POLICY AND PRACTICE REVIEWS article
Front. Mar. Sci.
Sec. Ocean Solutions
Volume 12 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fmars.2025.1616906
This article is part of the Research TopicBig Data and AI for Sustainable Maritime OperationsView all 7 articles
Navigating the Digital Seas: Legal Challenges and Global Governance of Maritime Cyber Operations
Provisionally accepted
- 1School of International Affairs and Public Administration, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- 2Institute of Marine Development, Ocean University of China, Qindao, Shandong Province, China
- 3School of Law, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
Select one of your emails
You have multiple emails registered with Frontiers:
Notify me on publication
Please enter your email address:
If you already have an account, please login
You don't have a Frontiers account ? You can register here
Rapid digitization of the maritime sector has heightened its exposure to cyber threats, calling for a reexamination of international legal frameworks. This study examines how the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) could be adapted or supplemented to govern emerging Maritime Cyber Operations (MCOs) more effectively. Using a multi-level governance perspective that integrates legal analysis and case studies, we identify critical gaps in UNCLOS and related maritime law. UNCLOS currently struggles with unresolved jurisdictional ambiguities across territorial seas, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), and the high seas. There is also persistent uncertainty about whether cyberattacks qualify as 'uses of force' under international law, and existing enforcement mechanisms are ill-equipped to address cyber operations by state or non-state actors. Although soft-law efforts like the Tallinn Manual 2.0 provide helpful interpretative guidance, they lack binding authority and broad consensus. Additionally, ongoing technical vulnerabilities in crucial maritime infrastructure-from port automation systems to undersea communication cables-further compound these governance challenges. To confront these issues, this paper proposes an integrated multi-level governance approach. It recommends updating UNCLOS (potentially via a supplementary protocol), adopting industry-wide cybersecurity standards, and strengthening both regional and international cooperation. By bridging the legal and technical aspects of maritime cybersecurity, the study offers policymakers a structured set of practical strategies. This framework is intended to lay a foundation for future policy that addresses urgent maritime security needs while preserving the efficiency of global maritime commerce in an increasingly digital world.
Keywords: Maritime Cyber Operations, cybersecurity, maritime security, Tallinn Manual, Law of the Sea, UNCLOS
Received: 23 Apr 2025; Accepted: 19 Aug 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Feng, Liu, Jin and Li. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Shibo Li, School of Law, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.