizD. (2020). Exploring the influence of the built environment on human experience through a neuroscience approach: A systematic review.Front. Arch. Res.9:236-247. 10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.005

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 43

  KoW. H.KentM. G.SchiavonS.LevittB.BettiG. (2022). A window view quality assessment framework.LEUKOS18. 10.1080/15502724.2021.1965889

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 44

  KoW. H.SchiavonS.ZhangH.GrahamL. T.BragerG.MaussI.et al (2020). The impact of a view from a window on thermal comfort, emotion, and cognitive performance.Build. Environ.175:106779. 10.1016/J.BUILDENV.2020.106779

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 45

  LarsenR. S.WatersJ. (2018). Neuromodulatory correlates of pupil dilation.Front. Neural Circ.12:21. 10.3389/fncir.2018.00021

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 46

  LaumannK.GärlingT.StormarkK. M. (2001). Rating scale measures of restorative components of environments.J. Environ. Psychol.2131–44. 10.1006/jevp.2000.0179

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 47

  LawrenceB. M.MyersonJ.AbramsR. A. (2004). Interference with spatial working memory: An eye movement is more than a shift of attention.Psychon. Bull. Rev.11488–494. 10.3758/BF03196600

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 48

  LeeA. R.SarmandakhB.KangE. Y.YiE. (2012). Effect of colorimetric characteristics and tone combination on color emotion factors of naturally dyed color combination fabrics -focus on yellowish and reddish fabrics-.J. Korean Soc. Cloth. Textiles361028–1039. 10.5850/jksct.2012.36.10.1028

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 49

  LiZ.ZhangW.WangL.LiuH.LiuH. (2022). Regulating effects of the biophilic environment with strawberry plants on psychophysiological health and cognitive performance in small spaces.Build. Environ.212:108801. 10.1016/J.BUILDENV.2022.108801

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 50

  LiangK. Y.ZegerS. L. (1993). Regression analysis for correlated data.Annu. Rev. Public Health1443–68. 10.1146/annurev.pu.14.050193.000355

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 51

  LinT. Y.LeA. V.ChanY. C. (2022). Evaluation of window view preference using quantitative and qualitative factors of window view content.Build. Environ.213:108886. 10.1016/J.BUILDENV.2022.108886

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 52

  LindalP. J.HartigT. (2013). Architectural variation, building height, and the restorative quality of urban residential streetscapes.J. Environ. Psychol.3326–36. 10.1016/J.JENVP.2012.09.003

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 53

  LippiG.HenryB. M.BovoC.Sanchis-GomarF. (2020). Health risks and potential remedies during prolonged lockdowns for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).Diagnosis785–90. 10.1515/dx-2020-0041

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 54

  LottrupL.GrahnP.StigsdotterU. K. (2013). Workplace greenery and perceived level of stress: Benefits of access to a green outdoor environment at the workplace.Landsc. Urban Plan.1105–11.

  • Google Scholar

• 55

  LottrupL.StigsdotterU. K.MeilbyH.ClaudiA. G. (2015). The workplace window view: A determinant of office workers’ work ability and job satisfaction.Landsc. Res.4057–75. 10.1080/01426397.2013.829806

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 56

  MacintyreS.EllawayA.HiscockR.KearnsA.DerG.McKayL. (2003). What features of the home and the area might help to explain observed relationships between housing tenure and health? Evidence from the west of Scotland.Health Place9207–218. 10.1016/S1353-8292(02)00040-0

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 57

  MapesN. (2010). It’s a walk in the park: Exploring the benefits of green exercise and open spaces for people living with dementia.Work. Older People1425–31. 10.5042/wwop.2010.0680

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 58

  Martínez-SotoJ.Gonzales-SantosL.PasayeE.BarriosF. A. (2013). Exploration of neural correlates of restorative environment exposure through functional magnetic resonance.Intellig. Build. Int.5(SUPPL1)10–28. 10.1080/17508975.2013.807765

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 59

  MasoudinejadS.HartigT. (2020). Window view to the sky as a restorative resource for residents in densely populated cities.Environ. Behav.52401–436. 10.1177/0013916518807274

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 60

  MeagherB. R.CheadleA. D. (2020). Distant from others, but close to home: The relationship between home attachment and mental health during COVID-19.J. Environ. Psychol.72:101516. 10.1016/J.JENVP.2020.101516

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 61

  MenardoE.BrondinoM.HallR.PasiniM. (2021). Restorativeness in natural and urban environments: A meta-analysis.Psychol. Rep.124417–437. 10.1177/00332941198840

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 62

  MengC.WangW.HaoZ.LiuH. (2020). Investigation on the influence of isolated environment on human psychological and physiological health.Sci. Total Environ.716:136972. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136972

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 63

  Meyers-LevyJ.RuiZ. (2007). The influence of ceiling height: The effect of priming on the type of processing that people use.J. Consum. Res.34174–186. 10.1086/519146

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 64

  MünchowH.MengelkampC.BannertM. (2017). The better you feel the better you learn: Do warm colours and rounded shapes enhance learning outcome in multimedia learning?Educ. Res. Int.2017:2148139. 10.1155/2017/2148139

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 65

  Nang LiH.Kwan ChauC.Sze TseM.TangS. K. (2012). On the study of the effects of sea views, greenery views and personal characteristics on noise annoyance perception at homes.J. Acoust. Soc. Am.1312131–2140. 10.1121/1.3681936

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 66

  NarenthiranO. P.ToreroJ.WoodrowM. (2022). Inclusive design of workspaces: Mixed methods approach to understanding users.Sustainability14:3337. 10.3390/su14063337

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 67

  NazK.EppsH. (2004). Relationship between color and emotion: A study of college students.Coll. Stud. J.38396–405.

  • Google Scholar

• 68

  Ne’emanE.HopkinsonR. G. (1970). Critical minimum acceptable window size: A study of window design and provision of a view.Light. Res. Technol.217–27. 10.1177/14771535700020010701

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 69

  NehrkeM. F.MorgantiJ. B.WillrichR.HulickaI. M. (1979). Health status, room size, and activity level: Research in an institutional setting.Environ. Behav.11451–463. 10.1177/0013916579114002

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 70

  NejatiA.RodiekS.ShepleyM. (2016). Using visual simulation to evaluate restorative qualities of access to nature in hospital staff break areas.Landsc. Urban Plan.148132–138. 10.1016/J.LANDURBPLAN.2015.12.012

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 71

  PalR.MukherjeeJ.MitraP. (2012). “How do warm colors affect visual attention?,” in Proceedings of the ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, (New York, NY). 10.1145/2425333.2425357

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 72

  PalinkasL. A.SuedfeldP. (2021). Psychosocial issues in isolated and confined extreme environments.Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.126413–429. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.032

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 73

  PerssonM. L.RoosA.WallM. (2006). Influence of window size on the energy balance of low energy houses.Energy Build.38181–188. 10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.05.006

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 74

  PitkänenK.LehtimäkiJ.PuhakkaR. (2020). How do rural second homes affect human health and well-being? Review of potential impacts.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health17:6748. 10.3390/ijerph17186748

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 75

  PlassJ. L.HeidigS.HaywardE. O.HomerB. D.UmE. (2014). Emotional design in multimedia learning: Effects of shape and color on affect and learning.Learn. Instruct.29128–140. 10.1016/J.LEARNINSTRUC.2013.02.006

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 76

  PorterR. M.TindallA.GaffkaB. J.KirkS.SantosM.Abraham-PrattI.et al (2018). A review of modifiable risk factors for severe obesity in children ages 5 and under.Childhood Obes.14468–476. 10.1089/chi.2017.0344

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 77

  RaanaasR. K.PatilG. G.HartigT. (2012). Health benefits of a view of nature through the window: A quasi-experimental study of patients in a residential rehabilitation center.Clin. Rehabil.2621–32. 10.1177/0269215511412800

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 78

  RadP. N.BehzadiF.YazdanfarA.GhamariH.ZabehE.LashgariR. (2021). Cognitive and perceptual influences of architectural and urban environments with an emphasis on the experimental procedures and techniques.

  • Google Scholar

• 79

  RadikovicA. S.LeggettJ. J.KeyserJ.UlrichR. S. (2005). “Artificial window view of nature,” in Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, NY. 10.1145/1056808.1057075

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 80

  SakuragawaS.MiyazakiY.KanekoT.MakitaT.SakuragawaS.KanekoT.et al (2005). Influence of wood wall panels on physiological and psychological responses.J. Wood Sci.51136–140. 10.1007/s10086-004-0643-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 81

  ShibataS.SuzukiN. (2001). Effects of indoor foliage plants on subjects’ recovery from mental fatigue.North Am. J. Psychol.3385–396.

  • Google Scholar

• 82

  SovacoolB. K.Furszyfer Del RioD. D. (2020). Smart home technologies in Europe: A critical review of concepts, benefits, risks and policies.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.120:109663. 10.1016/J.RSER.2019.109663

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 83

  StaatsH. (2012). “Restorative environments,” in The Oxford handbook of environmental and conservation psychology, ed.ClaytonD. (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 445.

  • Google Scholar

• 84

  StigsdotterU. A.GrahnP. (2004). “A garden at your doorstep may reduce stress-private gardens as restorative environments in the city,” in Proceedings of the Open Space-People Space, Scotland.

  • Google Scholar

• 85

  StinemanM. G.XieD.PanQ.KurichiJ. E.SalibaD.StreimJ. (2011). Activity of daily living staging, chronic health conditions, and perceived lack of home accessibility features for elderly people living in the community.J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.59454–462. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03287.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 86

  SundstromE. (1975). An experimental study of crowding: Effects of room size, intrusion, and goal blocking on nonverbal behavior, self-disclosure, and self-reported stress.J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.32645–654. 10.1037/0022-3514.32.4.645

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 87

  Tajadura-JiménezA.LarssonP.VäljamäeA.VästfjällD.KleinerM. (2010). When room size matters: Acoustic influences on emotional responses to sounds.Emotion10416–422. 10.1037/a0018423

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 88

  Thompson CoonJ.BoddyK.SteinK.WhearR.BartonJ.DepledgeM. H. (2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review.Environ. Sci. Technol.451761–1772. 10.1021/es102947t

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 89

  TremblayM. S.GrayC.BabcockS.BarnesJ.BradstreetC. C.CarrD.et al (2015). Position statement on active outdoor play.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health126475–6505. 10.3390/ijerph120606475

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 90

  TseungV.VerweelL.HarveyM.PauleyT.WalkerJ. (2022). Hospital outdoor spaces: User experience and implications for design.Health Environ. Res. Design J.15256–267. 10.1177/19375867211045403

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 91

  TullM. T.EdmondsK. A.ScamaldoK. M.RichmondJ. R.RoseJ. P.GratzK. L. (2020). Psychological outcomes associated with stay-at-home orders and the perceived impact of COVID-19 on Daily life.Psychiatry Res.289:113098. 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113098

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 92

  TverskyA.KahnemanD. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.Science1851124–1131. 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 93

  UlrichR. S. (1981). Natural versus urban scenes: Some psychophysiological effects.Environ. Behav.13523–556. 10.1177/0013916581135001

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 94

  UlrichR. S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery.Science224420–421. 10.1126/science.6143402

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 95

  ValdezP.MehrabianA. (1994). Effects of color on emotions.J. Exp. Psychol. Gen.123394–409. 10.1037/0096-3445.123.4.394

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 96

  WangC. H.KuoN. W.AnthonyK. (2019). Impact of window views on recovery—an example of post-cesarean section women.Int. J. Qual. Health Care31798–803. 10.1093/intqhc/mzz046

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 97

  WastielsL.SchiffersteinH. N. J.WoutersI.HeylighenA. (2013). Touching materials visually: About the dominance of vision in building material assessment.Int. J. Design731–41.

  • Google Scholar

• 98

  WatchmanM.PotvinA.DemersC. M. H. (2017). A post-occupancy evaluation of the influence of wood on environmental comfort.Bioresources128704–8724. 10.15376/biores.12.4.8704-8724

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 99

  WeeH. J.LyeS. W.PinheiroJ. P. (2020). “A fixation-click count signature as a visual monitoring enhancement feature for air traffic controllers,” in Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing AISC, Vol. 1131edsAhramT.KarwowskiW.VergnanoA.LealiF.TaiarR. (Cham: Springer), 10.1007/978-3-030-39512-4_35

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 100

  WhiteM.SmithA.HumphryesK.PahlS.SnellingD.DepledgeM. (2010). Blue space: The importance of water for preference, affect, and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes.J. Environ. Psychol.30482–493. 10.1016/J.JENVP.2010.04.004

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 101

  WoodN.MartinD. (2020). “I’m a foreigner there”: Landscape, wellbeing and the geographies of home.Health Place62:102274. 10.1016/J.HEALTHPLACE.2019.102274

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar