Tire wear particles in the marine environment: sources, migration, ecological risk and control strategy

Abstract

With the global proliferation of vehicular transportation, tire wear particles (TWPs) have emerged as a pervasive class of emerging contaminants in the environment. Primarily originating from terrestrial road networks, these anthropogenic particulates undergo complex environmental transport through atmospheric deposition and hydrological processes, ultimately accumulating in marine compartments through seawater column retention, benthic sedimentation, and bioaccumulation within marine trophic webs. The environmental impacts of TWPs manifest through multiple mechanisms including physically effects on marine organisms, chemically leaching of toxic tire components, and ecologically bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Current research priorities emphasize the development of standardized monitoring protocols for TWPs quantification and the implementation of source control strategies through green material engineering. This review systematically examines the environmental fate, ecological impacts, and risk mitigation approaches associated with marine TWPs pollution, providing critical insights for developing evidence-based management frameworks.

1 Introduction

Vehicular transport, particularly passenger cars, has significantly enhanced human mobility and modern living standards. Meanwhile, the global dependence on rubber-based tires—composed of both natural elastomers and synthetic polymers—has engendered persistent environmental burdens. Tire Wear Particles (TWPs), microscopic particles generated through interfacial abrasion between vehicular tires and road pavements, have become an escalating contamination concern due to their toxic effects on ecosystems and increasing abundance worldwide (Rogge et al., 1993; Kreider et al., 2010; Kole et al., 2017; Wagner et al., 2018; Tian et al., 2021; Mian et al.,2022). With annual release of over 6 million tons into the environment, TWPs as major contributors of microplastics (MPs), are being one of the hot topics in environmental researches (Evangeliou et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2020; Gehrke et al., 2023).

The occurrence of TWPs in the environment is governed by multiple factors, including vehicle driving behaviors, road surface types, tire specifications, and ambient conditions, resulting in the pollution characteristics like broad size distributions (0.1 μm to 5 mm), heterogeneous morphologies, and complex chemical compositions (Kole et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2022). Notably, TWPs possess high specific surface areas and marked hydrophobicity, enabling strong adsorption affinities for co-occurring pollutants such as vehicular exhaust particulates, heavy metals (e.g., Zn, Pb), and antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline). The synergistic interactions between TWPs and adsorbed contaminants may amplify their combined ecotoxicological impacts (Hüffer et al., 2019; Ding et al., 2021; Glaubitz et al., 2023).

Environmental monitoring data have confirmed the pervasive distribution of TWPs in global atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine compartments like air, road dusts, soil, snow, stormwater runoff, wastewater treatment systems, rivers, lakes, seas, and sediments (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021; Goßmann et al., 2021; Järlskog et al., 2022; Müller et al., 2022a; Zhao et al., 2024). It is estimated that TWPs may contribute to 26–74% of total MPs loads in the environment (Xu et al., 2020; Gehrke et al., 2023). Bioavailable additives (e.g., zinc, benzothiazoles) leached from the TWPs may induce sublethal impairments in growth allometry, developmental homeostasis, and reproductive fitness in organisms (Goßmann et al., 2021; Ertel et al., 2023). TWPs can also be ingested by organisms and then transfer through food webs (Auta et al., 2017; Parker et al., 2020). Thus TWPs pose significant potential threats to global ecosystems and human health especially in a background that the vast global TWPs emissions every year (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020). TWPs has been a priority emerging pollutant requiring monitoring and control in the environment (Wik and Dave, 2009; Rødland et al., 2023; Kole et al., 2017; Wagner et al., 2018; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020; Gehrke et al., 2023; Mayer et al., 2024).

Although TWPs mainly originate from land, their small size and light weight make them easily transport for long distance through air circulation, precipitation, and surface/subsurface runoff, ultimately enter the marine environments (Figure 1) (Evangeliou et al., 2020; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021). TWPs contribute up to 15% of marine MPs pollution, meaning up to 350,000 tons of TWPs entering the ocean each year and the annual input of TWPs to the ocean is suggested to increase year by year (Meng et al., 2020; Kushwaha et al., 2024). The ocean covers about 71% of the earth’s surface, thus the ocean is a potentially significant accumulation site for TWPs and serves as the ultimate sink for TWPs.

Figure 1

TWPs could induce profound and unpredictable impacts on marine ecological systems because of their particular physical and chemical properties, resulting in higher environmental and health risks compared with other types of MPs (Galafassi et al., 2019; Halle et al., 2020; John et al., 2022). An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that TWPs might interfere with marine biogeochemical cycles and undermine the equilibrium of marine ecosystems (Roch et al., 2019; Cunningham et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024c; Zhang et al., 2025b). Tires are usually compounded with a large number of chemical additives, including plasticizers and vulcanizing agents. These chemical additives contain heavy metals such as chromium and nickel, as well as a variety of organic contaminants such as PAHs and N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD), many of which are leachable in water (Kushwaha et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). Moreover, TWPs could also adsorb contaminants such as antibiotics, thus inducing joint toxicity (Wen et al., 2024; Ganie et al., 2025). Studies have shown varying degrees of toxic effects of TWPs and their leachates on different kinds of marine life, including bacteria, algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, crustaceans, and fishes (Halle et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2023; Boisseaux et al., 2024; Li et al., 2024d). Emerging evidence confirmed the pervasive presence of TWPs in marine biota, possibly cause risks to ecosystem through trophic transfer (Wang et al., 2023a). TWPs also tend to accumulate progressively with increased intake and become amplified through bioaccumulation in the food chain and ultimately detected in the human body, posing potential threats to human health (Roch et al., 2019; Chai et al., 2024). Consequently, TWPs pollution in marine ecosystems cannot be ignored.

A total of 249 relevant publications since 2018 to 2025 maily in the Web of Science, PubMed, and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) were selected. ‘Tire wear particles’ was used as the subject headings coupled with key words marine, sea, microplastic particle, behavior, toxicity, monitoring, control, etc. Based on literature review, global research on TWPs has predominantly focused on regions spanning from the east coast of North America to the west coast of Europe, including Arctic areas. Additionally, investigations are gradually expanding to coastal zones near South Korea, Japan, and parts of China’s Pacific coastline. This article comprehensively reviews the sources, migration of TWPs and their ecological risks in the marine environments, and explores the potential control strategies, aiming to provide support for the comprehensive understanding of the environmental behaviour of TWPs and effective control measures of TWPs pollution in marine ecosystems.

2 Sources

TWPs are primarily generated through the tribological interaction between tires and road surfaces, thus particles detached from tires during transportation activities are the greatest contributors to TWPs emission (Zhang et al., 2024a). At the global scale, around 3 billion new tires are produced, and 800 million are reaching end-of-life status annually (Kole et al., 2017; Mayer et al., 2024). During operational use, 10–30% of the tire tread mass undergoes progressive attrition, forming TWPs that would disperse into environmental matrices through mechanical shear and aerosolization processes (Wagner et al., 2018). The annual release of TWPs exceed 6 million tons globally, with per capita emissions ranging from 0.20 to 5.5 kg/year (mean: 0.81 kg/year) across different economic regions (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020; Evangeliou et al., 2020; Kole et al., 2017).

Research revealed TWPs emissions occur across all vehicle types at varying levels, with light-duty passenger cars averaging 100 mg/vehicle·km, while heavy-duty trucks reaching up to 1,200 mg/vehicle·km (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020). Notably, hybrid electric vehicles demonstrate 18-22% higher tire wear rates compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, attributable to increased mass from battery systems and regenerative braking-induced torque variations (Liu et al., 2022a; Arole et al., 2023). While accelerating electric vehicle deployment is pivotal for decarbonizing transportation in the world, the concomitant increase in TWPs emissions presents an emerging environmental challenge. The extreme operational conditions of aircraft tires are likely to exacerbate the generation rates of TWPs by 3–5 times compared to those of highway vehicles. A case study at Frankfurt Airport (2014) quantified annual aircraft TWPs emissions at 83 metric tons (Spanheimer and Katrakova-Krüger, 2022). Coastal regions, which concentrate the world’s highest population densities, significantly contribute to transport-related TWPs emissions due to intensified vehicular traffic and increased aviation activity.

Factors encompassing tire composition (natural/synthetic rubber ratios, tread design), pavement characteristics (surface roughness, hardness), vehicular parameters (axle load, velocity profiles), and driver behavior patterns (braking intensity, acceleration frequency) would strongly affect the emissions and characteristics of TWPs (Kole et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2023b). TWPs are typically composed of synthetic rubber, fillers (e.g., carbon black), plasticizers, and road-derived particulates (Table 1), ranging in size from micrometers to millimeters (averaging 10–100 micrometers) (Kreider et al., 2010; Wagner et al., 2018; Amelia et al., 2021). Nascent TWPs typically demonstrate sub-aqueous densities (0.95-1.05 g/cm³), whereas in the environment, TWPs show elevated density ranges (1.20-1.70 g/cm³) due to their agglomerating with high-density road-derived materials (e.g., asphalt particles: 2.3-2.5 g/cm³) through thermomechanical adhesion processes (Kole et al., 2017; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020; Kovochich et al., 2021). Once emitted, TWPs release into the ambient air or settle on the road surface, where their diameter and density play a critical role in determining their environmental behavior and fate (Wagner et al., 2018; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021).

Synchronized monitoring data indicate that TWPs within various forms are primarily transported to marine environment through atmospheric dry/wet deposition and surface runoff. Fine TWPs with diameters below 10 μm (accounting for 0.1–10% of the total emissions) could remain suspended in the atmosphere for long periods of time due to their aerodynamic properties, increasing their potential for transboundary environmental impacts (Järlskog et al., 2020; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021; Goßmann et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024e). The airborne concentrations of TWPs were reported in the range of 0.4-11μg/m³ (Wik and Dave, 2009). Wind-driven suspension facilitates long-range atmospheric transport of TWPs (Kole et al., 2017), with concentrations reaching 35 ng/m³ in coastal air over Norway (Goßmann et al., 2023). Evangeliou et al. (2020) suggested that direct deposition of airborne road TWPs was likely the most important source for the ocean, and about 30% of the emitted TWPs (140 kt yr⁻¹) were deposited in the world ocean through atmospheric transport. Atmospheric dispersion enables TWPs to deposit in remote marine environments far from emission sources, contributing to their global distribution.

The high mobility of water enables fluvial long-distance transport of TWPs, thus surface runoff is another key pathway for TWPs to enter marine ecosystems (Leads and Weinstein, 2019). Large TWPs with particle sizes between 10 μm and 500μm undergo transient deposition on road surfaces or adjacent soils, subsequent rainfall can transport them into urban drainage systems, thus TWPs would enter into waters via stormwater runoff (Huber et al., 2016; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020). Urban street cleaning activities could accelerate TWPs entry into aquatic systems (Wik and Dave, 2009; Huber et al., 2016; Smyth et al., 2025). TWPs retained on road surfaces typically form heterogeneous aggregates with dust and road particles during runoff events. These aggregates undergo coagulation, aging, and co-transport with pollutants before entering roadside streams or wastewater treatment systems (Unice et al., 2019; Dupasquier et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023a; Li et al., 2024b; Li et al., 2024c). TWPs have reportedly reached concentrations of up to 179 mg/L in stormwater drainage (Parker-Jurd et al., 2021, 2025). It was estimated that 2.8–18.6% of micron-sized TWPs were discharged from land into freshwater bodies and rivers, and the high mobility of water enabled long-distance transport of TWPs to the ocean (Jambeck et al., 2015; Essel et al., 2015; Leads and Weinstein, 2019; Lebreton et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2024c). Siegfried et al. (2017) estimated that European rivers discharge approximately 1.2 kt of TWPs annually into the Atlantic Ocean. Continental modeling confirmed that terrestrial TWPs, particularly sub-100 μm particles, are efficiently transported via fluvial systems to marine ecosystems, with annual global fluxes estimated at 1.3-4.7 teragrams (Essel et al., 2015). Parker-Jurd et al. (2021) pioneered a flux quantification framework using benzothiazole biomarkers, identifying treated wastewater effluent, urban surface runoff, and atmospheric fallout as three dominant TWPs entry routes into marine systems. Later they quantified TWPs entering estuaries in stormwater drainage, surface waters and sediments in the marine environment, at concentrations of 0.4 mg/L, 0.00063 mg/L, and 0.96 g/kg, respectively (Parker-Jurd et al., 2025). At present, TWPs have been commonly detected in aquatic environments around the world (Wang et al., 2024b).

The global marine input flux of TWPs exhibits significant spatial heterogeneity. Current research on TWPs predominantly focuses on waters of developed countries, such as the United States, Sweden, Germany, Japan, and Norway (Siegfried et al., 2017; Goßmann et al., 2023), where substantial TWPs in marine environments have been consistently documented (Table 2). Among continents, the North America and the Europe are among the largest contributors, and China’s rapid motorization contributed significantly to TWPs emissions in Asia (Evangeliou et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2024). In contrast, data about the developing countries were not so comprehensive becasuse of the relative poor robust monitoring systems in those countries (Wang et al., 2024b). With the growing evidence base for TWPs distribution across various environmental compartments, the pathways of TWPs entering the ocean have been largely elucidated. However, current calculations of TWPs fluxes and their inputs into the ocean predominantly rely on modeling estimations and lack empirical data (Pan et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2024b; Zheng et al., 2025; Parker-Jurd et al., 2025). Future research should prioritize establishing a global monitoring network to quantify the generation, transport, and environmental distribution of TWPs. This initiative is critical for obtaining accurate mass balance data, which will enable a more scientifically grounded allocation of national responsibilities.

3 Migration

The migration behaviors of TWPs in marine systems, were primarily governed by both their physicochemical properties and the environmental factors of the ocean (Kole et al., 2017). The size, shape, density, surface charge, and other characteristics of TWPs affected the rate of suspension, settling, and dispersion of TWPs in the sea. Lighter and little TWPs can remain suspended in water for extended periods, dispersing via ocean currents, while denser and large particles are more prone to sedimentation on the seabed (Unice et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2024c). Most of TWPs ultimately assumbled in coastal sediments, with concentrations 2–5 orders of magnitude higher than those in pelagic regions (Unice et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2020; Roychand and Pramanik, 2020; Rauert et al., 2022a, 2022b). A hydrodynamic modeling revealed 67–89% TWPs entering the ocean from land would deposit in bays retained in estuarine transition zones, with resuspension rates inversely correlated to sediment organic carbon content (Parker-Jurd et al., 2021). Studies found that synthetic rubber-containing carbon particles predominantly derived from TWPs constituted 15-38% microplastics in coastal sediments, with the 1.6-20 μm size fraction representing >60% of total TWPs mass (Kole et al., 2017; Ziajahromi et al., 2020; Gaggini et al., 2024). Semi-enclosed coastal systems (e.g., urban estuaries in the U.S.) exhibit significant TWPs accumulation, with sediment concentrations reaching 7,515 particles/kg, exceeding those in open oceans (Klöckner et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2021). Of particular concern is the detection of microplastics (MPs), including TWPs, in Pacific abyssal sediments (4,900-7,016 m depth), where maximum concentrations reach 111.3 ± 75.1 items/kg dw as well as the spatial distribution patterns correlated strongly with the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) location and current systems (Deng et al., 2025). Tidal dynamics facilitated the transport of TWPs from terrestrial sources to coastal zones through periodic water level fluctuations. Accelerated sea-level rise has increased the frequency of tidal flooding in coastal cities, potentially elevating TWPs fluxes to marine ecosystems by 23-41% (Ertel et al., 2023). Global ocean circulation patterns further contribute to the wide distribution of TWPs in the ocean, with polar regions acting as potential sinks. The deposition of TWPs on Arctic ice exacerbated ice melt through radiative forcing—a mechanism analogous to black carbon impacts (Materić et al., 2022).

Environmental variations induce the transformation of TWPs in marine systems, thereby significantly altering their fate. Temperature changes, UV irradiation and microbial activity, could affect the stability and transport of TWPs (Weyrauch et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2024). TWPs might undergo physical fragmentation processes such as weathering and water shear, chemical oxidation processes such as photo-oxidation, ozone decomposition, thermal oxidation and biodegradation in the ocean. These processes lead to decomposition, further fragmentation and physicochemical property changes of TWPs, exchanging their morphology, density, and elemental composition, thereby enhancing their mobility in aquatic systems (Chen et al., 2022; Shin et al., 2023; Wagner et al., 2022; Weyrauch et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024a). Notably, aged TWPs demonstrate enhanced adsorption and transport capacities compared to pristine particles (Wagner et al., 2022; Weyrauch et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024f). As effective adsorbents, TWPs interact with environmental contaminants through their polymer-rubber and carbon-black components (Hüffer et al., 2019). Their adsorption affinity for antibiotics resembles that of carbonaceous materials, with aging further amplifying antibiotic adsorption efficiency (Fan et al., 2021; Wen et al., 2024). Xu et al. (2024) revealed that TWPs and their leachates substantially increase the abundance and diversity of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and virulence factor genes (VFGs) in coastal sediments (Xu et al., 2024a).

TWPs that enter marine environment can be re-emitted into the atmosphere or transported back to terrestrial ecosystems via multiple pathways. Sea spray aerosols generated by wave-breaking processes can reintroduce suspended TWPs into the atmospheric boundary layer (Sha et al., 2024). Through ingestion and bioaccumulation in marine organisms, TWPs may transfer back to land-based ecosystems via animal and human consumption (Weinstein et al., 2022; Laubach et al., 2025; Lian et al., 2025). According to McIntyre’s TWPs exposure experiment, the cumulative rate of TWPs in Coho tissues can reach more than 35% (McIntyre et al., 2021). This finding highlights the urgency of conducting environmental risk assessments throughout the life cycle of TWPs, especially the need to quantify their global fluxes through “ocean-atmosphere-land” multi-media migration and “aquatic food chain-human” exposure pathways.

To our knowledge, data on the migration of TWPs in the marine environment were still scarce because of some technological and environmental issues, posing significant challenges in tracking their transport pathways, spatial distribution, and potential accumulation in the ocean. Limited large-scale application of tracing technologies (e.g., stable isotope labeling) hindered comprehensive quantitative analysis of TWPs migration pathways. Although Py-GC/MS coupling technology has reduced the detection limit of TWPs to 0.02 μg/g, complex marine matrices still result in 30-45% false-negative rates (Rauert et al., 2022a). Dynamic ocean currents, water movements, biological activities, and sediment deposition patterns, further complicates the detection and quantification of TWPs. These factors collectively obscure our understanding of how TWPs transport and transformation in the marine environment.

4 Toxicology & ecological risks

TWPs exhibit certain physical and chemical properties like conventional MPs, whereas their primary compositions differ from those of MPs as well as they contain much more toxic chemical additives (Halle et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2023b; Rizwan et al., 2024), resulting in greater potential environmental and health risks. Distinct from conventional MPs, to enhance vehicular safety parameters such as traction efficiency and mechanical durability, tires are reinforced by synthetic rubber matrices and specialized additive formulation, governing post-consumption environmental interactions, including contaminant leaching kinetics and ecotoxicological impacts (Halle et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2024). The cross-linked polymer networks and stabilized additive packages in TWPs confer superior environmental persistence (Barbara et al., 2023), leading to progressively release of complex leachates as well as posing heightened ecological risks through bioaccumulation and interference with biogeochemical cycles (Wik and Dave, 2009; Jambeck et al., 2015; Laubach et al., 2025). TWPs can also readily adsorb environmental contaminants such as heavy metals and PAHs (Cassandra et al., 2022), and such adsorption processes have been suggested to exert greater chemical impacts on water quality than the particles themselves (Vogel et al., 2024; Ganie et al., 2025).

Commonly, TWPs leachates contain measurable concentrations of toxic chemical additives such as heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd) and organic pollutants including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and benzothiazole derivatives (Table 3). Wu et al. (2024) systematically investigated the chemical components of TWPs through controlled abrasion experiments using a standardized tire profile simulator, quantifying 18 elements and 20 PAHs from 17 commercially dominant tire models in China. In an environmental leaching study, about 60% of 203 organic compounds identified in TWPs were observed within aqueous-phase mobilization potential (Müller et al., 2022). These chemical additives dissolved in the leachates accounted for 72-89% of observed toxicity, surpassing physical toxicity from particle presence (Rødland et al., 2023). For example, TWPs leachates exhibited higher toxicity (EC₅₀=0.04-8.60 mg/L) than intact particles on Chlorella vulgaris and biphenylamine derivatives were observed much more toxic (Jiang et al., 2024). An acute exposure study demonstrated 3.2-fold higher toxicity of TWPs leachates compared to particulate matter itself, attributable to enhanced bioavailability of dissolved contaminants (Caballero-Carretero et al., 2024). 6PPD (N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-pphenylenediamine), an antioxidant ubiquitously employed in tire formulations was observed undergoing rapid quinoid transformation to 6PPD-quinone (6PPD-Q), a compound demonstrating acute aquatic toxicity at ng/L concentrations (LC₅₀=0.62 μg/L for Oncorhynchus mykiss) (Ihenetu et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024; Calle et al., 2025). Tian et al. (2020) found that 6PPD-Q induced 100% mortality in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) at environmental concentrations. Multi-continental surveys detected 6PPD-Q in nearly 90% of urban stormwater samples, with concentrations exceeding ecotoxicological thresholds by 2–3 orders of magnitude (Tian et al., 2021; Yao et al., 2024).

A growing body of research confirms that TWPs exert toxic effects on various marine organisms through multiple pathways, posing a potential threat to marine ecosystems (Siddiqui et al., 2022; Bournaka et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024c; Yang et al., 2025b). TWPs could change the microbial community composition and function like MPs (Peng et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2025b). Ding et al. (2022) revealed that environmentally relevant concentrations of TWPs (1% weight/dry weight) could significantly change the microbial community structure, decrease community diversity, and inhibit nutrient cycling processes, including carbon fixation and degradation, nitrification, denitrification, and sulfur cycling in coastal sediments. Liu et al. (2022b) found that exposure to TWPs (150g/kg) could lead to a shift in bacteria community and affect nitrogen metabolism in marine sediments. The effects of TWPs on aquatic organisms showed a significant dose-dependent effects. At low concentrations (0.6 and 3 mg/L), TWPs stimulated the growth of microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum, whereas higher concentrations (15 and 75 mg/L) significantly inhibited growth, reduced chlorophyll-a content, and induced oxidative damage in algal cells (Lv et al., 2024). Page et al. (2022) revealed a significant negative impact of TWPs leachates on the growth rates of three marine phytoplankton species. The 72-h median effect concentration (EC50) values were determined to be 0.23 g/L for the cryptophyte Rhodomonas salina, 0.64 g/L for the diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii, and 0.73 g/L for the dinoflagellate Heterocapsa steinii. Notably, leachate concentrations equivalent to or exceeding 90% of 1 g/L TWP resulted in 100% mortality for all three species within 72 h. Since primary production plays a key role in the marine food web, the growth inhibition and ethality of primary producers such as phytoplankton and macroalgae by TWPs might disrupt the primary production network and the stability of aquatic food webs in the ocean (Wang et al., 2024c). Studies showed that TWPs and their leachates also exhibited toxic effects on higher marine trophic levels such as zooplankton, mollusca and fish (Table 4), posing a profound impact on the structure and function of the entire aquatic ecosystem. For example, exposure of Tigriopus japonicus to 0.17 g/L TWPs leachate for 48 hours caused severe oxidative stress, and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) decreased to 44.5%, 7.08% and 15.6%, respectively (Yang et al., 2025b); the water filtration rate and respiration rate of juvenile oyster (Crassostrea gigas) decreased by 52% and 16% within 40.5 hours at 1 μg/mL TWPs leachates (Tallec et al., 2022); 500 mg/L of TWPs significantly prolonged the burial time of Eriocheir sinensis, affecting the antioxidant defense system and energy metabolism (Ni et al., 2023, 2024); 6PPD led to developmental abnormalities in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos (Cunningham et al., 2022) and reproductive impairment in Daphnia magna (Boisseaux et al., 2024; Cunningham et al., 2024).

Emerging evidence confirmed the pervasive presence of TWPs in marine biota, possibly cause ecological risks through trophic transfer (Wang et al., 2023a). Numerous aquatic species have been documented to ingest TWPs, and the accumulation of those absorbed pollutants in marine organisms may exacerbate their adverse effects on marine ecosystems, potentially compromising food web stability and ecosystem health (Halle et al., 2021; Boisseaux et al., 2024; Philibert et al., 2024). 6PPD and 6PPD-Q, have been detected in various fish species including bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis), sea bream (Sparidae), and mackerel (Scomberomorus spp.) (Ji et al., 2022). Foscari et al. (2025) revealed significant bioaccumulation of tire additives in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), and all quantifiable 21 tire-related chemicals were found at significantly higher concentrations in mussel’s tissue than in tested water, with N,N′-diphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine(DPPD), N,N′-di-(p-tolyl)-p- phenylenediamine(DTPD) and 4-Hydroxydiphenyl amine(4-HDPA) concentrations more than 50 times higher than water levels. Suspect and non-target screening found 37 additional transformation products of tire additives, many of which did not decrease in concentration during depuration. Chai et al. (2024) demonstrated that the ecotoxicity of TWPs leachate can be transferred and amplified across multi-generations and different trophic levels through food chain (microalgae-zooplankton-fish). The study showed that the growth of microalgae (Chlorella pyrenoidosa) was significantly inhibited at TWPs leachate concentration ≥1500 mg/L. For rotifers (Brachionus calyciflorus) fed with TWPs-contaminated microalgae, the 500 mg/L group showed reduced reproductive capacity starting from the 3rd generation and the 1000 mg/L group went extinct after the 5th generation.When carp larvae consumed contaminated rotifers from the group higher than 250 mg/L, their mortality increased, and body length/weight decreased by over 30%. Yu et al. (2023) have specifically addressed the ecological risks and potential human health implications via dietary exposure. Primary producers in marine environment, phytoplankton may initiate trophic transfer through uptake of TWPs from aquatic matrices. Filter-feeding organisms subsequently ingest these particles through consumption of suspended particulate matter. The bioaccumulation process continues through higher trophic levels, ultimately affecting marine mammals. As apex consumers, humans may be exposed to TWPs through consumption of contaminated seafood (Roch et al., 2019). Due to their bioaccumulation potential and persistent release of toxic additives, TWPs represent a significant ecological threat in marine environments that demands urgent scientific attention (Youn et al., 2021).

Current information indicated TWPs could cause the abnormality and death of marine life at certain concentrations in the lab, but there are still great challenges in comprehensively assessing TWPs ecological risks. Most of exposure experiments conducted were predominantly limited to short-term studies, which failed to reflect the long-term ecological effects of TWPs. Moreover, the tested concentrations often significantly exceed those found in real-world environments. Whether death occur in the real marine environment has not been investigated, thus long-term in-field studies are called for further investigation.

5 Control strategy

5.1 Detection methods

The establishment of standardized protocols encompassing rational sampling systems, robust analytical methodologies, and validated testing procedures constitutes a critical prerequisite for characterizing TWPs emissions, developing reduction strategies, and formulating regulatory frameworks (Zhang et al., 2023b). Currently, three fundamental challenges impede TWPs analysis (Wagner et al., 2018; Thomas et al., 2022a): (1) light-absorbing properties arising from carbon-black constituents, (2) polydisperse size distributions spanning three orders of magnitude (10 nm - 500 μm), and (3) complex chemical matrices containing >400 additive compounds. Furthermore, environmental interactions with mineral particulates, bituminous materials, or co-pollutants frequently result in surface encapsulation phenomena, thereby substantially complicating analytical characterization (Halle et al., 2021; Mattonai et al., 2022).

Appropriate sampling methods are the prerequisite for accurate quantification of marine TWPs concentrations, and the selection of sampling methods depends on the geographical location, environmental matrix and research objectives (Goßmann et al., 2023; Tariq et al., 2025). Researchers have collected samples from air, water, sediments, sea salt and marine organisms across various global marine regions to conduct environmental concentration analyses (Table 5). Goßmann et al. (2023) utilized active sampling equipment to collect aerosol samples over the North Atlantic. Leads and Weinstein (2019) collected subtidal sediment samples using an Ekman dredge and sea surface microlayer samples with a 0.5 m mesh screen. Particles were separated via NaCl density separation and identified under a stereomicroscope. It should be noted that TWPs concentrations in water bodies are usually low, so large amounts of water samples need to be collected and rapidly filtered and enriched in the field. Additionally, minimizing sediment disturbance and re-suspension during sampling is very important (Tariq et al., 2025). At present, the absence of unified process for the sampling of TWPs restricts the reliability and comparison of data between different studies (Zhang et al., 2023b; Tariq et al., 2025). Therefore, formulating standardized guidelines for sampling will help to improve the accuracy and comparability evaluation of TWPs research results under different conditions.

Current detection methodologies are broadly categorized into two paradigms: single-particle methods and mass-based methods (Wagner et al., 2018; Klöckner et al., 2021; Kovochich et al., 2021). Single-particle methods are methods that can be used to identify the presence of TWPs based on, for example, the number of particles, size, morphology, surface texture, and color, focusing on identifying and analyzing individual TWPs mainly using microscopic observations and spectroscopic techniques (e.g., infrared, Raman spectroscopy) (Kovochich et al., 2021). By using the single-particle method, the mass of TWPs in a sample can be calculated based on the number, size, and density of particles. However, this methods can only measure two-dimensional characteristics of particles meaning that the actual volume and mass may be underestimated, and it is difficult to confirm TWPs without additional chemical markers for identification (Khan et al., 2024). Mass-based methods identify the presence of TWPs using chemical markers and quantify their mass based on the amount of standard chemical markers in the sample (Table 6). These methods significantly improve the accuracy of TWPs assessment and quantification (Wagner et al., 2018; Klöckner et al., 2021). The chemical markers can be rubber polymers (e.g., natural rubber, styrene butadiene rubber, etc.) or components added to the tire. Specific mass-based methods used for the analysis of TWPs include inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), pyrolysis and thermal desorption-coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (PYR-GC/MS, TED-GC/MS)) (Eisentraut et al., 2018). The improved microfurnace pyrolysis-GC-MS method is suitable for the analysis of complex environmental samples and can improve the reliability of TWPs concentration measurements (More et al., 2023).

The development of robust chemical markers remains a central challenge in mass-based quantification approaches, particularly regarding their environmental stability and analytical specificity (Klöckner et al., 2021). Ideal TWPs markers should exhibit three critical characteristics: (1) minimal leaching potential from tire matrices, (2) source specificity distinguishing tire-derived particles from co-occurring brake wear particles, and (3) detectability using conventional analytical platforms (Thomas et al., 2022b; Wagner et al., 2018). Müller et al. (2022b) identified 6-PPD transformation products as promising candidate markers, demonstrating their utility in environmental impact assessments through systematic degradation studies. Goßmann et al. (2021) utilized synthetic rubber vinylcyclohexene and SBB (phenyl [4.4.0] bicyclodecene) of synthetic rubber, and 2,4-dimethyl-4-vinylcyclohexene (DMVCH) and pinene (dipentene, DP) of natural rubber as molecular markers to determine the amount of TWPs in marine salts. By employing ¹³C-labeled styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) as an internal standard in PYR-GC/MS analysis, researchers attained 89% recovery efficiency for 15 tire samples, yielding accurate TWPs concentration estimates through polymer-specific mass ratio calibration (Jeong et al., 2024). Using PYR-GC/MS and particulate zinc (Zn) as markers, a Japanese research consortium documented TWPs accumulation in Osaka Bay (Barber et al., 2025). Notably, the study revealed that Py-GC/MS overestimateed TWPs mass by 12–18% relative to Zn-based methods in high-salinity waters, addressing key methodological inconsistencies. Complementary approaches utilizing zinc isotopes and other heavy metal signatures show potential for discriminating tire-derived particles from geogenic sources, though matrix interference remains a limitation (Klöckner et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2023).

While analytical methods for detecting TWPs in marine systems remain underdeveloped compared to general microplastics research (Yadav et al., 2025), emerging technologies show promise for TWPs measurement. Scholars in China have developed a chemometric model combining attenuated total reflectance-FTIR (ATR-FTIR) with partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), achieving 92% classification accuracy for 23 tire brands across four polymer categories (Qiu and Meng, 2019), suggesting spectroscopic techniques cost-effective alternatives for TWPs identification. Chae et al. (2021) advanced TWPs quantification through ole-amide derivatization-GC/MS, achieving superior sensitivity over traditional markers. Validation across 12 riverine and marine sediment samples showed strong concordance with μFTIR particle counts, demonstrating cross-matrix applicability. (Zhang et al., 2024b) demonstrated the potential of machine learning-enhanced satellite remote sensing for retrieving marine particulate organic carbon (POC), particularly through Data Interpolating Empirical Orthogonal Functions (DINEOF) for gap-filling in satellite datasets. These methodologies could be adapted for TWPs tracking, given their analogous transport pathways to other marine microparticles.

Monitoring TWPs in marine environments is crucial for assessing pollution levels and evaluating risks to marine biota. Current monitoring methodologies require integration of comparable and validated techniques, due to the challenges in simultaneous identification of TWPs with diverse sizes, shapes, and chemical compositions using a single analytical approach (Wang et al., 2024c). A critical challenge lies in the absence of internationally harmonized protocols for both quantitative and qualitative characterization of TWPs in oceanic systems (Foscari et al., 2024; Jones, 2024). This methodological inconsistency compromises global assessment efforts of TWPs contamination in marine ecosystems. Several international initiatives are underway to address these challenges and establish standardized methodologies for assessing TWPs emissions and their environmental impacts. The Euro 7 regulations, agreed upon in December 2023, will for the first time include limits on TWPs emissions, alongside brake and tailpipe emissions, extending regulatory oversight to electric vehicles as well (European Commission, 2023). The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) through its Noise and Tyres Working Group (GRBP) is conducting field tests to refine wear measurement techniques, including real-world driving simulations across urban, rural, and highway conditions (UNECE, 2023). While current TWPs monitoring in marine environments remains fragmented, these international efforts—particularly under Euro 7 and UNECE frameworks—are paving the way for standardized, globally applicable methodologies. The integration of these regulatory and scientific advancements will enhance the accuracy of TWPs pollution assessments and support mitigation strategies in marine ecosystems. Future research priorities should focus on establishing standardized analytical frameworks with interlaboratory validation and adaptive remote sensing algorithms for coastal TWP tracking, particularly for multimodal particle characterization as proposed in recent studies (Thodhal Yoganandham et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024c).

5.2 Control measures

Effective marine TWPs management requires integrated strategies combining source reduction, process control, and terminal treatment. Preventing and controlling the release of TWPs at the source is the most effective approach (Pottinger et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024c). Optimized chemical formulation and material substitution represents a crucial approach to mitigating TWPs generation. For instance, by incorporating advanced tread compounds, such as silica-reinforced elastomers and graphene-enhanced rubber, could reduce TWPs production by up to 40% under laboratory conditions (Amelia et al., 2021). Ternary rubber systems incorporating transformed 1,4-poly (isoprene-co-butadiene) rubber (TBIR) with natural rubber (NR) and cis-1,4-polybutadiene rubber (BR) have demonstrated improved NR/BR compatibility, optimized filler dispersion, and 35-40% reduction in TWPs generation (Yang et al., 2025a). Incorporation of carbon nanotube (CNT)-reinforced rubber composites into tire has been shown significantly improvement in abrasion resistance, thermal conductivity, and tear strength, enhancing rubber hardness and reducing fine particulate emission rates by 32-45% (Pei et al., 2022). Furthermore, the adoption of sustainable or eco-friendly tire materials represents an effective strategy for mitigating environmental hazards associated with tire use. Tire formulations utilizing biobased polymers and non-toxic plasticizers are emerging as promising alternatives (Pottinger et al., 2024). The tire industry is also actively pursuing alternative sustainable materials, including dandelion root-derived rubber (Taraxacum kok-saghyz) by Continental and guayule-based elastomers by Bridgestone and Nokian (Whba et al., 2024), with major manufacturers committing to ambitious sustainability targets - Michelin plans to incorporate 40% sustainable materials by 2030 and achieve 100% circular tire production by 2050 (Wang and Yong, 2025). However, the widespread adoption of these advanced or green materials may be constrained by higher production costs and limited commercial availability. To address this, cost and scalability assessments are crucial. While these innovations show promise, further research is needed to evaluate their economic feasibility and potential for large-scale production (Amelia et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022).

Multifaceted source mitigation approaches should integrate not only advanced material engineering solutions, but also traffic flow optimization (e.g., reduced speed limits, congestion management) and road pavement improvement (Wang and Yong, 2025; Chen et al., 2022; He et al., 2024). Moreover, policy tools such as extended producer responsibility (EPR) can play a significant role in TWPs management. EPR policies can incentivize manufacturers to prioritize environmentally benign designs and take responsibility for the entire lifecycle of their products (Wang and Yong, 2025; Chen et al., 2022; Rødland et al., 2024). This includes mandating tire composition disclosures, encouraging low-emission product labeling and recycling of scrap tires, which can further drive the adoption of sustainable materials and technologies. While these policy and design strategies offer promising avenues for reducing TWPs emissions, it is important to recognize that a comprehensive solution requires a multifaceted approach.

Control of the migration and diffusion process of TWPs entering the marine environment is another effective way. The mitigation of TWPs pollution in marine ecosystems requires effective control of particle migration and diffusion processes. Strategic implementation of particle collection infrastructure, including retention ponds and constructed wetlands, in high-risk zones such as roadways and parking facilities can significantly reduce TWPs transport to aquatic systems through optimized hydraulic design and sedimentation processes (Foscari et al., 2024; Rasmussen et al., 2024). Stormwater management infrastructure, including infiltration basins and detention ponds, serves a critical function in urban hydrology by both regulating runoff volume and reducing particulate contaminant fluxes to receiving water (De Oliveira et al., 2024). Systematic sampling using wet dust samplers (WDS) combined with density separation and stereomicroscopy has revealed that optimized street sweeping protocols can reduce TWPs loads in urban runoff by 40-60% (Järlskog et al., 2020). Permeable pavement systems, particularly those modified with cured carbon fiber reinforcement, demonstrate dual benefits of mechanical strength enhancement and TWPs capture capacity (Mitchell and Jayakaran, 2024). Emerging nature-based solutions including bioengineered wetlands and modular bioretention systems show promise for TWPs removal (60-85%) (Wei et al., 2023). However, drainage systems may serve as temporary TWPs reservoirs, with delayed maintenance potentially leading to downstream contamination events (Mengistu et al., 2021). Municipal wastewater treatment plants currently intercept approximately 65-80% of TWPs through multiple processes, though the resulting sludge-bound particles raise concerns regarding agricultural applications (Sun et al., 2024). Roadside vegetation systems, particularly those incorporating high-deposition tree species, can achieve atmospheric TWPs removal efficiencies of 30-50% (Foscari et al., 2024). These integrated control strategies collectively contribute to reducing marine TWPs inputs.

Once in the marine environment, TWPs needs end-of-pipe treatment. Adding exogenous adsorbents to capture TWPs is a potential method for reducing their concentration in seawater. Recent studies have demonstrated that activated carbon derived from poplar pruning waste showed excellent adsorption capacity for TWPs (Lladó et al., 2025). Advanced abiotic degradation methods, including accelerated UV exposure and cyclic freeze-thaw/wet-dry treatments, have been developed to enhance TWPs breakdown rates (Thomas et al., 2022b). Marine microorganisms, including specialized bacterial strains (e.g., Rhodococcus ruber and Gordonia polyisoprenivorans) and fungal species, have shown capability to colonize TWPs surfaces and initiate biodegradation through extracellular enzyme secretion, effectively depolymerizing high molecular weight rubber components into lower molecular weight oligomers (Calarnou et al., 2023; Saifur and Gardner, 2023). Genomic analysis of rubber-degrading bacteria such as Rhizobacter gummiphilus NBRC 109400 has identified key functional genes (e.g., latex-clearing protein lcp, Mw ~50 kDa) responsible for rubber degradation, providing molecular targets for strain optimization (Chang et al., 2019). Microbial desulfurization technologies have demonstrated sulfur removal efficiencies of 65-80% from waste tires, enabled rubber regeneration while maintained 85-90% of original mechanical properties (Xie et al., 2024). While approximately 60-75% of organic compounds in tire leachate can be biodegraded under optimal conditions, persistent transformation products remain resistant to microbial degradation, suggesting the need for combined physical-chemical-biological treatment systems (Foscari et al., 2024; Rasmussen et al., 2024). Pretreatment methods significantly enhance microbial degradation efficiency, with ozone oxidation increasing biosurfactant production by 40-55% and improving subsequent biodegradation rates in Candida methanosorbosa BP-6 cultures (Marchut-Mikołajczyk et al., 2019). Photo- and thermo-oxidative pretreatment generates carbonyl (CI=0.15-0.25) and hydroxyl (HI=0.08-0.12) functional groups that facilitate subsequent microbial assimilation, with selected bacterial strains achieving 30-45% mineralization of oxidized styrene-butadiene rubber within 60 days (Calarnou et al., 2024). Although the current understanding of marine TWPs biodegradation remains incomplete, these findings establish fundamental principles for developing engineered remediation routes. Future research will likely focus on screening and optimizing microorganisms capable of efficiently degrading TWPs, as well as exploring how these microbial degradation techniques can be applied in the marine environment (Calarnou et al., 2023; Saifur and Gardner, 2023).

Addressing the issue of marine TWPs pollution necessitates a collaborative approach involving governments, enterprises, the public, and other stakeholders (Jones, 2024). A comprehensive strategy integrating advanced source control technologies (including silica-reinforced tire formulations demonstrating 40% lower abrasion rates), AI-enhanced process management systems for real-time TWP monitoring, SDG-aligned policy frameworks incorporating extended producer responsibility schemes, and behaviorally-informed public education campaigns has been shown to reduce marine TWP fluxes by 55-72% in coastal urban environments while maintaining cost-effectiveness (<$0.15 per capita annual implementation cost), thereby significantly enhancing the resilience of marine ecosystems against particulate pollution (Zhou et al., 2023). This integrated approach, requiring transnational knowledge-sharing platforms and circular economy innovations, offers a replicable model for addressing particulate pollution crises while advancing the UN Decade of Ocean Science (2021-2030) objectives, though challenges persist in standardizing global monitoring protocols (Jones, 2024; Tariq et al., 2025). By integrating source control, process management, policy and regulatory frameworks, as well as public education and awareness initiatives, the generation and discharge of TWPs can be significantly curtailed, contributing to safeguarding the health and sustainability of marine ecosystems (Jones, 2024; Zhang et al., 2024b).

6 Conclusions

Given the substantial global production and disposal volumes of tires, TWPs represent an emerging contaminant that has significant impacts on the marine environment. Studies have shown that the introduction of TWPs into the ocean may change the composition of organic matter in the marine system, which in turn will interfere with the stability and function of the marine ecosystem. This alteration in the composition of marine organic matter may lead to the accumulation of harmful substances in marine organisms, ultimately affecting human health through the food chain, and there is also a potential risk of direct or indirect harm to human health from the chemicals that TWPs themselves may carry. A comprehensive understanding of TWPs sources, transport mechanisms, and ecological impacts is essential for knowing their marine environmental behavior assessing associated ecological risks, and developing targeted control measures. The complex characteristics of TWPs like heterogeneous chemical composition, morphological diversity, polydisperse size distribution, and variable density characteristics, created substantial challenges for environmental monitoring, risk quantification, and pollution management of TWPs. Current environmental behavior and exposure studies predominantly utilize laboratory-synthesized or commercially procured TWPs, which may not accurately represent natural environmental conditions. Consequently, investigating TWPs environmental impacts requires integrated approaches that account for multiple interacting factors to better predict their environmental fate and effects. Presently, insufficient data exists regarding intrinsic TWPs properties and environmental parameters to comprehensively evaluate alterations in marine ecosystem induced by TWPs. This knowledge gap underscores the need for more rigorous assessment of TWPs impacts on environmental health.

Based on current research progress of TWPs in the marine environment, the following future research priorities are recommended to address critical knowledge gaps and emerging challenges:

• (1) At the technological scopes, accurate monitoring technologies are suggested to be improved to fulfill the quantification need overcoming the present shortages such as…… For example, a novel TGA-GC/MS shows promise but requires further validation and standardization for broader application. Using remote sensing to accomplish source apportionment and large-scale mapping. And of course, the coming economic cost should be decreased to make more researchers at the global scale using and charging those applications or skills.

• (2) At the research area scopes, studies should be conducted in those barely investigated marine zones especially those around developing countries focusing on the TWPs in the coasts, bays, estuaries, oceans and so on.

• (3) At the research object scopes, field studies are suggested caring about the occurrence, transport, transformation and fate of TWPs in both environmental and biotic matrixes. The behaviors, such as bioaccumulation, biomaginfication, and biodegradation of TWPs in marine species should be well investigated. The potential being bio-indicator of TWPs in marine ecosystems of typical aquatic species such as fish, shellfish, crustacean or algae should be discussed.

• (4) At the toxicology scopes, much more biomarkers are suggested to be used in more marine species focusing on more TWPs and their leaches and absorbed chemicals, such as the nanoplastics of TWPs, toxic additives like 6-PPD and its transformation product 6PPD-quinone, which pose severe risks to aquatic organisms even at low concentrations.

• (5) At the management scopes, integrating TWPs into existing marine pollution monitoring frameworks to inform regulatory policies, establishing universal protocols for TWP collection, isolation, and analysis, and strengthening the allocation of responsibilities for TWPs emissions and international cooperation are urgently needed to facilitate comparative studies and regulatory assessments.

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