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REVIEW article

Front. Mol. Biosci.

Sec. Cellular Biochemistry

Volume 12 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fmolb.2025.1700263

Antioxidant and Oxidative Enzymes, Genetic Variants, and Cofactors as Prognostic Biomarkers of COVID-19 Severity and Mortality: A Systematic Review

Provisionally accepted
Shukur  Wasman SmailShukur Wasman Smail1Blnd  Azad IsmailBlnd Azad Ismail1Ivan  Sdiq MaghdidIvan Sdiq Maghdid1Abdullah  Hayder FlaihAbdullah Hayder Flaih1Christer  JanssonChrister Jansson2*
  • 1Salahaddin University, Erbil, Iraq
  • 2Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala, Sweden

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and progression of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection disrupts redox homeostasis through excessive generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, driving inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and multi-organ injury. Serum oxidative and antioxidative enzymes, their genetic polymorphisms, and essential micronutrient cofactors have emerged as potential prognostic biomarkers for COVID-19 severity and mortality. Evidence indicates that imbalances in antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase correlate with disease progression, while polymorphisms in GST, SOD, CAT, and HO-1 genes may modify susceptibility and outcomes. Biomarkers of oxidative damage, including malondialdehyde, 8-isoprostanes, nitrotyrosine, and protein carbonyls, consistently associate with respiratory failure, intensive care admission, and mortality. Furthermore, micronutrients such as selenium, zinc, copper, manganese, and iron, which act as enzymatic cofactors, influence antioxidant defense capacity and clinical prognosis. Despite promising data, limitations in biomarker standardization and assay specificity remain key challenges for clinical translation. The aim of this systematic review is to integrate enzymatic, genetic, and cofactor-based biomarkers to enhance risk stratification, challenging and to improve prognostic modelling in COVID-19. A better understanding of these biomarkers may facilitate early identification of high-risk patients, guide therapeutic interventions, and ultimately improve clinical outcomes in COVID-19.

Keywords: COVID-19, Oxidative Stress, Antioxidant Enzymes, geneticpolymorphisms, Prognostic biomarkers

Received: 06 Sep 2025; Accepted: 08 Oct 2025.

Copyright: © 2025 Smail, Ismail, Maghdid, Flaih and Jansson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Christer Jansson, christer.janson@medsci.uu.se

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