Transitioning from harmful insecticides to agroecological IPM with smallholder vegetable farmers in Ethiopia

Lake Ziway in Ethiopia’s Central Rift Valley is an important region for vegetable production. Intensive pesticide use in the region has resulted in declining health and negative impacts on the environment. This case study reports on a project to reduce the impacts of pesticide use in smallholder vegetable production. We used Farmer Field School (FFS) training with agroecological integrated pest management (IPM) group learning plots of onion and tomato to help farmers and other stakeholders to transition to safer pest management alternatives. Learning plots were adaptively managed with updated information directly incorporated into stakeholder training. Furthermore, the project adapted for vegetable production a successful biocontrol enhancement method that used vegetation strips as a form of habitat manipulation and locally sourced natural enemy food spray attractants. The project trained over 700 farmers in season-long training and a further 500 via peer mentoring. The final impact survey on trained farmers’ changes in pest management found an average 73% reduction in insecticide application frequency compared to before training. Applications of organophosphates were reduced by 96%, and 70% of respondents had eliminated their use. 85% of surveyed farmers reported they now apply food spray and sow habitat strips of alfalfa or maize, while 60% of farmers reported they avoid insecticides harmful to natural enemies. Furthermore, the self-reported yearly incidence rate of acute pesticide poisoning reduced from 20% of farmers surveyed in the baseline survey to 5.5% in the endline survey, without adversely affecting yields or profits, often with positive gains. The project demonstrates that, by adopting an agroecological approach, economically sustainable vegetable production can be achieved while greatly reducing the pesticide footprint. Our experience also shows how successful technologies developed for one crop can be transferred to other crops (i.e. onion and tomato) through the active participation and support of end-use stakeholders.

1 Introduction

While agricultural pesticide use in African countries is relatively low in global terms, the hazard characteristics of widely used active ingredients combined with poor pesticide handling practices can translate into poisonings of those working on farms (Ngowi et al., 2007; Williamson et al., 2008; Negatu et al., 2017; Tyrell et al., 2019; Kapeleka et al., 2025). Researchers and public health professionals have raised increasing concerns about the levels of pesticide exposure and their health impacts in East, Southern and West Africa (e.g. Balasha and Kesonga, 2019; Calista et al., 2022; Boateng et al., 2023). The organophosphate (OP) insecticides are among those pesticides most frequently associated with serious and fatal poisonings from occupational and accidental exposure, and in self-harm cases (Razwiedani and Rautenbach, 2017; Matowo et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2024; Kapeleka et al., 2025).

Acute pesticide poisoning has been documented in Ethiopia among pesticide applicators in greenhouse horticulture, commercial fields and smallholder production; and pesticide exposure has been strongly associated with neurochemical and behavioural dysfunctions, as well as impacting respiratory health among exposed populations (Negatu et al., 2017, 2018). Studies undertaken by Loha et al. (2022) of smallholder vegetable farmers in the Ethiopian Central Rift Valley (CRV) reported that 63% of respondents did not use personal protective equipment (PPE) during pesticide spraying and handling and 66% experienced discomfort after pesticide spraying. A survey by Mergia et al. (2021) highlighted that over 90% of vegetable farmers interviewed in the CRV Lake Ziway watershed reported that they did not use PPE. Furthermore, Mengistie et al. (2017) revealed a low level of compliance across various label safety instructions among CRV vegetable farmers and that, in the absence of collection schemes, empty pesticide containers were generally disposed of in an unsafe manner. These results reveal high levels of risks related to the use of highly hazardous pesticides by CRV vegetable farmers, with no effective solutions to address them. Highly Hazardous Pesticides (HHPs) are pesticides listed as class 1a or 1b hazards by the World Health Organization (WHO) or are listed under internationally recognized conventions or through internationally accepted labelling systems as hazardous due to carcinogenicity, mutagenicity and impacts on reproductive health among other serious impacts on health and the environment (see definition and criteria in Guidance on HHPs: FAO and WHO, 2016).

The availability of HHPs in rural households in Ethiopia (Negatu et al., 2016; Mengistie et al., 2017) creates a readily accessible method of self-harm, as witnessed by the high rates of poisoning cases among hospital admissions, notably by the deliberate ingestion of organophosphates (Adinew et al., 2017a, 2017b). Females (60%) were predominant among intentional as well as unintentional poisoning cases and patients between 15–24 years of age accounted for 55% of the cases, revealing a worrying trend of self-harm among young people. These pesticides are cheap, are widely available in Agri supply stores and can also be accessed in unlicensed, open markets (Negatu et al., 2021). Studies from at least five countries demonstrate that removing access to the most acutely hazardous pesticides through national bans can be effective in reducing overall suicide rates (Gunnell et al., 2017). For example, strengthening pesticide regulation and banning the most toxic pesticides in Bangladesh were associated with an over 70% reduction in hospital deaths without any apparent effect on agricultural output (Chowdhury et al., 2018). Similar conclusions were made from states in India which have taken strong regulatory actions on HHPs (Bonvoisin et al., 2020). To reduce pesticide impacts on human and environmental health, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted in 2022 (CBD, 2024) and the Global Framework on Chemicals adopted in 2023 (UNEP, 2024) called for a reduction in the overall risks from pesticides, with an emphasis on HHPs, by 2030 and 2035, respectively.

Pesticide regulators and other decision makers in the public and private agricultural sectors seek to phase out specific HHPs most closely linked to human health or environmental harms; yet they often report a lack of guidance on alternative control methods (Stuart et al., 2023). Fortunately, a growing body of evidence shows that by working with nature, rather than against it, agroecology provides an array of tools and techniques that are safer and more sustainable than HHPs (Watts and Williamson, 2015). Farmers can select and adapt these techniques to fit into the local context by following a set of guiding principles (Geck et al., 2023). Instead of relying on synthetic pesticides to control pests, agroecological farming nurtures biological systems that support natural pest regulation through conservation biological control, by incorporating functional plants (e.g., trap crops or banker plants) or habitats (e.g., flower strips) that support natural enemies, and/or by adapting cropping systems to avoid the build-up of pest populations (e.g., intercropping, crop rotations) (Watts and Williamson, 2015, Harrison et al., 2019, Robinson et al., 2024). Whereas guidelines for implementing agroecological practices are available, there is still a lack of larger scale, on-the-ground case studies detailing the successful implementation and outcomes of agroecological IPM in specific contexts, such as in Ethiopia. To provide further evidence and practical guidance to support an agroecological transition away from pesticide dependence, this case study describes valuable experiences in using agroecological methods centred around conserving natural enemies to phase out HHP insecticides, including OPs, in onion and tomato production for local markets in Ethiopia. The case study introduces the project context and describes a baseline survey and its results, including the frequency of pesticide-related poisoning, it explains the methodological approach to technical and capacity building components of the project and their impacts in changing farmers’ practices, and makes recommendations for sustaining such projects through closer linkages with local value chains. This case study will complement recent reviews on safe, economically viable alternatives to paraquat for weed management and to metal phosphides for domestic rodent control (Stuart et al., 2023, 2025) and provides an example for implementing interventions at medium to large scales.

2 Project context

2.1 Lake Ziway area

Lake Ziway is the largest freshwater lake in the CRV. The lake and its watershed play a significant role in supporting the livelihoods of approximately 2 million people and 1.9 million livestock (Desta et al., 2017). Many people depend on fishing in this lake for their livelihoods. The predominant land use in the watershed is smallholder farming, the average smallholding being 1.59 ha (Desta et al., 2017). Located within 3 hours’ drive of Ethiopia’s capital Addis Ababa, the Lake Ziway catchment is an important production area for local and national markets. Vegetable production in the region increased dramatically after 2010 due to the expansion of state farms and private investment; for example, the area of tomato production in Ethiopia, mostly concentrated in the CRV, more than doubled between 2004 and 2013 (Bezabeh et al., 2014), and onion production more than doubled between 2015 and 2020 (Koye et al., 2022). However, in both cases, productivity (tonnes/ha) has been highly unstable and in some areas has declined. On the western side of the lake, over 8,000 farmers grow vegetables in smallholdings or medium to large-scale commercial enterprises. They use ground water, river water and pumped water from Lake Ziway for irrigation. The production systems are notorious for very high levels of pesticide use, with frequent applications of a range of HHPs (Mengistie et al., 2017). Furthermore, the development of pest resistance to insecticides from pesticide overuse and poor spraying practices has made pest control more expensive and less effective (Williamson et al., 2008; Mengistie et al., 2017; Abaineh et al., 2024). In the CRV, insecticide resistance has been documented for tomato leafminer, Phthorimaea absoluta Meyrick and onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Ayalew and Azerefegne, 2019).

Numerous studies have highlighted the human health and environmental hazards of the current reliance on pesticides, particularly in intensive vegetable production in the CRV. In 2007, a survey of 422 smallholder farmers from 23 villages in Meki and Arsi Negele districts assessed common practices and acute health impacts relating to pesticide use (Amera and Abate, 2008). The survey found 40% of respondents reported adverse health effects after some pesticide applications. Many family members were exposed to pesticides in the home (where they stored pesticides) and an alarming 49% reported using empty pesticide containers for household water and/or food storage. Subsequent studies confirmed the high risks related to the use of pesticides in CRV horticulture, with authors calling for increased farmer education, training on proper handling practices and stricter government oversight of pesticide controls and sales (Mengistie, 2016; Mengistie et al., 2017; Negatu et al., 2017, 2018; Teklu et al., 2018; Loha et al., 2022).

Beyond human health risks, Ethiopian researchers have drawn attention to environmental contamination from pesticides and the risks to wildlife. Besides its economic and livelihood value, the Lake Ziway area is of high ecological importance as a major migratory bird flyway, where over 250 bird species have been recorded (Yohannes et al., 2014; Merga et al., 2020). Many stakeholders consider that the high use of agrochemicals on farms surrounding Lake Ziway has contributed to the growing deterioration of its water quality (Teklu et al., 2018). Particular concerns have been raised about the negative impacts of pesticides on fish health and the invertebrate food chains of the lake and nearby wetlands in the CRV, as well as for bees and honey production in other parts of the country (Teklu et al., 2018; Mergia et al., 2021; Bees for Development, 2022; Teshome et al., 2023).

An additional motivation for addressing pesticide hazards in CRV smallholder horticulture was the presumed indirect, economic costs resulting from impacts on human health, livestock, biodiversity and ecosystem services. These costs tend to be overlooked when considering the costs and benefits of pesticide use and, to our knowledge, no estimates are available for the Ethiopian context (Bourguet and Guillemaud, 2016). However, UNEP estimated the costs of lost work days, medical treatment and hospitalisations due to acute poisonings among farm workers on smallholdings in 37 Sub-Saharan African countries to be USD 4.4 billion in 2005 (UNEP, 2013).

2.2 The Lake Ziway agroecological IPM project

This agroecological case study originated in long-expressed stakeholder concerns about the levels and toxicity of pesticide use in the intensive horticulture and floriculture sectors in the Meki and Arsi Negele districts of the CRV (Figure 1) and its impacts on human health and the environment. Regional Government Boards of Agriculture (BoA), university biologists and local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) agreed on the need for detailed investigations of the scale of the problem and for collaborative solutions. Therefore, in 2018, Pesticide Action Network (PAN) UK and PAN Ethiopia obtained funding for a three-year Integrated Pest Management (IPM) research and farmer training project in the Ziway area entitled ‘Supporting healthy, sustainable and productive smallholder vegetable farming’. Funding was provided by the JJ Charitable Trust, and the Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH) under its Initiative for Sustainable Landscapes (ISLA). The project aimed to reduce pesticide use and consequent health and environmental impacts by promoting agroecological IPM methods, including a food spray, habitat borders, and monitoring insect pests and natural enemies through Farmer Field Schools (FFS). From 2021, project work continued under separate funding from Traid, with project partners, local government agencies and FFS groups collaborating to further promote agroecology-based farming practices.

Figure 1

Figure 1. (A) Map of Ethiopia (shaded grey) indicating regional boundaries and location of the Central Rift Valley (CRV) lakes and project sites (bold rectangle). (B) Map of Lake Ziway and adjacent lakes in the CRV. The main study sites discussed in this paper are indicated as 1, Bochessa; 2, Abine Germana; 3, Edo Gojola: 4, Ilka Chelemo; and 5, Abeye Deneba.

The initial project consisted of FFS training with a prominent role for farmer-participatory learning plots planted with onions or tomatoes. This was followed by Training of Trainers in FFS methodology, involving the training of government agricultural extension agents by the project team (Figure 2). Furthermore, formal field trials were conducted to adapt technologies aimed at enhancing biological control of vegetable pests under local conditions and with the participation of relevant government and extension stakeholders. In particular, the project assessed the use of food sprays with vegetation strips (Mensah, 2002a), that included ‘banker plants’ that maintain natural enemies by providing alternative herbivore prey, or ‘refuge plants’ that provide alternative foods, such as nectar, or refuge habitats for the natural enemies of crop pests (Parolin et al., 2012). These practices were applied as a method to restore natural enemy numbers in the vegetable plots. Following the evaluation of these trials, the practices were adapted and incorporated into the FFS learning plots to assess their feasibility in farmers’ typical 0.25ha vegetable fields, and to assess farmer willingness to adopt such innovations. Figure 2 summarises the various project activities and their inter-relations over time.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Schematic of Lake Ziway IPM project organization. Components in dark blue indicate survey and feedback mechanisms; white indicates research and learning components, yellow indicates training components. Documents and tools to support research and training are indicated in grey boxes. Key information from the baseline and follow-up studies are indicated in light blue and initiatives that indicate project sustainability are indicated in light green. Full details are presented in the text. OFD, Open Field Day.

3 Methodology

3.1 The food spray method

Prior to establishing the farmer field learning plots, field trials were conducted to test the applicability of a food spray method for the specific crops and locations of the project. The field trials were conducted across three seasons at two sites (Bochessa and Edo Gojola villages; see Figure 1B) on small plots loaned by local government Farmer Training Centres, and positive results gave us confidence to introduce the method to farmers via FFS learning plots. The field trials and FFS learning plots largely followed the methodology that was developed by the Australian Cotton Research Institute (Mensah, 1996, 2002a, 2002b) and successfully implemented among smallholder farmers in Benin, Ethiopia and Vietnam (Mensah et al., 2012, 2024; Amera et al., 2017)). The method comprises three components:

1. Sowing borders of cereals or other crops (e.g. maize, alfalfa) to provide habitat for the natural enemies of insect pests

2. Spraying the crop foliage with a food supplement (the ‘food spray’) to attract predatory insects.

3. Avoiding use of ‘broad spectrum’ insecticides which will disrupt or kill natural enemies

In both the field trial and FFS learning plots, habitat borders were planted with the legume alfalfa (Medicago sativa), which grows quickly, attracts natural enemies and pollinators, provides nitrogen fixation and can be cut for fodder (Mensah and Khan, 1997; Mensah, 1999; Razaq et al., 2019). Furthermore, after flowering, the alfalfa was pruned to encourage new growth that attracts herbivores (i.e., functioning as a banker plant). The food spray was prepared using the waste brewery yeast recipe (PAN UK, 2016), which is quick and easy to prepare and requires only diluting and filtering. The process for preparing food spray for one hectare involved mixing 1kg (or 1L if acquired as yeast solution) of brewery yeast waste with 5 L of water after which, any solid particulates were filtered out using a muslin cloth and 50–60 g of household solid soap (cut into small pieces) and 1kg sugar was added to the filtered liquid. Waste brewery yeast is typically rich in protein and B vitamins which work to attract predatory insects into the field. Sugar is added to the mixture to maintain predatory insect numbers in the crop with a high energy food source if prey numbers drop. The soap is included as a sticker to maintain adhesion to the crop foliage, while also acting as a selective insecticide for small, soft-bodied insects. Full details of the food spray method, application, decision making and guidance for farmer training are provided in a training manual produced by PAN UK (PAN UK, 2016, 2024). Figures 3A-3D illustrate food spray application; habitat borders and assessment of natural enemies and pests.

Figure 3

Figure 3. (A) Applying food spray of diluted brewery yeast on onion transplants, Edo Gojola village, Mar. 2019. (B) Alfalfa habitat borders in flower around recently transplanted onions, Edo Gojola trial, Sep. 2019. (C) Project staff assessing pest and disease incidence in tomato trial plots. (D) Assassin bugs are important predators, yet most extension agents were unaware of their ecological role before the project activities. Figure contains images of the author(s) only.

3.2 Farmer field school learning plots

From 2019, the project introduced, demonstrated and trained farmers in the use of 24 IPM methods, including the food spray method, using the FFS approach to IPM group learning (FAO, 2024). Field monitoring protocols and decision-making tools, of which many were for vegetable disease management, were also disseminated. The main pest problems to be addressed were identified by local agriculture officers as onion thrips (T. tabaci) for onion, and Old World bollworm, (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner), leaf miners (Liriomyza spp.), whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), aphids (Aphididae) and leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) for tomato. Table 1 lists the IPM methods most relevant for insect pests that were introduced to farmers. These methods were introduced in FFS IPM learning plots (approx. 200-400m²) that were managed by the field team on host farmers’ fields, and compared with the hosts’ adjacent conventional Farmer’s Practice (FP) plots (Figure 4A). The plots borrowed heavily from learning experiences and positive results gained during the field trials. Learning plots were established in nine onion fields and three tomato fields in five villages over three growing seasons to obtain a good picture of agroecological IPM performance in a range of locations and growing conditions (Figure 4B). These learning plots also served to validate the IPM methods used in the formal trials in the context of farmers’ fields, actual practices and economics.

Table 1

Table 1. Agroecological IPM methods introduced in Ziway for managing vegetable pests.

Figure 4

Figure 4. (A) Extension agents learn how to carry out weekly agroecosystem analysis of the state of the crop in FFS IPM plots. (B) Practice session on sanitary pruning of tomato foliage at the FFS learning plot hosted by FFS member Mr Beriso, Abeye Deneba village. (C) Illustrated pocket guide to common natural enemies (‘farmers’ friends) and pests in vegetables produced in English and local language for extension agents and Lead farmers. (D) Open Field Days held each season are attended by dozens of farmers, extension agents and Board of Agriculture staff. Figure contains images of the author(s) only.

3.3 Farmer field school training

Between 2018 and 2020, 600 smallholders were trained in season-long FFS, averaging 11 sessions per season, in five villages (Figure 1B). Farmer groups were trained to appreciate natural enemies, via weekly field observations and ‘insect zoos’ so that farmers could witness predators feeding on pests. Lead farmers and extension agents were provided with small hand-lenses to better examine insects and an illustrated pocket guide to ‘Farmers’ Friends and Vegetable Pests’ produced in local language, using photos from the field work, to reinforce natural enemy recognition (Figure 4C). Weekly agroecosystem assessments with farmers in the IPM plots and comparisons with farmers’ practices helped FFS participants become familiar with the different IPM methods and convinced of their effectiveness.

In the first year, women’s participation was low despite women playing an active role in many aspects of vegetable production in this area. Efforts by the team to specifically invite women along with their husbands and running a gender awareness workshop with government staff aimed to achieve increased representation of women recruited to FFS training. Other farmers and local government and NGO staff beyond the project villages were introduced to IPM messages and achievements at Open Field Days, which attracted 50–100 visitors each (Figure 4D).

3.4 Farmer surveys

3.4.1 Baseline survey

Baseline data was collected in 2018 using quantitative individual questionnaires with 75 smallholder farmers (of which six were women) and 15 casual farm workers (one woman) from five villages close to Batu Town (Figure 1B). The questionnaire was designed to obtain information on pesticide use, other pest management practices and to record any experiences of pesticide poisonings. Smallholders were selected randomly from those documented by the BoA as involved in vegetable production. Qualitative focus group discussions (FGDs) were held in three villages with 14 smallholders (four women) who grew onions to triangulate the quantitative data and to estimate onion production costs, yields and net income.

3.4.2 Impact surveys

Impact assessment surveys and/or FGDs were conducted in 2020, 2021 (initial project end), followed by a more detailed survey on pesticide reduction and pest management practices in 2022.

In 2020, the first assessment of farmers’ changes in practices involved a survey of 30 farmers across four villages from 250 smallholder vegetable producers that had been trained in the use of the food spray method and other IPM methods after the first two seasons of FFS training. In 2021, 55 farmers were then interviewed from the total of 599 that had been trained during the project. Most of the farmers interviewed (67%) had attended FFS training for two or more seasons, while 33% were recent graduates with just one season of experience.

To obtain a detailed understanding of changes in pesticide active ingredients used and a more rigorous assessment of agroecological IPM methods implemented, a further impact survey of 20 trained FFS farmers in five villages took place in 2022. This survey aimed to quantify reductions in HHP use, with a focus on OPs, which were most closely linked by farmers to poisoning incidents in the baseline survey.

4 Results

4.1 Farmer field school learning plots

Results from nine comparisons of IPM versus FP onion plots in five villages, revealed average decreases of 76% in spray frequency of HHP pesticides (including fungicides) and 8% in production costs (Table 2). IPM onion yields increased on average by 2% and net income by 9%. Despite earlier fears that thrips control with IPM methods could be disappointing, it was notable that IPM onion yields were close to those of FP, with seven of the nine IPM plots yielding 1-10% higher. Combined with cost savings on pesticides, these delivered a higher net income for onion IPM practices in eight of the nine comparisons.

Table 2

Table 2. Comparison of insecticide frequency, production and economic data between IPM learning plots and Farmer’s Practice (FP) for onion production over three seasons.

The frequency of food spray applications averaged four per season, with an average of 2.7 neem applications. These frequencies are feasible for farmers to adopt without undue labour burden. Proxy estimates based on private transport costs for sourcing a bulk supply of neem seed and brewery yeast were included for the costs of each round of food spray and neem seed extract applied, as these ingredients were supplied to the host farmer IPM plots for free.

4.2 Farmer surveys

4.2.1 Baseline survey

Of the pesticide products reported in use during the baseline survey, 18 of 28 active ingredients (64%) qualified as HHPs according to PAN International’s HHP List (PAN International, 2024), including 14 insecticides, three fungicides and one herbicide. One of which is chlorpyrifos, which has since been listed as a Persistent Organic Pollutant (POP) under the Stockholm Convention (PAN International, 2025). See Supplementary Materials S1 for lists the active ingredients reported. The HHP hazards represented include all four broad hazard criteria in the PAN HHP listing: acute human toxicity; chronic human health hazard; environmental hazard; and listing by at least one international chemicals convention.

Survey respondents reported that pesticide application frequency ranged from four to 32 applications per season, with an average of 12 applications. In onions, average spray frequencies were 12 to 22 applications and in cabbage 20 applications. Tomato growers reported spraying tomato at least 20 times (roughly 10 insecticide + 10 fungicide rounds). Growers explained that they usually apply pesticides routinely as part of general crop husbandry (e.g., every time they hoe or irrigate), on first sight of pests or disease, or on a calendar basis. There was no field monitoring to assess pest or disease levels nor consideration of any other IPM principles or practices.

In the baseline survey, 20% of smallholders reported at least one pesticide poisoning incident affecting themselves or a family member in the previous 12 months. This proportion increased to 73% among the farm workers interviewed. The latter finding aligned with earlier findings from qualitative discussions with the community by PAN Ethiopia, who had identified acute poisonings as a major concern for workers on large commercial farms and those hired on a seasonal basis by some smallholders.

4.2.2 Impact surveys

The initial impact survey conducted in 2020 with 30 farmers revealed that 92% of trained farmers were using at least one agroecological IPM method, while 20% were using three or more IPM methods. Sanitary pruning to remove infested and old leaves, cleaning up crop waste at the end of the season, observations of natural enemies and pests, and checking soil moisture to avoid over-irrigation of crops were the IPM methods most often mentioned. Avoiding excess standing water around crop roots is important to discourage microclimate conditions conducive to vegetable diseases and was promoted as an important means to reduce disease incidence and fungicide spraying.

Although trained farmers were still using some HHPs, most had managed to reduce their spray frequency considerably because of their training. For insect pests, farmers reported applying an average of 5 sprays per season (range: 2–12 times), compared with their recalled average of 9 applications before training (range: 4–18 times, somewhat lower than original baseline survey respondents).

An impact assessment of 55 farmers (14% women) in 2021 showed increased adoption of food sprays and neem (58% of respondents), mainly due to provision of yeast and neem seed ingredients by the project, while 42% reported sowing habitat strips of alfalfa or maize.

In terms of human health, only 5.5% of farmers interviewed in 2021 recalled an acute health incident in the previous year, compared with 20% of those interviewed in the baseline survey. These incidents were incurred when spraying pesticides in plots under conventional chemical treatment but not in their IPM plots. The symptoms were headache, nausea, vomiting and irritated skin. Karate (lambda-cyhalothrin), Profit and Selecron (both profenofos) were the products implicated. This result suggests that agroecological IPM training and uptake enables farmers to greatly reduce the risk of acute pesticide poisoning.

Farmers highly valued the participatory and group learning approaches used and how the project team actively involved farmers in assessing and discussing crop performance. These positive attributes of the training approach are reflected in a change in ‘mindset’ on pesticide use among the majority of trained farmers, as demonstrated in response data from the 2021 impact survey (Table 3).

Table 3

Table 3. Trained farmer attitudes to insects, natural enemies and pest control tactics compared to baseline results.

The results of the impact survey of 20 trained FFS farmers (10% women) in 2022 confirmed a major reduction in insecticide use by trained farmers implementing agroecological IPM methods (Table 4), with an average 73% reduction in insecticide application frequency compared with their individual spray regimes before training. Applications of OPs were reduced by 96%, and 70% of respondents had eliminated OP use. When asked if they had purposely stopped any pesticide use because of the FFS training, 35% of respondents answered affirmatively, mentioning products containing malathion, deltamethrin, profenofos and diazinon. Stated reasons (in order of highest frequency) for stopping use were to protect human health/avoid poisoning myself/my family/my workers; to reduce production costs; to avoid polluting the environment; to avoid harming consumers who eat my produce; and to avoid harming natural enemies. A further encouraging result was that 25% of farmers surveyed had been able to avoid the use of any insecticides qualifying as HHPs.

Table 4

Table 4. Farmers’ use of synthetic insecticides and botanical extracts before and after FFS training, 2022.

From the total of 24 agroecological IPM methods introduced by the project, an average of 16.7 practices were reported as adopted per farmer (range:13-22; See Supplementary Material S2). Adoption ranged from 20% (Observing fields to assess balance between Pests and Farmers Friends) to 100% (Application of neem seed extract). In terms of the food spray method, 85% of surveyed farmers reported they now apply food spray and sow habitat strips of alfalfa or maize, while 60% of farmers reported they avoid HHP insecticides harmful to natural enemies and 60% leave natural vegetation/weeds in around fields for natural enemies.

5 Discussion

5.1 FFS training and assessing changes in perceptions and practices

Comparisons of FFS IPM learning plots versus FP plots clearly showed that major reductions in insecticide use could be achieved using agroecological IPM methods, without compromising yield, quality or net income. Three seasons of production and economic data were assessed from the learning plots in farmers’ fields to compare crop performance progress and outcomes with each host farmer’s current FP and discussed during FFS sessions. The overall data obtained, combined with feedback from participating farmers and government extension agents, provides confidence that IPM practices can match or sometimes exceed the yields of conventional, untrained farmers.

While pest and disease management costs comprise a relatively small proportion of overall production costs for Ziway vegetables, the reductions in pesticide use achieved by using IPM methods enabled farmers to make savings on their input costs and increase their net income. This can even be achieved on those occasions when IPM yields may be somewhat lower than conventional yields (see Table 4).Between 2018 and 2020, 600 smallholders were trained via FFS. At the time of writing, a further 140 farmers (29% women) have received training since 2021 and selected FFS graduates (27% women) were supported to become Lead farmers in their communities and to mentor their neighbours. Another 500 farmers (26% women) were reached by 2023 via this peer-mentoring, gaining ‘beginners’ level IPM knowledge and skills, through visiting lead farmers’ fields and experience sharing at project seasonal Open Field Days and village social events.

At the outset, government and other stakeholders warned that pesticide reduction would be very challenging as smallholders were reluctant to change agronomic practices and looked to imitate the high input regimes carried out by large scale growers viewed as successful entrepreneurs. Ethiopian farmers have a wealth of accumulated knowledge about traditional crops and their agroecology from which they can draw (Belay et al., 2005; Ghebreyohannes et al., 2022). However, the baseline survey and group discussion in initial FFS training sessions indicated that the smallholder farmers engaged in this project, many of whom had only a few seasons of experience in growing non-native vegetables, found it hard to apply this knowledge to tomato and onion. By facilitating FFS groups to increase awareness of the benefits of natural enemies and to promote practical approaches to encouraging and conserving them in their fields, PAN Ethiopia was able to meet the challenge of changing farming practices away from dependence on insecticides. Weekly field observations, ‘insect zoos’ so that farmers could witness predators feeding on pests and provision of an illustrated pocket guide to ‘Farmers’ Friends and Vegetable Pests’ all promoted a deeper understanding of insects present in the fields and their ecological roles. This agroecological understanding was essential for persuading extension agents to reevaluate the need for regular insecticide use.

In support of this change in behaviour, the impact surveys demonstrated a shift by farmers to less toxic direct treatments for pest control, either botanically derived or synthetic, with all of those surveyed in 2022 using neem seed extract. Very few of these respondents (nor those in the 2018 baseline survey) had formerly selected to use neem products or products containing spinosad or spinetoram, as these products are more expensive than those containing organophosphates or pyrethroids. This result shows that IPM can change farmer decisions relating to the affordability of safer alternatives. It is important to note, however, that the 2022 impact survey was based on a relatively small sample size.

Capacity building for the 23 government extension staff engaged in the project, was also seen as a success. They particularly appreciated the practical observations of natural enemies, with which most had been unfamiliar. Although most village-level extension agents are agronomy graduates, they recounted that their IPM knowledge was theoretical and they had little confidence to advise farmers how to reduce pesticide use until they took part in PAN Ethiopia’s training. This gave them a practical understanding of agroecological and IPM principles and methods, backed up by IPM guidance notes prepared for the project.

5.2 Sustainability and dissemination

Our results demonstrated that building a foundation of effective, natural biological control of pests, by avoiding pesticides and supplying natural enemies with habitat and augmented food sources in the form of a protein and sugar-based food spray, combined with other agroecological IPM techniques, can make an important contribution to a sustainable pest management and help to greatly reduce or even eliminate the use of HHP insecticides. Other experiences with similar interventions on other crops have also shown the method to be effective (Mensah et al., 2012, 2024; Amera et al., 2017). One lesson learned from the FFS plots was that the role of good cultural practices, particularly the importance of regular and careful field sanitation, in reducing pest and disease incidence and spread receives little attention. Farmers and extension staff tend to think of chemical controls first; however, we found that this attitude can be changed by one season of FFS training. PAN Ethiopia’s success in changing pesticide dependence among farmers and extension staff has been acknowledged by the zonal BoA in its external evaluations. One of the study authors (Dr Robert Mensah, formerly of the Australian Cotton Research Institute) gave two interactive lectures for plant protection and extension staff on how to ‘think like an insect’ to explain the science behind the food spray method. Several outcomes contribute to a wider uptake of the IPM knowledge, skills and implementation beyond the original project duration and area (see Figure 2). Extension and decision-making staff from district BoAs, national NGOs and Arba Minch University teaching staff and students benefited from presentations on the food spray method and results at two project workshops in the Central and Southern Rift Valley and during Open Field Days (Figure 4D). A cadre of over 30 extension staff in the Ziway area are now competent in agroecological IPM methods and staff from the government district offices are keen to support wider uptake. A few farmers have been able to produce onion without pesticides and are interested to explore the feasibility of fully organic production with the BoA.

To address access constraints to brewery yeast for food spray inputs, the project trained farmers on the recipe based on maize, which is readily available (PAN UK, 2016). In 2021-22, PAN Ethiopia provided neem seedlings for farmers to grow in their field borders as a medium-term solution to overcome dependence on neem seed from other regions. FFS groups are discussing with extension staff options for short-term supply of neem seed and brewery yeast. Women Lead farmers have requested support to set up village-level micro-enterprises with simple grinding equipment to produce and sell maize-based food spray powder and neem seed extract for FFS groups.

Following its successful proof of concept for vegetable pests, we are promoting agroecological IPM with the food spray method as a biocontrol foundation elsewhere in Ethiopia. Since 2023, three onion FFS seasons were run in Arba Minch and three seasons of FFS and field trials have been conducted for onion, pepper and grass pea in Amhara Region with positive results. These dissemination opportunities are one of the benefits of the project’s close engagement with government extension services from the project design stage and increasing interest from NGOs to work on IPM alternatives for biodiversity conservation.

6 Recommendations

The major reductions in insecticide use achieved in this project confirm findings from other ecologically based pest management initiatives, in which cultural and biological controls form the foundation of effective and safe pest control (Horgan et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2022). To expand beyond the approximately 15% of vegetable producers in the Ziway area reached so far, public and private sector resources for training and logistical support, including marketing, are needed. Previous research has revealed how farmers can be innovative in optimizing value chains by using available plant materials to produce pest management products, thereby increasing farm profits and avoiding contaminating pesticides (Horgan et al., 2023), in a similar way to farmers in the CRV that used home-produced maize to produce food sprays. Introducing or validating additional IPM methods such as botanical products and integrating them with food sprays and assessing their effectiveness is needed, particularly to find alternatives for HHP fungicides (such as development of botanical product as a fungicide). Testing suites of combined IPM methods with farmers would help to understand their efficacy and economic feasibility under different conditions. Such validation studies would help engage a larger number of government staff and organizations in agroecological practices.

A national network of agroecological farmers would serve as a practitioners’ platform to consolidate ecological pest management approaches and experiment on how to increase resilience of vegetable production to climate change. Heong et al. (2021) highlight the need for policy reform and a wider audience for IPM to improve farmers’ ecological literacy and shift beliefs, practices and public support for ecological practices. Mainstreaming of agroecological approaches in vocational training is critical for scaling up changes in practices. The PAN Ethiopia team has made a good start with recent inclusion of organic practices in Ethiopia’s Technical Vocational and Education Training (TVET) curriculum. This could be complemented with vegetable-specific ecological pest management modules at university level. The Ecological and Organic Initiative for Africa (EOAI, 2024) could play a valuable role in disseminating proven methods and advocating for appropriate policy support.

Unlike some other African countries, Ethiopian Agri supply stores provide almost no biorational alternatives to HHPs. In Ziway, one commercial neem-based product is available (Nimbecidine) and only one biopesticide, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for leaf-chewing pests. National availability of biopesticide and biorational products registered for vegetables is extremely limited, compared to neighbouring Kenya, where several dozen products are registered and sold (CABI, 2024). Priority registration of biopesticides and biorational products would be a very positive step to support the Ethiopian horticulture sector to reduce reliance on HHPs, with benefits for farmer and worker health and consumer safety. Such a move, combined with regulatory withdrawals of OPs and other harmful insecticides implicated in poisoning incidents, would not only contribute to improving farmers’ health and economic outcomes but also help Ethiopia to meet its global commitments on pesticides under the recent Global Framework on Chemicals (UNEP, 2024) and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD, 2024). These steps would also contribute to achieving the sustainable and resilient food systems called for at the UNFCCC climate change COP28.

Global experiences with FFS programmes underline the importance of finding more rewarding markets for IPM produce grown with much reduced or zero pesticides (van den Berg et al., 2020). Despite good demand and premium prices, the logistics for Ziway FFS groups to reach premium markets in the capital have been a barrier to access premium prices. However, positive progress has been made at the local level, involving the establishment of a participatory guarantee system for a women farmers’ group that has enabled them to sell vegetables to local hotels and restaurants at premium prices. In India, Andhra Pradesh’s successful Community Managed Natural Farming Program involving 6 million farmers has shown the value of sustained policy support and practical help for farmers, including marketing. The initiative has seen significant benefits in terms of community health, income and food security (GIST Impact, 2023).

7 Conclusions

Vegetables are a major agricultural sector with serious health and environmental impacts caused by on HHPs. In this Ethiopian project we demonstrated how agroecological IPM methods together with farmer training can reduce the use and negative impacts of pesticides in vegetable production. We identified and worked with relevant stakeholders to achieve significant buy-in for safe and sustainable production, changing mindsets among farmers and extension staff. Participatory learning and knowledge co-creation methods have empowered farmers with agroecological knowledge and skills. Their subsequent uptake of agroecological IPM practices resulted in insecticide reductions of over 70%. These results provide convincing evidence that a phase out of HHPs, including OP insecticides, is fully feasible, in both agronomic and economic terms, by using agroecology.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the participants was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

SW: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AB: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. RM: Formal Analysis, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. ZG: Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. GK: Investigation, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AN: Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TA: Conceptualization, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. FH: Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SEW: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JS: Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AS: Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. Funding for the field trials and farmer training 2018-2020 was kindly provided by the Sustainable Trade Initiative IDH and The JJ Charitable Trust. Farmer training since 2022 has been generously supported by Traid. Preparation of this paper was supported by the University of Edinburgh’s Centre for Pesticide Suicide Prevention, funded by a grant from Open Philanthropy, at the recommendation of GiveWell.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2025.1674996/full#supplementary-material

References

Abaineh A., Ejigu D., Atlabachew M., Dejen E., and Tilahun G. (2024). Pesticides in use, their application and risks on human health and ecosystems: A case of Fogera District, Ethiopia. Sustain. Environ. 10, 2298063. doi: 10.1080/27658511.2023.2298063

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Adinew G. M., Asrie A. B., and Birru E. M. (2017b). Pattern of acute organophosphorus poisoning at University of Gondar Teaching Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. BMC Res. Notes. 10, 149. doi: 10.1186/s13104-017-2464-5

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Adinew G. M., Woredekal A. T., DeVos E. L., Birru E. M., and Abdulwahib M. B. (2017a). Poisoning cases and their management in emergency centres of government hospitals in northwest Ethiopia. Afr. J. Emerg. Med. 7, 74–78. doi: 10.1016/j.afjem.2017.04.005

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Amera T. and Abate A. (2008). “An assessment of the pesticide use, practice and hazards in the Ethiopian Rift Valley,” in Report for the African Stockpiles Program (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Institute for Sustainable Development, Ethiopia, and Pesticide Action Network UK). Available online at: https://xdocs.net/preview/an-assessment-of-the-pesticide-use-valley-5dd6ed0820df0.

Google Scholar

Amera T., Mensah R. K., and Belay A. (2017). Integrated pest management in a cotton-growing area in the Southern Rift Valley region of Ethiopia: development and application of a supplementary food spray product to manage pests and beneficial insects. Int. J. Pest Manage. 63, 185–204. doi: 10.1080/09670874.2016.1278084

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ayalew G. and Azerefegne F. (2019). Trends in research on arthropod pests of vegetables in Ethiopia, pest manag. J. Ethiopia. 22, 111–122. doi: 10.20372/pmjoe.v22i.85

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Balasha M. and Kesonga N. (2019). Pesticide use practices by chinese cabbage growers in suburban environment of lubumbashi (DR congo): main pests, costs and risks. J. Appl. Agric. Econ. Policy Anal. 2, 56–64. doi: 10.12691/jaaepa-2-1-8

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bees for Development (2022). More Bees: Supporting Agrobiodiveristy and Livelihoods in Amhara. Available online at: https://www.beesfordevelopment.org/news/Ethiopia-oct2022/ (Accessed June 27, 2025).

Google Scholar

Belay M., Edwards S., and Gebeyehu F. (2005). Culture as an expression of ecological diversity: integrating awareness of cultural heritage in Ethiopian schools. Mountain Res. Dev. 25, 10–14. doi: 10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025[0010:CAAEOE]2.0.CO;2

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bezabeh E., Haregewoin T., and Hilegiorgis D. (2014). reported growth and instability in area, yield, and production of tomato in Ethiopia in Int. J. Dev. Res. 4, 2215–2218. doi: 10.37118/ijdr

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Boateng K. O., Dankyi E., Amponsah I. K., Awudzi G. K., Amponsah E., and Darko G. (2023). Knowledge, perception, and pesticide application practices among smallholder cocoa farmers in four Ghanaian cocoa-growing regions. Toxicol. Rep. 10, 46–55. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.12.008

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bonvoisin T., Utyasheva L., Knipe D., Gunnell D., and Eddleston M. (2020). Suicide by pesticide poisoning in India: a review of pesticide regulations and their impact on suicide trends. BMC Public Health 20, 251. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-8339-z

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bourguet D. and Guillemaud T. (2016). “The Hidden and External Costs of Pesticide Use,” in Sustainable Agriculture Reviews. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews, vol. 19 . Ed. Lichtfouse E. (Springer, Cham). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-26777-7_2

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

CABI (2024). Bio-Protection Portal (Kenya). Available online at: https://bioprotectionportal.com/Kenya (Accessed March 28, 2024]).

Google Scholar

Calista N., Haikael M. D., Athanasia M. O., Neema K., and Judith K. (2022). Does pesticide exposure contribute to the growing burden of non - communicable diseases in Tanzania. Sci. Afr 17, e01276. doi: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01276

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Chowdhury F. R., Dewan G., Verma V. R., Knipe D. W., Isha I. T., Faiz M. A., et al. (2018). Bans of WHO Class I Pesticides in Bangladesh-suicide prevention without hampering agricultural output. Int. J. Epidemiol. 47, 175–184. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyx157

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2024). Decision adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biodiversity: 15/4 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Available online at: https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf (Accessed March 20, 2024).

Google Scholar

Desta H., Lemma B., and Stellmacher T. (2017). Farmers’ awareness and perception of Lake Ziway (Ethiopia) and its watershed management. Limnologica 65, 61–75. doi: 10.1016/j.limno.2017.07.005

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ecological Organic Agriculture Initiative (EOAI) (2024). Action Plan 2015-2020. Available online at: https://eoia-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/EOA-ActionPlan-English.pdf (Accessed March 28, 2024).

Google Scholar

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2024). Integrated production and Pest Management Programme in Africa – The Farmer Field School Approach. Available online at: https://www.fao.org/agriculture/ippm/programme/ffs-approach (Accessed March 28, 2024).

Google Scholar

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organisation of the United Nations (WHO) (2016). International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management: Guidelines on Highly Hazardous Pesticides (Rome: Communications division of FAO and WHO Press).

Google Scholar

Geck M. S., Crossland M., and Lamanna C. (2023). Measuring agroecology and its performance: An overview and critical discussion of existing tools and approaches. Outlook Agricultur. 52, 349–359. doi: 10.1177/00307270231196309

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ghebreyohannes T., Nyssen J., Negash E., Meaza H., Tesfamariam Z., Frankl A., et al. (2022). Challenges and resilience of an indigenous farming system during wartime (Tigray, North Ethiopia). Agron. Sust. Dev. 42, 116. doi: 10.1007/s13593-022-00812-5

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

GIST Impact (2023). “Natural farming through a wide-angle lens,” in True Cost Accounting Study of Community Managed Natural Farming in Andhra Pradesh, India (Switzerland and India: Report for the Global Alliance for the Future of Food). Available online at: https://futureoffood.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/apcnf-tca-study_2023.pdf.

Google Scholar

Gunnell D., Knipe D., Chang S.-S., Pearson M., Konradsen F., Lee W. J., et al. (2017). Prevention of suicide with regulations aimed at restricting access to highly hazardous pesticides: a systematic review of the international evidence. Lancet Glob. Health 5, e1026–e1037. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30299-1

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Harrison R. D., Thierfelder C., Baudron F., Chinwada P., Midega C., Schaffner U., et al. (2019). Agro-ecological options for fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda JE Smith) management: Providing low-cost, smallholder friendly solutions to an invasive pest. J. Environ. Manage. 1, 318–330. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.05.011

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Heong K.-L., Lu Z.-X., Chien H.-V., Escalada M., Settele J., Zhu Z.-R., et al. (2021). Ecological engineering for rice insect pest management: the need to communicate widely, improve farmers’ Ecological literacy and policy reforms to sustain adoption. Agronomy 11, 2208. doi: 10.3390/agronomy11112208

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Horgan F. G., Mundaca E. A., Hadi B. A., and Crisol-Martinez E. (2023). Diversified rice farms with vegetable plots and flower strips are associated with fewer pesticide applications in the Philippines. Insects 14, 778. doi: 10.3390/insects14100778

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Horgan F. G., Vu Q., Mundaca E. A., and Crisol-Martinez E. (2022). Restoration of rice ecosystem services: ‘Ecological engineering for pest management’ Incentives and practices in the mekong delta region of Vietnam. Agronomy 12, 1042. doi: 10.3390/agronomy12051042

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kapeleka J. A., Ngowi A. V., Mng’anya S., Willis S. E., Salmon J. P., Tyrell K. F., et al. (2025). Assessment of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning (UAPP) amongst cotton farmers in Tanzania. Toxics 13, 300. doi: 10.3390/toxics13040300

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Koye T. D., Koye A. D., and Amsalu Z. A. (2022). Analysis of technical efficiency of irrigated onion (Allium cepa L.) production in North Gondar Zone of amhara regional state, Ethiopia. PloS One 17, e0275177. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275177

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Loha K. M., Klous G., Lamoree M., and de Boer J. (2022). Pesticide use and practice of local farmers in the Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia: implications for the environment and health hazards. Int. J. Pest Manage. 13, 1–14. doi: 10.1080/09670874.2022.2135180

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Matowo N. S., Tanner M., Munhenga G., Mapua S. A., Finda M., Utzinger J., et al. (2020). Patterns of pesticide usage in agriculture in rural Tanzania call for integrating agricultural and public health practices in managing insecticide-resistance in malaria vectors. Malar. J. 19, 257. doi: 10.1186/s12936-020-03331-4

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mengistie B. T. (2016). Policy-practice nexus; Pesticide registration, distribution and use in Ethiopia. SM J. Environ. Toxicol. 2, 1006.

Google Scholar

Mengistie B. T., Mol A. P., and Oosterveer P. (2017). Pesticide use practices among smallholder vegetable farmers in Ethiopian Central Rift Valley. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 19, 301–324. doi: 10.1007/s10668-015-9728-9

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K. (1996). Suppression of Helicoverpa spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) oviposition by use of the natural enemy food supplement Envirofeast^®. Aust. J. Entomol. 35, 323–329. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1996.tb01412.x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K. and Khan M. (1997). Use of Medicago sativa (L.) interplantings/trap crops in the management of the green mirid, Creontiades dilutus (Stal) in commercial cotton in Australia.International Journal of Pest Management43, 197–202. doi: 10.1080/096708797228681

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K. (1999).Habitat diversity: Implications for the conservation and use of predatory insects of Helicoverpa spp. in cotton systems in Australia. International Journal of Pest Management45, 91–100. doi: 10.1080/096708799227879

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K. (2002a). Development of an integrated pest management programme for cotton. Part 1: Establishing and utililizing natural enemies. Int. J. Pest Manage. 48, 87–94. doi: 10.1080/09670870110095377

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K. (2002b). Development of an integrated pest management programme for cotton. Part 2: Integration of a lucerne/cotton interplant system, food supplement sprays with biological and synthetic insecticides. Int. J. Pest Manage. 48, 95–105. doi: 10.1080/09670870110095386

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K., van Liem N., van Dung B., Hai Yen B. T., and Trong P. D. (2024). Enhancing pest management - Utilizing supplementary food spray to harness predatory insects against fall armyworm in maize crop of Vinh Phuc Province. Vietnam. J. Biol. Control 38, 246–259. doi: 10.18311/jbc/2024/43108

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah R. K., Vodouhe D. S., Sanfillippo D., Assogba G., and Monday P. (2012). Increasing organic cotton production in Benin West Africa with a supplementary food spray product to manage pests and beneficial insects. Int. J. Pest Manage. 58, 53–64. doi: 10.1080/09670874.2011.645905

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Merga L. B., Mengistie A. A., Faber J. H., and van den Brink P. J. (2020). Trends in chemical pollution and ecological status of Lake Ziway, Ethiopia: a review focussing on nutrients, metals and pesticides. Afr. J. Aquat. Sci. 45, 386–400. doi: 10.2989/16085914.2020.1735987

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mergia M. T., Weldemariam E. D., Eklo O. M., and Yimer G. T. (2021). Small-scale farmer pesticide knowledge and practice and impacts on the environment and human health in Ethiopia. J. Health pollut. 11, 210607. doi: 10.5696/2156-9614-11.30.210607

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Negatu B., Degassa S., and Mekonnen Y. (2021). Environmental and health risks of pesticide use in Ethiopia. J. Health pollut. 11, 1–12. doi: 10.5696/2156-9614-11.30.210601

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Negatu B., Kromhout H., Mekonnen Y., and Vermeulen R. (2016). Use of chemical pesticides in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional comparative study on knowledge, attitude and practice of farmers and farm workers in three farming systems. Ann. Occup. Hyg 60, 551–566. doi: 10.1093/annhyg/mew004

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Negatu B., Kromhout H., Mekonnen Y., and Vermeulen R. (2017). Occupational pesticide exposure and respiratory health: a large-scale cross-sectional study in three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia. Thorax 72, 498–499. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-208924

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Negatu B., Vermeulen R., Mekonnen Y., and Kromhout H. (2018). Neurobehavioural symptoms and acute pesticide poisoning: a cross-sectional study among male pesticide applicators selected from three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia. Occup. Environ. Med. 75, 283–289. doi: 10.1136/oemed-2017-104538

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ngowi V. F., Mbise T. J., Ijani A. S. M., London L., and Ajayi O. C. (2007). Smallholder vegetable farmers in Northern Tanzania: Pesticides use practices, perceptions, cost and health effects. Crop Prot. 26, 1617–1624. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2007.01.008

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

PAN International (2024). PAN International List of Highly Hazardous Pesticides. Available online at: https://pan-international.org/wp-content/uploads/PAN_HHP_List.pdf (Accessed June 26, 2025). (PAN List of HHPs). Pesticide Action Network International, version December 2024.

Google Scholar

PAN International (2025). Parties to the Stockholm convention agree to phase out the highly toxic pesticide chlorpyrifos. Available online at: https://pan-international.org/release/parties-to-the-stockholm-convention-agree-to-phase-out-the-highly-toxic-pesticide-chlorpyrifos/ (Accessed June 26, 2025).

Google Scholar

PAN UK (2016). Using the Food Spray Method to enhance biological control in cotton: a trainers’ guide. Available online at: https://www.pan-uk.org/food-spray/ (Accessed March 28, 2024).

Google Scholar

PAN UK (2024). Cotton in Ethiopia, East Africa. Available online at: https://www.pan-uk.org/cotton-in-Ethiopia/ (Accessed March 28, 2024).

Google Scholar

Parolin P., Bresch C., Desneux N., Brun R., Bout A., Boll R., et al. (2012). Secondary plants used in biological control: a review. Int. J. Pest Manage. 58, 91–100. doi: 10.1080/09670874.2012.659229

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Razaq M., Mensah R., and Athar H.-U. (2019). Insect Pest Management in Cotton. Cotton Production. doi: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch5

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Razwiedani L. L. and Rautenbach P. G. D. (2017). Epidemiology of organophosphate poisoning in the tshwane district of South Africa. Environ. Health Insights 11. doi: 10.1177/1178630217694149

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Robinson D. E., Stuart A. M., Willis S., Salmon J. P., Ramjattan J., Ganpat W., et al. (2024). Assessment of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning among smallholder vegetable farmers in Trinidad and Jamaica. Front. Public Health 12. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1470276

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Stuart A. M., Jacob J., Awoniyi A. M., Costa F., Bosma L., Meheretu Y., et al. (2025). Alternative domestic rodent pest management approaches to address the hazardous use of metal phosphides in low- and middle-income countries. J. Pest Sci. 98, 89–111. doi: 10.1007/s10340-024-01825-7

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Stuart A. M., Merfield C. N., Horgan F. G., Willis S., Watts M. A., Ramirez-Munoz F., et al. (2023). Agriculture without paraquat is feasible without loss of productivity—lessons learned from phasing out a highly hazardous herbicide. Environ. Sci. pollut. Res. 30, 16984–17008. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-24951-0

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Teklu B. M., Hailu A., Wiegant D. A., Scholten B. S., and van den Brink P. J. (2018). Impacts of nutrients and pesticides from small- and large-scale agriculture on the water quality of Lake Ziway, Ethiopia. Environ. Sci. pollut. Res. 25, 13207–13216. doi: 10.1007/s11356-016-6714-1

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Teshome Z. A., Argaw A. B., and Wanore W. W. (2023). Pesticide utilization, practices, and their effect on honeybees in north gonder, amhara region, Ethiopia. Adv. Agric. 1–11. doi: 10.1155/2023/9971768

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tyrell K., Willis S., Williamson S., Vodouhe D. S., and Youdeowei A. (2019). “Monitoring and minimizing health risks related to pesticides,” in Integrated management of insect pests. Eds. Kogan M. and Higley L. (Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, London), 733–756.

Google Scholar

United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) (2024). Global Framework on Chemicals - For a Planet free of Harm from Chemicals and Waste. Available online at: https://www.chemicalsframework.org/sites/default/files/documents/GFC_Main_Brochure:6_March_2024.pdf (Accessed March 20, 2024).

Google Scholar

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2013). Report on the costs of inaction on sound chemicals management (Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme). Available online at: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/costs-inaction-sound-management-chemicals (Accessed March 20, 2024).

Google Scholar

van den Berg H., Phillips S., Dicke M., and Fredrix M. (2020). Impacts of farmer field schools in the human, social, natural and financial domain: a qualitative review. Food Sec. 12, 1443–1459. doi: 10.1007/s12571-020-01046-7

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Watts M. and Williamson S. (2015). Replacing Chemicals with Biology: Phasing out highly hazardous pesticides with agroecology (Penang, Malaysia: Pesticide Action Network Asia and the Pacific (PANAP) on behalf of PAN International).

Google Scholar

Williamson S., Ball A., and Pretty J. (2008). Trends in pesticide use and drivers for safer pest management in four African countries. Crop Prot. 27, 1327–1334. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2008.04.006

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Yohannes Y. B., Ikenaka Y., Nakayama S. M. M., and Ishizuka M. (2014). Organochlorine pesticides in bird species and their prey (fish) from the Ethiopian Rift Valley region, Ethiopia. Environ. pollut. 192, 121–128. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.05.007

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhu P., Zheng X., Johnson A. C., Chen G., Xu H., Zhang F., et al. (2022). Ecological engineering for rice pest suppression in China. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 42, 69. doi: 10.1007/s13593-022-00800-9

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar