Investigating the critical role of Hormuud’s EVC-Plus mobile money in augmenting the delivery of lifesaving humanitarian aid in Somalia

This study investigates the pivotal role of Hormuud Telecom’s EVC-Plus mobile money platform in enhancing the delivery of lifesaving humanitarian aid in Somalia, one of the world’s most fragile states. It examines how operational accessibility, financial integration, and inclusive financial resilience influence the effectiveness of humanitarian aid programs in contexts of systemic fragility. A quantitative survey design was employed, drawing on data from 240 respondents, including humanitarian practitioners, beneficiaries, and mobile money users. Anchored in Diffusion of Innovation Theory, Financial Inclusion Theory, and the Resource-Based View (RBV), this study utilized multiple regression analysis to assess both direct effects and interaction dynamics among core variables. Model diagnostics ensured reliability, validity, and robustness. The results demonstrate that financial integration, usability and accessibility, and inclusive financial resilience significantly improve the effectiveness of humanitarian aid delivery. Among these factors, financial integration emerged as the strongest predictor. However, the interaction effect between operational accessibility and financial integration was significantly negative, suggesting diminishing returns when both dimensions are simultaneously maximized. These findings position EVC-Plus as a critical humanitarian infrastructure while highlighting the need for balanced integration strategies. The study provides actionable insights for humanitarian organizations, policymakers, and mobile money providers. It advocates for inclusive program design, capacity building for digital literacy, and collaborative partnerships to enhance service reach and efficiency. For policymakers, the results underscore the importance of integrating mobile money platforms into national social protection and emergency response frameworks, supported by robust regulatory safeguards and investments in digital infrastructure. This study is among the first empirical investigations to position mobile money platforms as strategic humanitarian infrastructures rather than mere financial tools in fragile state contexts. Linking digital financial services with humanitarian aid delivery provides a novel framework for understanding the systemic role of mobile money in crisis response. This research enriches the fields of humanitarian finance, digital inclusion, and mobile money adoption by offering empirical evidence from Somalia’s unique context. It extends theoretical frameworks by demonstrating how EVC-Plus bridges technological innovation, institutional resilience, and inclusive development, offering a scalable model for fragile and conflict-affected states.

Introduction

EVC-Plus (Electronic Voucher Cash) is a mobile money–based digital payment system operated by Hormuud Telecom that enables users in Somalia to store, send, and receive funds electronically via mobile phones without requiring a formal bank account. In addition to its commercial functions, EVC-Plus serves as a critical infrastructure for humanitarian aid delivery by facilitating rapid, traceable, and efficient cash transfers to beneficiaries in a fragile and predominantly informal economic environment.

Somalia is one of the world’s most fragile states, having endured decades of political instability, armed conflict, natural disasters, and institutional collapse. These conditions have severely affected socioeconomic development and left more than 70% of the population in need of humanitarian assistance (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2024; World Bank, 2023). Droughts, famine, and ongoing displacement have further strained the humanitarian response infrastructure. The breakdown of public service delivery systems has pushed international and local organizations to search for innovative, scalable solutions for aid distribution in a context where banking and transportation networks remain limited (Maxwell and Majid, 2016; Chonka, 2025a,b).

Against this backdrop, mobile money services have emerged as critical enablers of economic and social resilience. Somalia is one of the few countries where more than 80% of the adult population uses mobile money as their primary financial tool (Sharif and Sharif, 2024). Among these, Hormuud Telecom’s EVC-Plus has established itself as the most widely used mobile money platform in the country. Launched in 2011, it allows users to store, send, and receive funds digitally without needing traditional banking services (Mohamed and Nor, 2023). EVC-Plus now plays a significant role not only in commerce and remittances but also in humanitarian programming, where its utility in delivering cash-based assistance is being rapidly scaled.

Traditional humanitarian delivery mechanisms in Somalia—such as in-kind aid and cash handouts—face severe operational challenges. Insecurity, logistical delays, theft, and high overhead costs often compromise the effectiveness and efficiency of aid distribution (Hussein, 2024). These issues disproportionately affect internally displaced persons (IDPs), women, and rural communities, who are often located in areas with little or no infrastructure or are at risk of being excluded owing to bureaucratic or political barriers. Furthermore, these methods can be inefficient in volatile environments, where fast and secure aid delivery is critical for survival.

While mobile money offers a promising alternative, its integration into humanitarian workflows is not without challenges. Concerns regarding data privacy, recipient verification, network access, and regulatory oversight persist (Chonka, 2025a,b; Owino, 2020). Moreover, questions remain about whether such platforms are sufficiently inclusive and resilient in times of extreme crisis. As more humanitarian actors turn to mobile money, there is a growing need to assess the efficacy, reach, and equity of this mode of aid delivery critically. Without such assessments, there is a risk that digital tools could replicate or even amplify preexisting structural inequities within the humanitarian system.

The primary motivation for this study lies in the transformational potential of digital financial services to improve humanitarian response systems in fragile states. As humanitarian agencies face increasing pressure to deliver aid rapidly, transparently, and cost-effectively, mobile money systems such as EVC-Plus are emerging as key enablers of such goals (UNICEF, 2024). EVC-Plus’s unique features—such as bulk payments, low transaction costs, and ease of access via basic mobile phones—allow agencies to disburse aid at scale even in areas where no other financial infrastructure exists.

However, there is a lack of detailed empirical research examining how and to what extent platforms such as EVC-Plus facilitate improved humanitarian outcomes. Understanding its role in cash transfer programming, recipient empowerment, and institutional trust-building is vital for informing policy and practice in humanitarian finance (Al-Ahmadi and Zampaglione, 2022a, 2022b; Smith, 2021). This study explores these dynamics with a focus on both service delivery and recipient experiences, aiming to bridge the gap between technical capacity and humanitarian impact.

The urgency of this study stems from the increasing frequency and severity of humanitarian crises in Somalia, driven by climate change, ongoing conflict, and macroeconomic instability. With traditional aid delivery systems becoming increasingly unsustainable, the humanitarian sector must adapt rapidly. EVC-Plus, as an innovative financial tool, provides an opportunity to reiterate how aid can be distributed in fragile contexts (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b). Assessing its effectiveness is therefore not only timely but also essential for improving humanitarian delivery models in similar crisis-affected regions.

To guide the analysis, the study applies three theoretical lenses. First, the diffusion of innovations theory (Rogers et al., 2014) explains the adoption and spread of EVC-Plus among diverse actors. Second, financial inclusion theory offers insight into how digital platforms extend financial services—and by extension, humanitarian aid—to previously excluded groups (Demirgüç-Kunt et al., 2022). Finally, the resource-based view (RBV) frames Hormuud Telecom as a strategic partner with unique capabilities that contribute to humanitarian infrastructure (Barney, 1991; Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b). Together, these theories provide a robust framework for exploring the systemic, organizational, and societal dimensions of mobile money in aid delivery.

While our earlier studies (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a; Mohamed and Nor, 2021b; Mohamed and Nor, 2023; Nor and Mohamed, 2024) examined EVC-Plus primarily through the lenses of financial inclusion, macroeconomic effects, SME performance, and adoption dynamics, they did not explicitly investigate its role as an operational infrastructure for humanitarian aid delivery. This study addresses that gap by shifting the analytical focus from outcomes related to adoption and economic participation toward the system-level functionality of EVC-Plus in crisis and aid contexts. Specifically, it examines how EVC-Plus facilitates efficient aid disbursement, enhances transparency, and contributes to delivery resilience in a fragile, stateless environment characterized by recurrent shocks and limited formal financial infrastructure. By doing so, the article extends the existing literature on mobile money in Somalia beyond conventional development and financial inclusion narratives, offering novel empirical insights into the humanitarian and operational dimensions of mobile money systems that have remained underexplored in prior research.

This study is distinct in its focus on EVC-Plus as both a technological innovation and a humanitarian delivery infrastructure. Unlike previous research that emphasized the economic or commercial uses of mobile money in Somalia, this research explicitly focused on humanitarian aid delivery—a relatively underexplored but critically important application. It also foregrounds the perspectives of multiple stakeholders, including NGOs, beneficiaries, and service providers, allowing for a holistic assessment of system-wide effectiveness.

The findings are expected to have significant implications for both theory and practice. From a theoretical standpoint, this study contributes to the emerging literature on digital humanitarianism by integrating insights from technology adoption, financial access, and institutional capability. Practically, the study offers concrete guidance to humanitarian actors and policy-makers aiming to leverage mobile money platforms for aid distribution in high-risk, low-infrastructure environments. This dual contribution underscores the relevance and originality of the research.

While mobile money is well documented in economic and financial studies, there is limited critical scholarship on its role in humanitarian response systems, particularly in conflict-affected countries such as Somalia. Most existing studies focus on the impact of mobile money on business development, diaspora remittances, and informal trade. Very few studies have explored how mobile money platforms function as logistical and ethical tools for humanitarian actors or how they shape the experiences and choices of aid recipients in fragile states.

This study seeks to address the identified research gap by providing a context specific, critically analytical exploration of EVC-Plus in the humanitarian sector. Through a combination of case analysis, stakeholder interviews, and theoretical modeling, this research aims to deepen the understanding of how mobile money platforms can be optimized for crisis response, thereby contributing to both the academic literature and practical humanitarian innovation. The aim of this study is to assess the effectiveness and impact of EVC-Plus mobile money in enhancing the delivery of humanitarian aid in Somalia’s fragile and underserved regions.

Literature review

Somalia represents one of the most complex and enduring humanitarian emergencies globally, rooted in decades of armed conflict, political instability, and environmental degradation. Since the collapse of the central government in 1991, Somalia has experienced continuous cycles of violence, clan-based conflict, and insurgency, particularly by extremist groups such as Al-Shabaab. These factors have severely undermined state institutions, disrupted public services, and displaced millions of people (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2024; Maxwell and Majid, 2016). Today, more than 7 million Somalis are estimated to be in need of humanitarian assistance, with more than 3 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) living in camps or informal settlements [International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2023].

In addition to conflict, Somalia faces chronic environmental crises, including recurrent droughts and floods, which exacerbate food insecurity and displacement. The country has experienced at least five major droughts in the past two decades, most recently from 2022–2023, leading to famine-like conditions in parts of southern Somalia [Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2023]. These climate shocks destroy livelihoods—particularly for pastoralist and farming communities—and place enormous pressure on aid systems. Humanitarian access is further hindered by poor road infrastructure, limited transportation networks, and ongoing insecurity, which restricts access to many rural areas (World Bank, 2022).

The humanitarian architecture in Somalia has historically been shaped by high levels of aid dependency and short-term emergency responses. Due to institutional collapse, international donors and UN agencies have filled critical service gaps, creating parallel systems of governance in some areas (Qaddour et al., 2025; Hoeffler and Justino, 2024; United Nations Development Programme & World Food Programme, 2023). While humanitarian interventions have saved countless lives, critics argue that the model often reinforces dependency, undermines local ownership, and focuses on reactive rather than transformative solutions (Bradbury, 2010; Khoury, 2024; McGrath, 2025; Harb, 2025). Humanitarian coordination also remains fragmented, with challenges in data sharing, strategic planning, and alignment with national development priorities (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2024).

In this context, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies continue to play pivotal roles in humanitarian response, service delivery, and early recovery programming. Organizations such as the World Food Programme (WFP), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) operate at scale across Somalia, often partnering with local NGOs to distribute aid and run protection programs (UNICEF, 2023). Their presence is particularly crucial in areas beyond government control. However, the effectiveness of their interventions often hinges on local legitimacy, community engagement, and coordination with existing informal governance structures (Humanitarian Policy Group, 2021). Amid these challenges, innovation—such as the use of mobile money for aid delivery—is increasingly recognized as a way to overcome logistical and security obstacles while increasing accountability and access.

Mobile money in fragile states

In recent years, mobile money has emerged as a transformative financial innovation, particularly in fragile and conflict-affected states where access to traditional banking is limited or nonexistent. Mobile money refers to the use of mobile phones to access financial services such as cash transfers, bill payments, and savings, often through SMS or app-based platforms (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b). Its emergence is reshaping financial inclusion strategies and humanitarian operations, especially in regions where governance is weak, infrastructure is limited, and populations are highly mobile or displaced. Fragile states present unique challenges and opportunities for mobile money expansion, with humanitarian organizations increasingly adopting these tools to reach vulnerable populations in remote and insecure areas (Ritchie, 2023).

Globally, mobile money has experienced significant growth in both stable and fragile countries. As of 2023, more than 1.6 billion registered accounts exist across 100 countries, with Sub-Saharan Africa accounting for nearly 70% of all active users (Aker and Cariolle, 2023; Ahassan et al., 2021). In fragile settings, mobile money enables rapid, traceable, and secure humanitarian cash transfers, often replacing traditional in-kind assistance. It also supports local economies by enhancing liquidity and enabling remote payments, especially where banking services are unavailable. However, these benefits are accompanied by operational risks, including fraud, cybersecurity threats, user identity challenges, and regulatory gaps, which can undermine trust and effectiveness if not carefully managed (CALP Network, 2023; GSMA, 2021; Norwegian Refugee Council, 2023).

Several fragile and disaster-prone countries have demonstrated the power of mobile money in crisis response. In Kenya, the M-PESA platform has long served as a model for mobile money-driven financial inclusion, especially in the aftermath of political violence and droughts (Mbiti and Weil, 2016). In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), mobile money is used for paying teachers and civil servants in conflict zones, helping them overcome delays and corruption in cash-based systems (Bailey, 2017; de Bruijn et al., 2017). Similarly, in Haiti, following the 2010 earthquake, platforms such as Digicel’s TchoTcho Mobile facilitated aid delivery to thousands of displaced people when the physical infrastructure was destroyed (Blumenstock et al., 2020). These case studies illustrate mobile money’s ability to build resilience and bypass dysfunctional public service systems in fragile environments.

Despite its potential, mobile money faces several barriers to adoption in fragile states. These include low digital literacy, limited mobile phone ownership—especially among women—and weak identity documentation systems, which complicate know-Your-Customer (KYC) compliance (Atta-Aidoo et al., 2024; Osabutey and Jackson, 2024). Furthermore, in highly insecure or politically unstable environments, mobile money services may be subject to disruptions or politicization, further hindering their scalability. Humanitarian agencies often face operational difficulties in negotiating access, verifying beneficiaries, and ensuring digital equity among marginalized groups (Bailey and Nyabola, 2021; Madon and Schoemaker, 2021). Therefore, while mobile money presents an innovative solution, its success in fragile settings depends on a context-sensitive approach, robust regulation, and strong partnerships between humanitarian actors, private telecom companies, and national regulators.

EVC-Plus: Somalia’s mobile money ecosystem

In Somalia’s unique postconflict economy, where formal banking infrastructure is scarce or inaccessible, mobile money has emerged as a critical financial lifeline. Hormuud Telecom, Somalia’s largest telecom company, launched EVC-Plus (Electronic Voucher Card Plus) in 2011 as a free mobile money service to meet the growing demand for secure and accessible digital financial tools (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b). In response to Somalia’s unstable financial sector, EVC-Plus was designed to facilitate real-time person-to-person transactions, bill payments, and, increasingly, humanitarian cash transfers (Developing Telecoms, 2024; Yahoo Tech, 2023). Its role has since expanded significantly, positioning Hormuud as both a telecommunications leader and a crucial pillar of Somalia’s informal financial system.

EVC-Plus dominates Somalia’s mobile money market, with penetration levels estimated at over 80% of the adult population, especially in southern and central regions (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b). The platform processes millions of transactions daily, with average monthly transaction volumes surpassing $2.7 billion (World Bank, 2024). In 2024, Hormuud achieved a major milestone by launching interoperability between EVC-Plus banks and Somali banks, allowing users to move funds between mobile wallets and bank accounts seamlessly (Developing Telecoms, 2024). This step toward formal financial integration signifies the maturation of EVC-Plus from a stand-alone cash tool to a platform embedded in Somalia’s broader financial ecosystem.

The regulatory environment for mobile money in Somalia has strengthened in recent years, supporting the credibility and expansion of platforms such as EVC-Plus. In 2021, EVC-Plus received formal licensing from the Central Bank of Somalia, ensuring compliance with national financial regulations and anti-money laundering (AML) frameworks (Ibrahim, 2025). This regulatory endorsement has enhanced the trust of both users and international development agencies. It also enables humanitarian organizations to process larger volumes of cash transfers via EVC-Plus without facing restrictions on transaction or wallet limits—an essential feature in emergency response scenarios.

Hormuud has also established itself as a key humanitarian technology partner, particularly through its EVC-Plus Humanitarian Portal, which was launched to support bulk aid disbursements. As of 2023, more than 120 humanitarian agencies, including the UN World Food Programme and the Norwegian Refugee Council, were using this system to deliver cash assistance directly to beneficiaries in remote and insecure areas (Garowe Online, 2023). The portal allows agencies to transfer up to $1 million in one click, improving speed, security, and accountability. By integrating digital financial services into humanitarian workflows, EVC-Plus bridges a critical gap between aid actors and underserved populations, demonstrating the power of public–private collaboration in fragile state contexts.

Mobile money and humanitarian aid

The shift from in-kind aid to digital cash transfers represents a significant innovation in humanitarian response, especially in fragile and conflict-affected contexts. Digital cash assistance, facilitated through mobile money platforms, empowers recipients by offering them autonomy to prioritize their needs—whether food, shelter, health, or education—unlike traditional aid, which often comes in preselected forms (World Food Programme, 2025). Compared with in-kind distributions, mobile money systems reduce logistical burdens, minimize transaction costs, and are easier to scale, which are often hampered by insecurity, corruption, and inefficiencies (Nor and Mohamed, 2024). Moreover, digital transfers enhance the dignity of recipients and reduce dependency cycles by supporting local markets and informal economies (Ndandani, 2022).

In Somalia, multiple humanitarian organizations have integrated Hormuud’s EVC-Plus into their aid delivery mechanisms. Agencies such as the World Food Programme (WFP), the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), and Save the Children have used EVC-Plus to disburse unconditional cash transfers to internally displaced persons (IDPs) and drought-affected communities (Garowe Online, 2023). These agencies utilize Hormuud’s Humanitarian Portal, a bulk-transfer interface specifically designed for NGOs and donors, allowing them to distribute funds to thousands of verified recipients within minutes. EVC-Plus also includes real-time monitoring capabilities, which ensure that funds reach the intended beneficiaries and allow organizations to respond quickly to new or evolving crises.

The operational impact of using mobile money in humanitarian programming is significant. Studies show that digital transfers via EVC-Plus improve delivery speed, reduce administrative overhead, and offer greater transparency and auditability than physical aid methods do (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b). In areas with limited physical access due to conflict or flooding, EVC-Plus enables organizations to continue operations remotely, maintaining continuity and extending coverage to hard-to-reach populations. Beneficiaries also report increased satisfaction due to the privacy, control, and safety of mobile-based transfers (World Food Programme, 2025). Furthermore, mobile money has helped aid agencies shift toward more data-driven decision-making, using transaction and location analytics to track effectiveness and coverage in near real time.

However, challenges persist. One of the primary limitations in using mobile money in humanitarian contexts is digital literacy, especially among older populations, women, and people in rural areas. In Somalia, the lack of formal identity documentation poses a challenge for Know Your Customer (KYC) compliance, raising concerns around fraud prevention and regulatory risk (GSMA, 2023). Additionally, mobile network coverage can be inconsistent in rural and conflict-prone regions, and technical issues may delay access to aid. Humanitarian organizations also need to navigate data protection risks, ensuring that recipient information is secure and not misused by third parties or state actors. These barriers highlight the importance of designing mobile money interventions that are context aware, inclusive, and coupled with community sensitization.

The literature increasingly recognizes that the effectiveness of mobile money–enabled humanitarian interventions depends not only on adoption rates but also on system-level characteristics that shape operational performance and beneficiary outcomes. Operational Accessibility has been widely discussed in studies of digital financial services as a critical determinant of usability, reliability, and reach, particularly in fragile and infrastructure-constrained settings. High levels of accessibility—reflected in network coverage, ease of transaction execution, and agent availability—are shown to enhance the timely delivery of assistance and reduce exclusion errors during emergencies. Financial Integration extends this perspective by emphasizing the extent to which mobile money platforms are embedded within broader financial and transactional ecosystems. Prior research suggests that well-integrated digital payment systems lower transaction costs, improve liquidity management, and enable seamless coordination among humanitarian actors, thereby strengthening the efficiency and scalability of aid delivery. In contrast, weak integration can constrain the flow of funds and undermine the responsiveness of humanitarian programs.

Complementing these operational dimensions, Inclusive Financial Resilience has emerged as a key construct in the literature on digital finance and crisis response, capturing the capacity of financial systems to support equitable access and adaptive coping mechanisms during shocks. Studies indicate that inclusive and resilient digital financial infrastructures can enhance households’ ability to manage risk, smooth consumption, and recover more quickly from crises, thereby amplifying the developmental impact of humanitarian assistance. The dependent variable, Humanitarian Aid Delivery Effectiveness, reflects the extent to which digital platforms enable fast, secure, transparent, and reliable transfers of assistance to intended beneficiaries. Existing evidence from cash-based intervention programs highlights that improvements in delivery effectiveness are closely linked to operational accessibility, financial integration, and resilience features of payment systems. Together, these strands of literature underscore the need for an integrated analytical approach that examines how these interrelated constructs jointly shape humanitarian aid outcomes in fragile contexts (see, for instance, Developing Telecoms, 2023; Mohamed and Sharif, 2024; Nor, 2025; Nor and Ali, 2025.

Theoretical frameworks

Diffusion of innovations theory

The diffusion of innovations theory (DOI), developed by Rogers et al. (2014), provides a foundational framework for understanding how new technologies and ideas spread across populations. The theory highlights how innovations are communicated over time through particular channels among members of a social system. In development and humanitarian contexts, DOI is essential for examining how both users and implementing agencies adopt digital technologies such as mobile money or digital identity systems, especially in regions with limited infrastructure or during periods of crisis.

Adoption patterns among users and agencies are influenced by a variety of factors, including awareness, trialability, and the perceived social value of the innovation. Agencies may initially act as early adopters to pilot digital tools, but full institutional uptake often depends on evidence of effectiveness and stakeholder buy-in. For individual users, particularly in low-income or crisis-affected areas, adoption hinges on ease of access, peer influence, and the visible utility of the innovation, such as the ability to receive remittances or humanitarian aid digitally (Rogers et al., 2014).

Critical to the adoption process are perceptions of the innovation’s relative advantage, compatibility with existing values and infrastructure, and complexity or simplicity of use (Rogers et al., 2014). For example, mobile money services gain traction more quickly when they align with local transaction habits and are simple enough to be used by individuals with limited digital literacy. Conversely, if systems are perceived as too complex or incompatible with existing norms, their uptake may stall, regardless of their potential benefits (Dearing and Cox, 2018).

In conclusion, DOI theory offers a lens to evaluate not only how digital innovations spread but also why certain communities or institutions may be more receptive than others. By focusing on perceived benefits, compatibility with local contexts, and simplicity, stakeholders can design interventions that accelerate adoption and foster sustainable impact in digital humanitarian and development efforts.

Financial inclusion theory

Financial inclusion theory underscores the importance of enabling access to affordable and appropriate financial services for all segments of society, particularly marginalized and underserved populations (Ozili, 2020). Traditionally, large swaths of populations in developing countries have remained financially excluded due to geographic, socioeconomic, or institutional barriers (Demirgüç-Kunt et al., 2018). The theory emphasizes that inclusion in the formal financial system enhances individuals’ capacity to save, invest, and manage risks, contributing to poverty reduction and economic development.

One of the critical aspects of this theory is its focus on expanding access to formal financial tools such as savings accounts, credit, insurance, and payment systems. In many low-income or fragile settings, these services are inaccessible because of the absence of physical banking infrastructure or the costs of maintaining an account. Financial technologies such as mobile money have emerged as transformative solutions, allowing users to access and manage finances digitally without relying on brick-and-mortar banks (Suri and Jack, 2016). These tools not only bridge geographic gaps but also simplify transactions, improve transparency, and enhance financial security for the most vulnerable.

The role of mobile money in advancing financial inclusion is particularly notable in regions where traditional banking systems are weak or mistrusted (Osabutey and Jackson, 2024). Mobile platforms such as Hormuud in Somalia facilitate digital transactions, enabling users to send remittances, pay bills, and even access microcredit services. In fragile and conflict-affected states, such systems often become the backbone of informal economies and support inclusive development by ensuring broader access to economic participation (Osabutey and Jackson, 2024). This aligns with Financial Inclusion Theory’s core argument that access to financial services is a fundamental enabler of individual empowerment and systemic resilience.

Ultimately, financial inclusion theory provides a critical framework for analyzing how digital platforms can democratize financial services. Focusing on reducing exclusionary barriers and leveraging technology to reach the underserved supports the design of inclusive economic systems that empower individuals and stabilize communities.

Resource-based view (RBV)

The resource-based view (RBV) is a strategic management framework that emphasizes the role of internal resources in creating and sustaining competitive advantage (Madhani, 2010). In development and humanitarian settings, RBV offers a unique lens to view how localized, tech-driven entities such as Hormuud become strategic assets in fragile ecosystems. The theory posits that firms with rare, valuable, inimitable, and nonsubstitutable (VRIN) resources are better positioned to deliver sustained value (Barney, 1991).

Hormuud, a leading digital service provider in Somalia, represents such a resource within the aid and development landscape. Its deep penetration into local communities, reliable mobile infrastructure, and trust among users position it as a critical strategic partner for agencies seeking to deliver aid in volatile regions. In contexts where state institutions are weak, organizations such as Hormuud effectively become parallel infrastructures that support service delivery, data collection, and coordination efforts (Musa and Horst, 2019). Viewing Hormuud through the RBV lens allows practitioners to understand how leveraging local digital capabilities can enhance the impact and efficiency of humanitarian responses.

Moreover, the comparative advantage of digital platforms such as Hormuud becomes especially apparent in crisis contexts, where traditional logistics and banking systems often collapse. These platforms offer a secure and rapid means of distributing aid, verifying identities, and maintaining financial flows. Their agility and embeddedness within local contexts make them difficult to replicate and thus strategically indispensable (Mohamed and Nor, 2021a, 2021b; Nor and Mohamed, 2024). In this way, the RBV shifts the focus from external solutions to internal capacities within local ecosystems, recognizing indigenous firms and technologies as foundational to resilience.

In sum, the resource-based view helps highlight how local digital actors such as Hormuud function not merely as service providers but also as essential, value-creating assets in fragile and humanitarian contexts. Recognizing and integrating these strategic resources into development strategies can lead to more grounded, scalable, and sustainable outcomes.

The selection of the three independent variables—Operational Accessibility, Financial Integration, and Inclusive Financial Resilience—is theoretically grounded in Diffusion of Innovation (DOI), Financial Intermediation Theory (FIT), and the Resource-Based View (RBV). Drawing from DOI, Operational Accessibility captures core innovation attributes such as relative advantage, ease of use, and compatibility, which determine the adoption and effective utilization of EVC-Plus in humanitarian operations, particularly under conditions of infrastructural fragility. Financial Integration is derived primarily from Financial Intermediation Theory, which emphasizes the role of financial systems in reducing transaction costs, improving liquidity, and efficiently mobilizing and allocating resources; in this context, EVC-Plus functions as a digital intermediary that integrates humanitarian actors and beneficiaries into a streamlined financial ecosystem. Inclusive Financial Resilience is conceptually anchored in the Resource-Based View, which frames EVC-Plus as a strategic resource whose scalability, reliability, and embeddedness in local networks generate sustained value by enhancing adaptive capacity, equity, and shock responsiveness in humanitarian aid delivery. Together, these theories provide a coherent foundation for explaining how accessibility, integration, and resilience jointly shape the effectiveness of mobile money–enabled humanitarian interventions.

Challenges and gaps in the literature

Despite the widespread adoption and growing prominence of mobile money platforms in developing economies, there remains a notable paucity of research that explicitly examines the role of EVC-Plus within humanitarian aid delivery systems. Existing empirical studies on mobile money in Somalia and comparable contexts have largely concentrated on economic and development-oriented outcomes, such as small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) performance, transaction efficiency, financial inclusion, and risk management, demonstrating how digital payments enhance liquidity, customer engagement, and cost efficiency. More recent contributions continue to investigate mobile money adoption through established behavioral frameworks, including the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), with particular emphasis on perceived usefulness, ease of use, and trust among individual and small-scale users. However, this body of literature remains predominantly user-centric and market-oriented, offering limited insights into the systemic role of mobile money platforms in large-scale humanitarian response mechanisms.

In parallel, the broader digital humanitarian assistance literature provides evidence—often based on experimental and quasi-experimental studies in fragile settings such as Afghanistan—that digital cash transfers can reduce delivery costs, minimize leakage, and improve food security and welfare outcomes. Yet, these findings are largely generalized and insufficiently contextualized, with limited attention to country-specific institutional conditions, regulatory voids, and conflict dynamics. In the case of Somalia, research on digital financial technologies remains particularly sparse, and emerging innovations such as privacy-preserving digital wallets and advanced fintech solutions are still largely conceptual, with minimal empirical validation in the country’s unique stateless and conflict-affected environment. As a result, the intersection between mobile money infrastructure, humanitarian operations, and systemic resilience in Somalia remains underexplored.

This study addresses these critical gaps by providing an empirically grounded and analytically rigorous evaluation of EVC-Plus as an operational platform for humanitarian aid delivery in Somalia. Rather than focusing solely on adoption or economic outcomes, the analysis examines both the functional performance of the system—such as accessibility, integration, and resilience—and the effectiveness of aid delivery outcomes for recipients. By doing so, the study generates context-specific and actionable insights for humanitarian organizations, policymakers, and digital service providers seeking to design and scale more efficient, inclusive, and resilient digital aid systems in fragile states. In advancing this integrated perspective, the research contributes to the growing literature on mobile financial services in crisis environments while offering a practical framework for leveraging mobile money infrastructures in complex humanitarian settings.

Methodology

Research design

The study employs a quantitative research design to systematically investigate the role of Hormuud’s EVC-Plus mobile money platform in supporting lifesaving humanitarian programs across Somalia. By leveraging survey data, this research examines the relationships among key constructs: EVC-Plus accessibility, financial integration, inclusive financial resilience, and humanitarian aid delivery outcomes. This design allows for empirical measurement of these variables, providing a data-driven basis for understanding how mobile financial services contribute to humanitarian objectives. The quantitative approach ensures that findings are based on statistical evidence rather than anecdotal accounts, strengthening the credibility and generalizability of the results.

Multiple regression analysis serves as the core analytical method, enabling assessment of both direct and mediating relationships in the conceptual framework (Baron and Kenny, 1986; Hayes, 2018; Hair et al., 2019). Specifically, this study quantifies the individual and combined effects of operational accessibility and financial integration on humanitarian aid delivery while also exploring the mediating influence of inclusive financial resilience. The use of this statistical technique allows for disentangling complex interdependencies and determining the relative strength of each factor. Methodological rigor is maintained through the systematic testing of key assumptions, including linearity, residual independence, homoscedasticity, normality, and multi-collinearity, ensuring that the regression results are both valid and reliable.

Ethical considerations are integral to the research design. All participants provided informed consent, and their responses were anonymized to protect confidentiality. Data are stored securely to prevent unauthorized access, in compliance with recognized ethical standards for social research. The processing and analysis of survey data are conducted via SPSS and EViews, software packages that support robust statistical computations and model testing. Together, these procedures safeguard participant rights, uphold research integrity, and enable the production of high-quality, reproducible findings.

Data sources and sampling strategy

The data for this study were collected through an online survey administered via Google Forms to assess participants’ perceptions, experiences, and challenges related to EVC Plus and other mobile money platforms. The target population comprised 300 individuals who use or benefit from mobile money services, particularly in the context of humanitarian aid distribution. Out of this target population, 240 valid responses were received and analyzed. Data were collected over a two-month period, from 20 May to 20 July 2025, allowing sufficient time to capture responses from diverse participants.

A convenience sampling technique was employed to recruit participants, whereby the survey link was distributed through community networks, NGOs, and humanitarian aid channels to individuals who were readily accessible and directly engaged with mobile money services. This approach was chosen because of practical considerations, such as limited time and resources, which made probabilistic sampling methods less feasible (Bryman, 2016; Creswell and Creswell, 2018; Etikan et al., 2016). While effective in securing a substantial response rate within the given timeframe, convenience sampling may introduce selection bias and limit the representativeness of the findings, as individuals without internet access or those outside established aid networks may have been underrepresented. Despite these limitations, the collected data provide valuable insights into user experiences and perceptions, offering a meaningful basis for understanding the role of the EVC Plus in facilitating financial inclusion and supporting humanitarian interventions.

Model estimation

To assess the factors influencing the effectiveness of humanitarian aid delivery, this study employs a multiple linear regression framework. The model incorporates key operational and financial dimensions of EVC-Plus usage, as well as a mediating measure of inclusive financial resilience, to capture both direct and interactive effects on aid delivery outcomes. In particular, an interaction term between operational accessibility and financial integration is included to examine whether their combined influence yields a synergistic or diminishing impact on humanitarian aid effectiveness.

The regression model is specified as follows:

$\mathit{HAD}={\beta }_0+{\beta }_1\left(\mathit{OPA}\right)+{\beta }_2\left(\mathit{FIN}\right)+{\beta }_3\left(\mathit{IFR}\right)+{\beta }_4\left(\mathit{OPF}\right)+\epsilon$

where:

• ${\beta }_0$ = Intercept

• ${\beta }_1,{\beta }_2,{\beta }_3,\mathit{\text{and}}{\beta }_4$  = Coefficients for each predictor

• ε = Error term

• HAD = Humanitarian aid delivery effectiveness

• OPA = operational accessibility

• FIN = Financial Integration

• IFR = Inclusive financial resilience

• OPF = interaction term (operational accessibility × financial integration)

Model diagnostics plan

To ensure the validity and reliability of the regression results, a series of model diagnostic tests are conducted. These diagnostics assess whether the underlying assumptions of multiple linear regression are satisfied, thereby reducing the risk of biased or inefficient estimates. Specifically, the tests examine multi-collinearity among predictors, the normality and independence of residuals, and the presence of heteroscedasticity. By addressing these diagnostic checks, the analysis strengthens the credibility of the model’s inferences and ensures robust interpretation of the estimated relationships (see Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Model diagnostics.

Construct development

To examine the role of EVC-Plus in enhancing humanitarian aid delivery and community resilience in Somalia, four key constructs were developed on the basis of the study’s objectives and literature review. These constructs capture the platform’s operational accessibility, its integration into everyday financial practices, its contribution to inclusive financial resilience, and its effectiveness in enabling emergency assistance. Each construct is precisely defined, linked to specific survey items, and positioned within the research model as an independent or dependent variable. The Table 2 outlines the polished labels, definitions, roles, and measurement scales for each construct.

Table 2

Table 2. Variable measurements.

Findings

Summary statistics

The data analysis reveals notable patterns in the standardized variables measuring different dimensions of program effectiveness. All four core variables—Inclusive & Resilience, Usability & Accessibility, Financial Use & Management, and Aid Delivery—were standardized (mean = 0, SD = 1), indicating that the values are expressed in terms of z scores. The median values of the core predictors are close to the mean, whereas their mode values tend to be negative, indicating frequent low-end responses. Notably, the minimum values for all standardized predictors range from −6.37– −7.16, whereas the maximum values remain below 2.0, further highlighting the impact of low outliers.

The distributional characteristics of the variables indicate strong deviations from normality. Inclusive & resilient has a skewness of −2.90 and kurtosis of 14.54, showing a heavily left-skewed and sharply peaked distribution, which is likely influenced by extremely low values. Usability and accessibility demonstrate even stronger departures, with a skewness of −3.19 and kurtosis of 20.78, indicating more pronounced asymmetry and outlier presence. Similarly, Financial Use & Management has a skewness of −2.46 and kurtosis of 12.85, suggesting clustering at the higher end and a long tail of lower scores. Aid delivery follows the same trend, with a skewness of −2.89 and kurtosis of 16.24, again indicating highly non-normal, left-skewed patterns with extreme values in the lower tail (see Table 3).

Table 3

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for the study variables.

Correlation analysis

The correlation results show positive and statistically significant relationships among all variables at the 0.01 level. Inclusive Financial Resilience is moderately correlated with Operational Accessibility (r = 0.528), Financial Integration (r = 0.518), and Humanitarian Aid Delivery Effectiveness (r = 0.572), indicating that greater access and financial integration are associated with stronger resilience outcomes. The strongest relationship is observed between Financial Integration and Humanitarian Aid Delivery Effectiveness (r = 0.692), suggesting that improved financial integration substantially enhances the effectiveness of humanitarian aid delivery (see Table 4).

Table 4

Table 4. Correlation matrix of key study variables (N = 240).

Reliability analysis

The study employed Cronbach’s alpha to assess the internal consistency and reliability of the measurement scale comprising 20 items. Cronbach’s alpha is a widely recognized psychometric indicator used to determine how closely related a set of items are as a group. This form of reliability testing is particularly crucial in validating the coherence and stability of multi-item constructs that aim to capture complex concepts.

In this analysis, the 20-item composite scale intended to measure program effectiveness demonstrated strong internal coherence. The obtained Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.89 indicates good internal consistency, reflecting a high degree of agreement among the individual items (see Table 5). This level of reliability suggests that the items collectively provide a consistent measure of the underlying construct, supporting the scale’s credibility for further statistical analyses and interpretation.

Table 5

Table 5. Reliability statistics for predictor scale items.

Regression analysis

Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to assess the impact of four independent variables—Inclusive & Resilience, Usability & Accessibility, Financial Use & Management, and X2—on the effectiveness of humanitarian aid delivery. The overall model was statistically significant, F(4, N) = 94.49, p < 0.001, and accounted for approximately 62% of the variance in the dependent variable (R² = 0.62, adjusted R² = 0.61), indicating a strong model fit.

Inclusive & resilience was a statistically significant positive predictor of aid delivery effectiveness (B = 0.17, β = 0.17, p = 0.001), demonstrating a small to moderate effect. This suggests that inclusive practices and resilience mechanisms contribute meaningfully to improved program outcomes. Usability and accessibility also had a significant positive effect on aid delivery effectiveness (B = 0.24, β = 0.24, p < 0.001), indicating a moderate effect size. This finding indicates that systems that are more user friendly and accessible are associated with higher levels of effectiveness. Financial integration emerged as the strongest predictor in the model, with a significant and large positive effect (B = 0.37, β = 0.37, p < 0.001). This highlights the central role of sound financial practices in achieving successful humanitarian aid delivery (see Tables 6, 7).

Table 6

Table 6. Regression results.

Table 7

Table 7. Conceptual mapping of actors, interventions, impacts, and policy directions.

Conversely, the variable X2 demonstrated a statistically significant negative relationship with program effectiveness (B = −0.04, β = −0.17, p = 0.003). The significant negative coefficient of the interaction term indicates that the combined effect of operational accessibility and financial integration on humanitarian aid effectiveness is diminishing rather than synergistic. While each factor may individually enhance program outcomes, their simultaneous increase appears to reduce overall effectiveness, possibly due to coordination challenges, resource allocation trade-offs, or operational complexities. This suggests that humanitarian organizations should carefully balance improvements in operational accessibility and financial integration rather than maximizing both simultaneously, as pursuing both aggressively could inadvertently undermine the intended impact of aid delivery.

Diagnostics

The regression diagnostics indicate that the model meets the key assumptions necessary for valid inference. All the independent variables reported variance inflation factors (VIFs) well below the commonly accepted threshold of 5, with values ranging from 1.12–1.20 (see Table 5). This suggests that multi-collinearity is not a concern, reinforcing the stability and reliability of the coefficient estimates. Maintaining low VIF values enhances interpretability by confirming the independence of explanatory variables.

To assess the normality of the residuals, the Jarque–Bera test was employed. The resulting p value of 0.31 exceeds the conventional alpha level of 0.05, indicating no significant deviation from normality. This finding supports the assumption that residuals are normally distributed and further strengthens the credibility of the regression outcomes. The residual distribution approximates a normal bell-shaped curve, as expected under the classical linear model assumption.

The White test for heteroscedasticity was used to evaluate the constant variance (homoscedasticity) assumption. The test produced an F statistic of 1.36 (p = 0.22) and an Obs*R² of 5.02 (p = 0.28). Both statistics were non-significant, suggesting that the variance of residuals is consistent across all levels of the predictors. This absence of heteroscedasticity indicates that the model satisfies the homoscedasticity assumption, thereby ensuring that standard errors and statistical tests are valid and unbiased.

An assessment of residual independence was conducted via the Durbin–Watson statistic, which yielded a value of 1.96. This figure lies within the acceptable range of 1.5–2.5, indicating no evidence of autocorrelation among the residuals. The independence of residuals enhances the validity of model inferences and affirms that serial correlation is unlikely to distort the results.

Finally, the assumption of linearity was supported by statistically significant linear relationships between each predictor and the dependent variable. Specifically, Inclusive & Resilience, Usability & Accessibility, and Financial Use & Management all demonstrated meaningful linear associations with aid delivery effectiveness. Additionally, the negative linear relationship observed for X2 was significant, reflecting its inverse association with the outcome. These findings confirm that the model’s structure appropriately captures the linear nature of the relationships among variables, with no evidence of nonlinear deviations.

Transformative dimensions of EVC-Plus in humanitarian aid delivery

The multiple regression analysis yielded a statistically significant model (F(4, N) = 94.49, p < 0.001), revealing approximately 62% of the variance in the efficacy of humanitarian assistance delivery (R² = 0.62, adjusted R² = 0.61). These results suggest that ensuring that digital systems for humanitarian relief work properly means managing money, ensuring that the system is easy to use and accessible, and being strong for everyone. The study not only examines the data but also enhances our comprehension of how Hormuud’s EVC-Plus technology transforms humanitarian governance in Somalia.

This section does not simply discuss the results; it also looks at them via three related meaning dimensions: how strong the humanitarian system is, how institutions have changed their conduct, and how self-reliant the community is. It also discusses how operational accessibility and financial integration (X₂) change how this works. These findings suggest that EVC-Plus is more than just a way to pay. It is also a sociotechnical infrastructure that makes the system stronger, helps organizations adjust, and gives communities more influence.

Humanitarian system resilience

The positive relationship for Inclusive & Resilience (B = 0.17, β = 0.17, p = 0.001) reveals that practices that include everyone and attributes that make operations more resilient make humanitarian operations far more stable overall. EVC-Plus has become a lifeline during times of trouble, ensuring that people keep obtaining support even when there is violence or movement restrictions. Its capacity to involve everyone—shown by the large number of mobile users and easy access for agents—helps keep the program going when physical processes fail. These results suggest that digital inclusion is not only equitable but also an important way to strengthen humanitarian communities.

This component supports the assumption that new ideas spread: when many people adopt robust digital systems, they make the whole society better able to adapt. EVC-Plus makes it easier for communities and assistance groups to deal with outside shocks and return to normal faster following problems by allowing people to make safe, trackable, and real-time transactions. This technology resilience makes institutions and societies stable, which shows that digital infrastructures can support great humanitarian activities in regions that are not stable.

Institutional behavioral change

The significant finding of Usability and Accessibility (B = 0.24, β = 0.24, p < 0.001) indicates that systems that are user friendly and widely accessible transform the operations of humanitarian organizations. By standardizing how money is given out, making things clearer, and eliminating administrative delays, EVC-Plus has sped up changes within the company. Humanitarian organizations are more inclined to digitize data, employ mobile auditing tools, and make cooperation more efficient because the platform is easy to use. This is a step toward a government that uses data and holds people accountable in real time.

This discovery involves more than just adjustments to the way things are done; it also means that help groups will have to adapt the way they work. Digital interoperability is becoming a major component of how agencies work together, and staff are adjusting how they do things to meet digital verification criteria. This is why usability is both a technological driver and a behavioral driver that pushes assistance groups to stop using rigid, paper-based methods and start using flexible, tech-enabled decision-making frameworks. This method demonstrates a genuine institutional learning impact, wherein the utilization of accessible technologies fosters innovation and the evolution of organizational frameworks.

Community self-reliance

The best predictor, Financial Use & Management (B = 0.37, β = 0.37, p < 0.001), indicates how vital it is for EVC-Plus to include finances in the program for it to operate. By giving people direct digital control over resources, the system promotes economic agency and self-determination. People in communities can safely handle aid payments, plan their spending, and run small businesses. This transformation has made humanitarian beliefs different. People are no longer considered passive beneficiaries of charity; instead, they are seen as active participants in the aid system.

Users feel even more in control when they build up their digital transaction records and learn more about money over time. EVC-Plus allows people to save, send, and spend money, which helps them find long-term strategies to create a living. This finding fits with the resource-based view (RBV), which holds that people’s own strengths are what helps them stay strong. People who have been aided by humanitarian efforts have become co-creators of local economic stability as more people travel online. This means that ensuring that everyone has access to money is a vital element of the larger process of rebuilding and moving forward after a tragedy.

These criteria indicate how EVC-Plus improves the way in which humanitarian aid is given by focusing on resilience, institutional adaptability, and empowering communities. They also demonstrate the problems that occur when too many people are involved. Digital spaces that incorporate everyone make humanitarian systems more robust; open, easy-to-use interfaces transform how institutions work; and financial integration encourages independence and long-term self-reliance. However, the negative effect of operational-financial interaction on growth is a caution against expansion, which is not controlled and does not have the necessary tools for organization.

These results illustrate that EVC-Plus is more than just a way to pay for things online. It is also a social and technological system that transforms how people help each other and how governments operate weak states. By examining the statistical results through these transformative lenses, this study helps policymakers and scholars understand how digital financial platforms can support and hurt the evolution of fair and strong aid systems.

Discussion

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the critical role of Hormuud’s EVC-Plus mobile money platform in enhancing the delivery of humanitarian aid in Somalia’s fragile and conflict-affected environment. The study aimed to evaluate how three operational constructs—operational accessibility, financial integration, and inclusive financial resilience—influence the effectiveness of humanitarian aid delivery. Employing a quantitative research design grounded in diffusion of innovation theory, financial inclusion theory, and the resource-based view (RBV), data were collected from 240 respondents across humanitarian organizations, NGOs, and beneficiaries. The results from the multiple regression analysis demonstrated that usability and accessibility, financial integration, and inclusive financial resilience each exert significant positive impacts on humanitarian aid delivery, with financial integration emerging as the strongest predictor (β = 0.37, p < 0.001). However, the interaction between operational accessibility and financial integration exhibited a significant negative effect, suggesting diminishing returns when both factors are pursued aggressively.

These findings underscore the transformational role of EVC-Plus in reconfiguring Somalia’s humanitarian aid landscape. The model explained approximately 62% of the variance in aid delivery effectiveness (R² = 0.62), reflecting the substantial contribution of mobile money services to humanitarian objectives. By enabling rapid, secure, and scalable disbursement of financial assistance, EVC-Plus addresses logistical constraints that have historically undermined aid distribution in Somalia’s conflict-prone regions. Moreover, the negative interaction effect highlights the importance of strategic balancing rather than uncoordinated expansion, as simultaneous maximization of accessibility and integration can strain institutional capacities. The study thus positions EVC-Plus not only as a financial tool but also as a strategic humanitarian infrastructure capable of bridging operational efficiency and community resilience in fragile contexts.

The regression analysis reveals important insights into the relative contributions of the study’s core variables. Financial integration emerged as the strongest determinant of humanitarian aid delivery effectiveness, indicating that the seamless embedding of EVC-Plus into users’ daily financial practices significantly enhances aid outcomes. When beneficiaries and implementing agencies are already accustomed to using EVC-Plus for remittances, bill payments, and local transactions, humanitarian disbursements become both faster and more efficient. In the Somali context, where formal banking infrastructure remains limited, EVC-Plus acts as a de facto financial ecosystem, enabling both routine economic participation and emergency responsiveness.

Usability and accessibility were also significant, demonstrating that the technological simplicity and widespread coverage of EVC-Plus remain critical enablers for humanitarian actors. The platform’s compatibility with basic mobile phones, coupled with low transaction costs, makes it highly adaptive in fragile contexts where populations may lack smartphones or stable internet access. Similarly, inclusive financial resilience positively influences aid delivery, suggesting that EVC-Plus helps foster equitable participation and supports marginalized groups during crises. However, the negative moderating effect of the operational accessibility × financial integration interaction term indicates potential coordination challenges. When agencies attempt to maximize both variables simultaneously without harmonized strategies, operational complexities and system bottlenecks may reduce overall effectiveness. This nuanced finding highlights the need for structured integration planning between humanitarian actors and mobile money providers.

Somalia’s protracted fragility, characterized by decades of conflict, political instability, and recurrent climate shocks, forms a critical backdrop for interpreting these findings. The absence of robust state-led financial infrastructure has left mobile money platforms such as EVC-Plus to fill systemic gaps traditionally covered by public institutions. Humanitarian agencies face complex logistical challenges, including insecurity, poor transport infrastructure, and limited access to remote communities. In such an environment, EVC-Plus provides an essential workaround by enabling remote cash transfers that bypass physical distribution barriers, ensuring timely delivery of lifesaving assistance. Furthermore, the Somali population’s high adoption rate of mobile money (80% of adults) reflects a cultural and economic shift toward digital solutions, creating a fertile environment for integrating mobile financial tools into humanitarian workflows (Sharif and Sharif, 2024).

However, Somalia’s volatile political economy and institutional weaknesses also introduce constraints. Regulatory oversight remains fragile despite recent licensing frameworks, and humanitarian programs must contend with potential risks such as network outages, identity verification challenges, and cybersecurity vulnerabilities. Additionally, digital literacy gaps, particularly among rural populations, older adults, and women, limit the universal accessibility of EVC-Plus and risk reinforcing preexisting inequalities. These contextual realities underscore the necessity of designing inclusive, context-sensitive interventions that complement EVC-Plus’s technological potential with capacity-building initiatives and policy safeguards to ensure equitable access.

When benchmarked against other mobile money-driven humanitarian systems in fragile and disaster-prone settings, EVC-Plus demonstrates unique strengths while also reflecting common implementation challenges. For example, Kenya’s M-PESA platform has long been celebrated for facilitating cash transfers during droughts and economic crises, significantly improving financial inclusion and resilience among rural populations (Mbiti and Weil, 2016). Similarly, Haiti’s TchoTcho Mobile played a critical role in delivering emergency aid following the 2010 earthquake, when physical infrastructure was destroyed (Taylor et al., 2025). In Somalia, however, EVC-Plus operates within a far more fragile governance context, lacking the centralized regulatory mechanisms that support mobile money integration in countries such as Kenya. This positions Hormuud as both a private actor and an informal financial authority, giving it a uniquely pivotal role in shaping humanitarian aid flows.

Despite these contextual differences, Somalia’s experience mirrors broader patterns observed in fragile contexts where mobile financial ecosystems become lifelines for crisis-affected populations. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), for example, mobile money has enabled salary disbursements for teachers and civil servants in conflict zones, demonstrating similar bypassing of institutional inefficiencies. However, Somalia’s exceptionally high mobile money penetration and the integration of humanitarian-specific platforms, such as the EVC-Plus Humanitarian Portal, distinguish its model as uniquely scalable and impactful. Compared with their regional counterparts, Somalia demonstrates how strategic partnerships between telecom providers and aid agencies can redefine humanitarian infrastructure, even in the context of institutional collapse.

Placing Somalia’s EVC-Plus experience in a comparative context reveals both its distinctive challenges and its broader significance for humanitarian digitalization. In relatively stable environments such as Kenya, platforms such as M-PESA have flourished under strong regulatory oversight and robust financial infrastructure, demonstrating how consistent governance enables long-term integration of mobile money into national economies (Fabregas and Yokossi, 2022). In Bangladesh, bKash exemplifies how digital payment systems can achieve large-scale outreach and support poverty reduction through inclusive financial innovation and public–private collaboration (Islam et al., 2022). In contrast, mobile payment initiatives in fragile or conflict-affected contexts—such as Afghanistan, South Sudan, or Haiti—highlight both the transformative potential and the governance challenges of using digital finance to sustain aid delivery when conventional systems fail (Blumenstock et al., 2023; Callen et al., 2023). These cross-context reflections show that while EVC-Plus operates within one of the world’s most volatile humanitarian environments, it nonetheless shares universal features of digital financial resilience—scalability, inclusivity, and adaptability—positioning Somalia as a critical case for understanding how mobile money can bridge governance gaps and reconfigure humanitarian aid systems globally.

The findings indicate that EVC-Plus enhances the speed, efficiency, and transparency of delivering emergency assistance. Nonetheless, this efficiency may inadvertently result in novel forms of digital exclusion. The platform’s reliance on mobile access, digital literacy, and network availability favors individuals already engaged in digital groups, potentially excluding others lacking mobile devices or sufficient digital skills. Systemic obstacles hinder the participation of women, elderly individuals, rural inhabitants, and displaced individuals in mobile-based initiatives. Consequently, enhancements in speed may not inherently result in equitable outcomes. Humanitarian organizations should adopt a strategy that integrates digital distribution with marketing, skill development, and local support networks to achieve a balance between efficiency and comprehensive assistance. By implementing this measure, EVC-Plus can ensure that its technological advancements do not inadvertently exacerbate the already precarious social structure in Somalia.

The research indicates that humanitarian initiatives are significantly and intricately reliant on Hormuud Telecom, the primary provider of mobile banking infrastructure in Somalia. Hormul’s extensive network and capacity to operate its operations reliably have facilitated uninterrupted relief distribution. Nonetheless, its regulation prompts apprehensions over market concentration and ethical governance. When a commercial corporation assumes a pivotal humanitarian function, its near-monopoly status obscures the distinction between corporate dominance and public benefit. Excessive dependence on a telecommunications supplier jeopardizes the humanitarian system because of potential alterations in company policy, price regulation, and service disruptions. These modifications underscore the importance of maintaining diverse connections and regulations that promote economic competitiveness, assure interoperability, and safeguard the privacy of humanitarian data. In uncertain governance contexts, maintaining the credibility and durability of digital humanitarian infrastructure necessitates a balance between the efficiency of the commercial sector and the accountability of the public sector.

The transition to mobile humanitarian assistance has raised numerous concerns about accountability, transparency, and governance. Although EVC-Plus has facilitated transaction tracking and reduced the risk of cash loss, public accounting standards have not yet fully adapted to the rapidity and intricacy of digital transactions. Conventional monitoring and verification procedures, which typically rely on paper and inter-institutional sharing, are limited by the rapid movement of currency via mobile networks. Humanitarian organizations, the government, and telecommunications providers must collaborate to establish integrated digital audit systems to increase accountability. These systems must possess mechanisms for real-time monitoring, provide consistent information, and disseminate data in an efficient and transparent manner. In the absence of these regulations, the rapid influx of individuals into digital humanitarianism may complicate oversight. Consequently, robust accountability mechanisms must be established to ensure that technological advancements result in transparent and ethical humanitarian governance.

The findings carry important practical implications for humanitarian organizations and private sector actors engaged in cash-based assistance programs. The use of EVC-Plus demonstrates the potential of mobile money platforms to deliver humanitarian aid more rapidly, securely, and transparently than traditional cash or voucher mechanisms. However, realizing these benefits at scale requires embedding such platforms across the full humanitarian program cycle, including beneficiary identification, registration, disbursement, monitoring, and grievance redress mechanisms. This underscores the need for targeted capacity-building initiatives to address digital literacy constraints and ensure that marginalized and vulnerable populations—such as women, the elderly, and internally displaced persons—can effectively access and use digital assistance. Close collaboration between humanitarian agencies and mobile money providers, such as Hormuud, is essential for co-designing inclusive system features, including offline transaction capabilities, expanded agent networks, and user support mechanisms, to minimize exclusion risks during emergencies.

From a policy perspective, the findings highlight the importance of formally recognizing mobile money platforms as integral components of national humanitarian and financial infrastructure, not only in Somalia but also in other fragile and conflict-affected contexts. Policymakers should develop enabling regulatory frameworks that strengthen consumer protection, safeguard data privacy, and promote interoperability between mobile wallets and formal financial systems, thereby enhancing trust and system sustainability. Strategic public–private partnerships can further support investments in rural connectivity, digital identification systems, and cybersecurity, which are critical for scaling digital aid delivery equitably. By institutionalizing mobile money platforms such as EVC-Plus within broader emergency response and social protection strategies, governments and international development partners can improve the effectiveness, resilience, and inclusiveness of humanitarian assistance across diverse jurisdictions.

The findings of this study strongly align with existing research on the transformative role of mobile money platforms in humanitarian aid delivery across fragile and disaster-prone contexts. Like the current study’s conclusion that financial integration and usability significantly improve aid delivery outcomes, prior studies highlight how digital cash transfer systems enhance operational efficiency, transparency, and speed in humanitarian interventions (see Maghsoudi et al., 2023; Maghsoudi et al., 2022; Heaslip et al., 2018; Burton, 2020; Callen et al., 2025).

These studies similarly emphasize the growing reliance on mobile financial ecosystems to overcome logistical barriers in high-risk environments, underscoring how mobile money enables scalable cash assistance while reducing dependency on traditional in-kind aid delivery. Furthermore, the significant predictive power of financial integration in this study resonates with earlier findings from digital voucher and cash assistance programs, which demonstrate that embedding mobile payment systems into beneficiaries’ daily financial practices directly supports autonomy, dignity, and rapid response during emergencies (see Aker et al., 2016; Suri and Jack, 2016; Burton, 2020).

Moreover, the study’s Somalia-specific context complements findings from research focused on local digital economies and aid delivery infrastructures. For example, Chonka (2025a,b) highlights the dual role of mobile money in Somalia, functioning both as an empowerment tool for marginalized populations and as a contested site for governance and institutional restructuring, mirroring this study’s framing of EVC-Plus as both a financial and humanitarian infrastructure. Similarly, Owino (2020) demonstrated that harmonizing data systems for cash transfer programming in Somalia improves aid targeting and efficiency, reinforcing this study’s recommendation for better interoperability between humanitarian agencies and mobile money providers. Furthermore, insights from Callen et al. (2025) on the capacity of digital aid systems to function under conditions of conflict and disaster also support this study’s findings, confirming the strategic importance of digital platforms in fragile contexts. Collectively, these studies converge to validate the present research’s assertion that EVC-Plus is central to redefining humanitarian operations in Somalia while contributing nuanced insights into balancing accessibility, financial integration, and systemic resilience.

This study makes notable contributions to the diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) by demonstrating how adoption dynamics are accelerated when innovations such as EVC-Plus are embedded within preexisting cultural and economic practices. The exceptionally high mobile money penetration in Somalia suggests that platforms perceived as compatible, low cost, and trialable achieve rapid diffusion even in fragile contexts (Rogers et al., 2014). Moreover, the findings refine financial inclusion theory by empirically showing that mobile money can extend beyond economic participation to serve as a humanitarian infrastructure, bridging systemic gaps in aid delivery for underserved populations.

Furthermore, the study extends the resource-based view (RBV) by framing Hormuud Telecom as a strategic asset within Somalia’s humanitarian architecture. Its extensive network coverage, trust capital, and operational adaptability satisfy the VRIN criteria, enabling it to deliver nonsubstitutable value to both beneficiaries and aid agencies (Barney, 1991). By highlighting the interdependence between humanitarian actors and localized private resources, the findings encourage a paradigm shift in aid strategies—from externally imposed interventions to ecosystem-based approaches that leverage indigenous capabilities.

This research is one of the first empirical investigations into the role of EVC-Plus in Somalia’s humanitarian ecosystem, addressing a critical gap in the literature. While prior studies have predominantly examined mobile money from economic or commercial perspectives, this study positions EVC-Plus explicitly as a humanitarian delivery infrastructure. The integration of a quantitative regression model with theoretical frameworks allows for robust testing of hypotheses, producing evidence-based insights into how specific operational variables influence aid delivery effectiveness. This methodological rigor enhances the reliability of the findings and provides a scalable analytical framework for future studies in similar fragile contexts.

Additionally, the discovery of the negative moderating effect between operational accessibility and financial integration offers a novel contribution to the humanitarian finance literature. While most mobile money research assumes synergistic impacts of infrastructure expansion, this study highlights the risks of overextension in fragile ecosystems. By identifying the potential trade-offs between maximizing access and deepening integration, this research provides actionable insights for policymakers and humanitarian actors seeking to avoid unintended operational inefficiencies.

This study contributes to three overlapping academic domains: humanitarian finance, mobile money adoption, and digital inclusion in fragile states. First, it expands the humanitarian finance literature by empirically demonstrating how mobile financial services can optimize aid delivery in high-risk, low-infrastructure environments. Second, it enriches mobile money scholarship by contextualizing EVC-Plus within Somalia’s unique sociopolitical fragility, offering findings that differ meaningfully from mobile money models in more stable economies. Finally, it contributes to digital inclusion research by showing how platforms such as EVC-Plus can act as equitable enablers, extending financial participation to marginalized populations while simultaneously serving strategic institutional objectives.

By bridging these domains, the study provides a comprehensive framework for understanding mobile money’s dual role as both a technological innovation and a humanitarian infrastructure. These insights pave the way for future research to explore comparative mobile money ecosystems across fragile states, integrating financial technologies into long-term resilience-building strategies. As such, the study offers both theoretical depth and practical relevance, strengthening the foundation for interdisciplinary dialog around digital humanitarianism.

Conclusion

This study examined the role of Hormuud’s EVC-Plus mobile money platform in enhancing humanitarian aid delivery in Somalia’s fragile and conflict-affected environment. The findings revealed that financial integration, operational accessibility, and inclusive financial resilience significantly improve aid delivery effectiveness, with financial integration emerging as the strongest predictor. By enabling rapid, secure, and scalable disbursements, EVC-Plus addresses logistical challenges that have traditionally hindered humanitarian interventions in Somalia. However, the study also revealed a negative interaction effect between operational accessibility and financial integration, indicating that maximizing both dimensions simultaneously without strategic coordination can reduce efficiency. Collectively, the results underscore EVC-Plus’s dual role as both a technological innovation and a strategic humanitarian infrastructure.

This study makes significant contributions to the diffusion of innovation theory, financial inclusion theory, and the resource-based view (RBV). It extends the DOI framework by demonstrating that mobile money adoption accelerates when platforms are simple, compatible, and embedded in everyday practices. Similarly, it expands financial inclusion theory by showing that platforms such as EVC-Plus are not merely financial tools but also function as critical humanitarian infrastructures, extending equitable access to underserved populations. From an RBV perspective, Hormuud’s technological capacity, market dominance, and trust capital satisfy the VRIN criteria, positioning the company as an indispensable strategic resource for humanitarian actors. These theoretical contributions deepen our understanding of technology-driven humanitarianism in fragile state contexts.

The findings highlight the urgent need for policymakers in Somalia to institutionalize mobile money platforms such as EVC-Plus within national humanitarian and social protection strategies. Regulatory frameworks should strengthen consumer protection, data privacy, and interoperability between mobile wallets and formal banking systems. Investment in digital infrastructure, particularly in rural and underserved areas, is essential to address connectivity gaps. Furthermore, by integrating mobile money platforms into emergency response planning, the government can leverage public–private partnerships to improve resilience and efficiency in aid delivery. These measures ensure that mobile money operates within an enabling environment that maximizes its humanitarian potential.

For humanitarian organizations, the results underscore the value of adopting EVC-Plus to achieve faster, safer, and more transparent aid delivery. Integrating the platform across program cycles—from beneficiary registration to fund disbursement and monitoring—can increase operational efficiency. Capacity-building programs aimed at improving digital literacy among vulnerable populations, particularly women and rural communities, are critical for inclusive adoption. For Hormuud Telecom, the findings provide insights into co-developing features such as offline transaction capabilities, agent network expansion, and enhanced real-time reporting dashboards for humanitarian actors. These collaborative innovations can improve the reliability and inclusivity of mobile-based humanitarian systems.

This study offers a pioneering exploration of mobile money’s role in humanitarian operations within a highly fragile context. It demonstrates how platforms such as EVC-Plus transcend traditional financial functions to become critical enablers of lifesaving interventions. By bridging systemic gaps in infrastructure, regulation, and access, mobile money enhances both operational efficiency and community resilience. Beyond Somalia, the findings carry broader implications for humanitarian innovation in fragile and conflict-affected states, where mobile financial technologies can serve as the backbone for delivering aid in hard-to-reach regions. As such, this research strengthens the case for digitally enabled humanitarian strategies in resource-constrained environments.

Despite its contributions, the study is not without limitations. The reliance on a convenience sampling technique limits the representativeness of the findings, as individuals without internet access or outside established aid networks might have been underrepresented. Additionally, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to infer causality between variables, leaving room for alternative explanations. The study also focuses exclusively on Somalia’s context, which, while providing deep insights, may limit the generalizability of findings to other fragile states with different political, cultural, and technological landscapes. Recognizing these limitations provides important context for interpreting the results and underscores the need for complementary research approaches.

Future studies could adopt longitudinal designs to better capture the dynamic relationship between mobile money integration and humanitarian aid effectiveness over time. Comparative analyses across multiple fragile states would also enhance the understanding of how contextual factors shape the role of mobile money in humanitarian operations. Qualitative studies could further explore recipient experiences, focusing on issues such as trust, digital literacy, and perceptions of autonomy. Additionally, future research should examine emerging technologies, such as blockchain-based mobile wallets and privacy-preserving identity systems, to assess their potential for enhancing transparency and accountability in humanitarian finance.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that Hormuud’s EVC–Plus mobile money platform plays a critical and strategic role in delivering lifesaving humanitarian aid in the context of Somalia’s fragility. By combining accessibility, financial integration, and resilience-building capabilities, EVC-Plus redefines the possibilities of humanitarian response in high-risk environments. Moreover, the findings caution against uncoordinated scaling and emphasize the need for balanced, inclusive, and context-sensitive integration strategies. As humanitarian crises become increasingly complex, platforms such as EVC-Plus represent transformative tools that can bridge operational inefficiencies and foster systemic resilience, offering a scalable blueprint for humanitarian innovation in fragile states worldwide.

Solutions and recommendations

Building on the empirical findings and theoretical insights, this section translates the study’s conclusions into practical, actionable strategies for humanitarian organizations, policymakers, and private-sector partners. The results demonstrate that Hormuud’s EVC-Plus platform functions as both a financial innovation and a humanitarian infrastructure capable of enhancing efficiency, resilience, and inclusivity. However, to sustain and scale these gains, Somalia’s digital humanitarian ecosystem must address structural gaps in coordination, regulation, and accessibility. The following recommendations provide a roadmap for operationalizing these findings in policy and practice.

Institutionalizing digital humanitarian infrastructure

The government of Somalia should formally recognize mobile money platforms, particularly EVC-Plus, as part of the national humanitarian and financial infrastructure. This requires establishing regulatory frameworks that promote consumer protection, data security, and interoperability between mobile money systems and formal banking institutions. Strengthening public oversight mechanisms ensures that the benefits of digital innovation are equitably distributed and sustainably governed. In parallel, national development plans should integrate digital financial services into emergency preparedness, disaster response, and social protection policies, positioning mobile money as a core resilience mechanism in the national aid architecture.

Strengthening cross-sectoral collaboration and governance

Effective humanitarian digitalization depends on cross-stakeholder collaboration among government agencies, humanitarian organizations, telecom providers, and community-based institutions. Establishing a multi-stakeholder coordination framework—co-led by the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs, Hormuud Telecom, and international donors—can improve interoperability, data sharing, and program alignment. This structure should include joint monitoring mechanisms, standardized reporting templates, and collaborative research initiatives that enhance learning across sectors. Such institutionalized partnerships can prevent duplication of effort, reduce transaction costs, and strengthen accountability and transparency in digital aid delivery.

Promoting inclusive and equitable access

To mitigate the risk of digital exclusion, humanitarian and development partners should prioritize capacity-building initiatives that enhance digital literacy, particularly among women, rural populations, and elderly beneficiaries. Integrating offline transaction capabilities, localized language interfaces, and accessible agent networks ensures that vulnerable populations are not left behind. Furthermore, donor agencies should support gender-responsive programming that incorporates sociocultural norms affecting access to technology. Promoting inclusive financial literacy programs through schools, NGOs, and local cooperatives can also bridge knowledge gaps and foster sustainable participation in the digital economy.

Increasing system resilience and accountability

Given the high reliance on private digital infrastructure, there is a critical need to strengthen resilience and accountability mechanisms. Humanitarian agencies should adopt redundancy and contingency planning to mitigate risks related to network disruptions or system failures. Establishing joint audit and verification systems—co-governed by humanitarian agencies, regulators, and mobile operators—would enhance transparency and ensure that digital transactions comply with humanitarian principles. Moreover, developing open-access dashboards for real-time monitoring can improve public trust and allow donors to evaluate impact more effectively.

Leveraging public–private partnerships for sustainable impact

Sustained digital humanitarian transformation requires leveraging public–private partnerships (PPPs) that combine technological innovation with social inclusion objectives. Hormuud Telecom, in collaboration with international donors and NGOs, can co-develop humanitarian innovation labs focused on mobile-based cash assistance, blockchain-enabled transparency systems, and climate-resilient financial solutions. These partnerships should be guided by mutual accountability frameworks that align corporate social responsibility with humanitarian ethics, ensuring that private-sector efficiency complements, rather than dominates, public welfare objectives.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

MN: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Software, Project administration, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Resources, Data curation, Visualization.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was supported by Federation of Somali Trade Unions (FESTU).

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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