Cutting-Edge Carbon-Based Architectures for Energy Production and Conversion

Adedapo Oluwasanu Adeola^1*Demilade T Adedipe²Dorcas O Adenuga³Pannan Kyesmen⁴Abimbola G. Olaremu¹Ayodeji Ijagbuji¹Femi Oloye⁵

• ¹Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Nigeria
• ²City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR China
• ³University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
• ⁴Joseph Sarwuan Tarkaa University, Makurdi, Nigeria
• ⁵University of Pittsburgh Bradford, Bradford, United States

Carbon-based materials are pivotal in next-generation energy technologies due to their tunable electronic properties, porosity, and chemical stability. Structural variations from 0D to 3D; graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon aerogels, and biomass-derived activated carbons; enable multifunctional roles as conductive scaffolds, catalysts, adsorbents, and enzyme supports. In biofuel production, they enhance biomass pretreatment, fermentation, and biodiesel synthesis, achieving up to 95% biodiesel yields and 30–50% faster fermentation. In thermochemical processes, porous carbons improve hydrocarbon cracking, deoxygenation, and tar conversion, boosting selectivity by 20–40% and reducing byproducts by 25%. For CO₂ valorization, carbon nanomaterials enable selective conversion with Faradaic efficiencies >80% and CO₂-to-methanol rates up to 0.5 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹. In solar and hydrogen technologies, they enhance charge transport, stability, and catalysis, delivering photocurrents of 15–25 mA cm⁻², solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies of 12–18%, and 40% higher H₂ yields in biomass gasification. Heteroatom doping and surface functionalization allow precise control over activity and selectivity. Despite scalability and integration challenges, AI-guided design, waste-derived carbons, and hybrid architectures promise sustainable, high-performance solutions. This review underscores carbon's role in bridging 2 fundamental science and industrial applications, driving the transition toward a sustainable energy future.