- 1Horticultural Sciences Laboratory, LR13AGR01, National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
- 2Laboratory of Bioggressors and Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, LR14AGR02, National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
- 3Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
- 4Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Département Physique, Tunis, Tunisia
- 5GMP, IUT 1, University Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
- 6Laboratory of Advanced Materials, National School of Engineers of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Introduction: This study investigates the In Vitro antifungal activity of silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) against mycotoxigenic Fusarium brachygibbosum species, a fungus posing a significant threat to olive trees in Tunisia.
Methods: Two different doses of SiO2 NPs (100 and 200 mg kg -1 ) were used to evaluate its effect on fungal growth, mycotoxin production, and virulence capability of tested F. brachygibbosum strain.
Results and Discussion: While mycelial growth was not influenced by SiO2 NPs, a notable increase in macroconidia sporulation was observed at the highest dose tested. Scanning electron microscopy revealed structural alterations in fungal hyphae treated with SiO2 NPs, including hyphal disorganization after the adherence of nanoparticles. Furthermore, SiO2 NPs influenced oxidative stress in Fusarium, with varying effects on hydrogen peroxide levels, total antioxidant activity, and total phenolic compounds, modulating the capability of the fungus to produce mycotoxins. Indeed, fusaric acid and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol amounts decreased in presence of SiO2, while an increasing level of neosolaniol and diacetoxyscirpenol was observed. Pathogenicity tests on olive and sorghum leaves revealed a reduction of disease severity in SiO2 treated samples compared to untreated controls, showcasing the potential of SiO2 NPs as a sustainable alternative for managing Fusarium infections. These findings underline the potential use of SiO2 NPs as environmentally friendly and effective tool in integrated pest management strategies against F. brachygibbosum as well as other Fusarium species occurring on olive trees. Further research is warranted to optimize their application and understand their interactions with both the pathogen and the host plant.
Highlights
• Fusarium brachygibbosum, an emerging olive tree pathogen in Tunisia, poses a significant threat to agriculture and requires innovative management solutions.
• Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) were tested for their effects on Fusarium, marking the first such study in Tunisia.
• While SiO2 NPs did not inhibit mycelial growth, they induced pigmentation and significantly increased macroconidia sporulation at the highest concentrations (200 ppm).
• SiO2 NPs induced an oxidative stress and a loss of membrane integrity in F. brachygibbosum.
• SiO2 NPs influenced mycotoxin production in F. brachygibbosum reducing trichothecenes production
• SiO2 NPs reduced Fusarium pathogenic effects on olive and sorghum leaves, showing promise as an alternative to chemical fungicides.
1 Introduction
Fusarium species are among the most significant phytopathogenic and mycotoxigenic fungi worldwide, causing severe diseases on various economically important crops (Munkvold et al., 2021). Although traditionally associated with major losses in cereals and vegetables, Fusarium infections are increasingly reported in olive trees showing symptoms of dieback in several countries worldwide (Nicoletti et al., 2020), including Morocco (Chliyeh et al., 2017), Spain (Hernández et al., 1998), Greece (Markakis et al., 2021), and Tunisia (Gharbi et al., 2020; Trabelsi et al., 2017).
This rise can be attributed to changes in olive cultivation methods, the expansion of new plantations into Fusarium-infected areas, and the use of infected planting material. Although Fusarium wilt has not yet reached the severity observed with other pathogens such as Verticillium species, Xylella fastidiosa, Pseudocercospora, and Venturia oleaginea, studies suggest that it has the potential to become more aggressive, similar to its impact on cereals and vegetables (Verma et al., 2024; Al-Hashimi et al., 2025).
Numerous agronomic strategies, including resistant varieties, chemical treatments, and crop rotation have been proposed to control Fusarium. Among these strategies, treatment with synthetic fungicides is the most effective tool against phytopathogenic Fusarium species. However, the repeated use of chemicals with the same mode of action could lead to a strong selection of resistant strains (Liu et al., 2019a; Yin et al., 2009; Yuan and Zhou, 2005), making the management of fungal diseases more difficult. Moreover, integrated pest management guidelines and environmental sustainability policies encourage researchers to develop newer eco-friendly strategies to control both fungal species and their mycotoxin accumulation, to reduce chemical treatments and, consequently, their negative environmental impact.
Recently, the new technologies and new knowledge on nanoparticles have encouraged researchers to develop effective nanoparticle-based bio-stimulants and pesticide more eco-friendly than chemical compounds (Duhan et al., 2017; Bhagat et al., 2023; Kumari et al., 2023). In addition, the nanoparticle based products allow the precise release of necessary and sufficient amounts of active ingredients and thus minimal residual presence, and release in the environment (Santosh P. and Yojana S., 2022). Notably, a reduced graphene oxide–copper oxide nanocomposite demonstrated superior antifungal activity at a significantly lower concentration (1 mg/L) compared to a conventional fungicide (2.5 g/L) in controlling Fusarium diseases in tomato and pepper plants (El-Abeid et al., 2020), highlighting the potential of nanotechnology in plant protection.
Within this framework, silicon, known as second most abundant element on earth after oxygen (Shahzad et al., 2022), was stated to have an important role in mitigating different stresses occurred on plants (Coskun et al., 2016; Elsheery et al., 2020). Especially its nanosized form which has shown promising results due to its good physical properties than bulk material (Siddiqui et al., 2014). Used as a pesticide, silica nanoparticles have shown potential in controlling various pests such as insects (Ziaee and Ganji, 2016). Moreover, studies who focused on the impact of silicon NPs on the interaction plant-pathogen have demonstrated the capability of silica nanoparticles in stimulating plant’s defense mechanisms and controlling phytopathogenic microorganisms (Baazaoui et al., 2021; Bathoova et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2022; Parveen and Siddiqui, 2022). For instance, Yobo et al. (2019) reported that granular and foliar potassium silicate had a positive effect in controlling Fusarium Head Blight disease of wheat. Likewise, Sakr, (2021a) and Sakr & Shoaib, (2021) demonstrated that treatment of 1.50 g kg-1 of soil and 1.7 mM soluble silicon reduced Fusarium Head Blight disease of wheat and barley. Previous studies suggest that SiO2 NPs may affect fungal cells by disrupting membrane integrity through their accumulation on the cell wall. This accumulation can interfere with the transmembrane energy cycle, disrupt the electron transport chain, and compromise the overall structural integrity of the fungal cells (Derbalah et al., 2018; Abdelrhim et al., 2021). While SiO2 NPs are reported to have antifungal properties, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood.
This study aims to evaluate the in vitro antifungal potential activity of silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) against F. brachygibbosum, an emerging pathogen threatening Tunisian olive trees and recognized as a potential Union quarantine pest (Bragard et al., 2021). This research pioneers the use of SiO2 NPs as a novel strategy to control F. brachygibbosum, offering a promising tool to managing this emerging olive tree pathogen.
2 Material and methods
2.1 Nanoparticle synthesis
The synthesis of SiO2 nanoparticles was carried out using the sol-gel process combined with supercritical ethanol drying. The preparation began with a solution containing tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), ethanol, and distilled water, as described by Martínez et al. (2006). This mixture was stirred for 30 min to form a transparent sol. Subsequently, hydrofluoric acid (HF) was added gradually to the sol. The resulting mixture was subjected to supercritical drying to produce an aerogel. This step involved placing the sol in an ethanol-filled autoclave, which was heated to 243 °C and pressurized above ethanol’s critical point (Tc = 243 °C, Pc = 63 bar). Gelation occurred after maintaining the sol at this temperature for 1 h. The interstitial solvent was removed through a controlled depressurization process over 1 h using nitrogen gas. To prevent thermal strain and cracking, the autoclave was kept sealed for 24 h, allowing thermal equilibrium before it was gradually opened. The characteristic of the obtained SiO2 aerogel was thoroughly detailed by Sghaier-Hammami et al. (2024).
2.2 Fungal isolation and identification
An orchard in the Kairouan region, located in southwestern Tunisia (35,67°N; 10,10°E), a major area for olive cultivation, was inspected for the presence of olive trees showing dieback symptoms on the aerial parts. A representative sample of olive roots was collected and carried to the laboratory for further analysis. For fungal isolation, root portions were thoroughly rinsed under running tap water for 15 min to remove soil and debris, dried on filter paper, and surface-sterilized using 2% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite for 2 min. They were then rinsed three times for 1 min with sterile distilled water and dried again on sterile filter paper. Small pieces from the margin of symptomatic tissues were transferred on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium amended with 100 mg L-1 streptomycin sulfate and 50 mg L-1 neomycin. Petri dishes were incubated at 25 °C for 7 days under an alternating light/darkness cycle of 12 h photoperiod.
After incubation, colonies developed from root pieces were transferred on new PDA plates and then purified by using the single spore isolation technique. All monosporic strains identified as Fusarium were transferred on PDA and Spezieller Nahrstoffarmer agar (SNA) media and morphologically identified according to Leslie & Summerell (2006). Morphological identification of each strain was also confirmed by sequencing the translation elongation factor 1-α gene by using the primer pair EF1/EF2 (O’Donnell et al., 1998), according to the procedure reported by Abi Saad et al. (2022).
2.3 Treatment of Fusarium brachygibbosum strain with nanoparticles
In order to test the effect of the SiO2 NPs on fungal growth of F. brachygibbosum species, two different doses were used (100 and 200 ppm). In detail, SiO2 NPs was added to PDA cooled down to 45°C–50°C after autoclaving and stirred for 10 min on a magnetic stirrer to ensure its homogeneous dispersion in the medium.
To evaluate the effect on fungal growth, F. brachygibbosum strain, MB1 stored in ITEM collection (Agro-Food Microbial Culture Collection, ISPA-CNR Bari, Italy, http://server.ispa.cnr.it/ITEM/Collection/) was used for mycelial growth assay. Briefly, mycelium disks (4 mm in diameter) from actively growing margins of 3–5-day old colonies cultured on PDA, were used to inoculate Petri dishes (90 mm in diameter) containing PDA or PDA amended with SiO2 NPs. The inhibition activity of the SiO2 NPs on colony growth was determined by measuring the diameter (in mm) of developing colonies after 3, 5, 7, and 10 days of incubation at 25°C, under darkness. The number and size of macroconidia and chlamydospores were also assessed after 7 and 14 days of incubation, respectively. The experiment was conducted with five replicates per treatment, and the trial was repeated twice.
2.4 In vitro pathogenicity test on detached olive leaves and stems, and shoots sorghum
The In vitro pathogenicity test on detached olive leaves was performed as described by Liu et al. (2007). To test the virulence of MB1 F. brachygibbosum strain treated with SiO2, olive leaves and stems from the Chemlali cultivar, and leaves of sorghum were collected and injected with conidial suspension. The conidial suspension was prepared by carefully scraping the fungal culture from the amended medium, ensuring that no sterile distilled water was added to the surface to prevent any potential influence of SiO2 NPs on the leaves.
Samples were collected at the same foliar stage and had approximately the same dimensions. For each treatment, six samples were placed in rectangular Petri dishes on soaked paper moistened with sterilized distilled water. For the control treatment, distilled water was injected into the samples, using the same number of replicates as for the other treatments. An aliquot of 10 µL of conidial suspension (106 spore mL-1) or distilled water was injected into the center of each leaf to ensure uniform conditions for all replicates.
2.5 SEM observations
For the morphological and chemical analysis of the fusarium samples, a Thermo Scientific™ Quanta™ 250 FEI scanning electron microscope (SEM), equipped with an Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) system, was used. This microscope is manufactured by Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., located in Waltham, Massachusetts, USA.
The SEM provides high-resolution imaging of the sample surfaces at scales ranging from micrometers to nanometers. It uses an electron beam that interacts with the material, generating signals that are converted into images representing the surface topography. The integrated EDX system enables detailed chemical analysis by detecting and quantifying the elements present in the samples based on the X-ray emissions generated during electron beam interaction. This technique allowed for the identification of chemical elements and the mapping of their distribution within the samples.
Analyses were performed under low vacuum conditions to preserve the integrity of biological and non-conductive samples. Images were obtained at various magnifications to examine surface structures and elemental characteristics. Measurements were carried out in low-voltage mode to reduce the risk of damage to sensitive samples and to enhance electron penetration depth in the materials. The spatial resolution provided by this instrument allowed for the examination of fine surface details, and EDX analysis enabled the determination of the chemical composition at micro- and nanoscale levels.
2.6 Image analysis
Infected zone rate was calculated using the software Image Plus (Motic, version 2.0, 2008) using the formula:
For each leaf, the surface area of visible symptoms (necrotic or chlorotic spots) was measured and compared to the total leaf surface
Additionally, hyphal deformation severity was assessed by measuring the mycelium diameter in SEM images using ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States).
2.7 Cell membrane integrity
The integrity of the cell membrane of F. brachygibbosum was assessed by UV-VIS spectrophotometry following the method described by Ribeiro et al. (2024), with modifications. Specifically, a sporal suspension of the three treatments, adjusted to approximately 106 spore mL-1, was prepared in sterilized distilled water and incubated at 37°C for 2 h. After incubation, the samples were centrifuged, and the supernatant was collected for analysis. The absorbance of the supernatant was measured at 260 nm and 280 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (UV Spectrophotometer OPTIZEN 3220UV, Daejeon, South Korea).
2.8 Non-enzymatic antioxidant parameters measurements
The total antioxidant activity was measured following the method described by Koleva et al. (2002). Results were expressed in milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per Gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g DW), as outlined in the same study. The calibration curve was constructed within a concentration range of 0–500 μg mL-1.
The total phenolic content of different species was assessed using a modified version of the Folin-Ciocalteu method as described by Pereira et al. (2018). Phenolic content was expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per Gram of dry residue (mg GAE/g DR), calculated from a calibration curve prepared with gallic acid standards in the range from 0.001 to 0.01 mg L-1.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content in fungi was determined using a modified method based on Velikova et al. (2000). Fungi were rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen and ground in 5 mL of 0.1% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid. The homogenate was centrifuged at 15,000 × g for 15 min at 4 °C to separate the supernatant. An aliquot of 0.5 mL of the supernatant was combined with 1 mL of 1 M KI and 0.5 mL of 10 mM K2HPO4 buffer (pH 7.0). The reaction mixture was kept in darkness for 60 min before measuring absorbance at 390 nm. The H2O2 concentration was calculated using a standard curve prepared beforehand.
2.9 Mycotoxins analysis
The effect of SiO2 NPs, at two different concentrations 100 and 200 mg kg-1, on mycotoxin production was evaluated culturing F. brachygibbosum MB1 strain on PDA and PDA amended with the compound. After 14 days of incubation at 25 °C in darkness, mycelial plugs (2 g) were collected in 50 mL tubes containing 10 mL acetonitrile/water/acetic acid (79:20:1, v/v/v). Mycotoxin extraction was obtained by 3 min of slurried. Extracts were diluted in water (ratio 1:10) and directly injected into the LC- HRMS instrument. Liquid chromatography–HMRS analysis was performed on Orbitrap ExplorisTM 240 E, equipped with a heated electrospray ion source (HESI II) coupled to a Vanquish UHPLC system (all from Thermo Fisher Scientific, San Jose, CA, United States). Chromatographic separation was performed at 40 °C on a Gemini® C18-column, 150 × 2 mm i. d., 5 μm particle size, equipped with a C18 4 × 3 mm i. d. security guard cartridge (Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, United States). The flow rate of the mobile phase was 350 μL/min, whereas the injection volume was 10 µL. Eluent A was water, and eluent B was methanol, both containing 0.5% acetic acid and 1 mM ammonium acetate. The HESI II ion source was operated in positive ion mode and in negative mode, with the following settings: sheath gas: 30 arbitrary units, auxiliary gas: five arbitrary units, sweep gas 1 arbitrary units, spray voltage: 3.5 kV for positive ion and 2,5 KV for negative ion, RF lens: 70 percentage (arbitrary units), ion transfer tube: 325°C, vaporizer temperature: 300°C. High-resolution mass spectrometry chromatograms were acquired in positive and negative ionization mod in the same run. Resolution was 120,000 and the scan range (m/z): 70-850. Mycotoxin identification was carried out by comparing retention times, fragmentation patterns, and collision cross-sections with reference standards compiled in our in-house UNIFI library. This library was built by analyzing a mixture of mycotoxin standards under the same analytical conditions.
2.10 Statistical analysis
All data are presented as means. Tukey’s HSD test was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) by IBM SPSS software (Version 27.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp, United States) with a value of P < 0.05 being considered significant. Principal component and Pearson’s correlation analysis was executed utilizing the FactoMineR packages within the R software, version 4.2.3, with data normalized by applying Z-score standardization prior to PCA.
3 Results
3.1 Host symptoms and morphological characterization of Fusarium strains infecting olive roots
Leaves, roots, and stems were sampled from symptomatic olive trees cultivated in the semi-arid Kairouan region. The olive samples showed typical Fusarium infection symptoms, including leaf wilting, chlorosis, and necrosis along the midrib and edges. Stem cross-sections reveal vascular discoloration with brown streaks in the xylem, while roots appear dry, brittle, and necrotic with reduced branching (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Symptoms of Fusarium infection on olive trees: (a) wilted olive leaves with discoloration, (b) internal vascular browning in infected branches, (c) root damage and decay caused by the pathogen.
Only Fusarium strains with white to pink colonies were selected, as the focus is on studying F. brachygibbosum species, which are considered emerging pathogens. These strains have recently gained attention due to their characteristic abundant aerial mycelium, aligning with their increasing significance as a plant health threat highlighted by (Bragard et al., 2021).
Colonies grown on PDA reached a diameter of 90 mm at 28°C after 14 days in darkness, characterized by abundant aerial white mycelium, pink colonies (Figure 2a) and rare production of microconidia. Chlamydospores were commonly observed, ranging from 6 to 24 µm in diameter, with a spherical to globose shape, smooth or slightly roughened surfaces, and appearing terminally or intercalarily in chains of two or three (Figure 2b).

Figure 2. Cultural and morphological features of Fusarium brachygibbosum (a) microscopic view of Fusarium brachyggibosum conidia structures observed under compound microscope (b) (40X).
Molecular identification at species level was conducted using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA and the translation elongation factor 1α (TEF-1α). Sequence homology confirmed the identification of the species as F. brachygibbosum.
3.2 Inhibitory effects of SiO2 nanoparticles on fusarium growth
The effect of SiO2 NPs on the fungal growth and structural development of F. brachygibbosum was evaluated in vitro conditions by using PDA and PDA amended with the compound. Two concentrations of SiO2 NPs, 100 ppm and 200 ppm, were tested. Observations were conducted after 3, 5, 7, and 10 days of incubation, examining both the reverse and front views of the culture plates. In the control group, Fusarium growth exhibited consistent colony expansion and notable red pigmentation, which became more pronounced by day 10. In contrast, Fusarium cultured with SiO2 NPs displayed slower growth and reduced pigmentation, with the inhibitory effect being more evident at the higher concentration of 200 ppm. By day 10, colonies grown with 200 ppm SiO2 NPs showed smaller diameters and lighter pigmentation compared to both the control and the 100 ppm treatment. These findings suggest a dose-dependent inhibitory effect of SiO2 nanoparticles on Fusarium growth and pigment production, with higher concentrations exerting a greater impact (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Impact of SiO2 nanoparticles on Fusarium brachygibbosum mycelial growth over time on PDA medium: reverse and front views at 100 and 200 ppm compared to the control (NTF).
To quantify this effect, inhibition rates were measured over time. At 3 dpi, a slight mycelial growth inhibition was observed (3.45% and 1.53% on PDA amended with 100 ppm and 200 ppm, respectively). However, after 3 days, no significant difference was observed (p < 0.05) between control and treatments (Table 1). These results indicate that SiO2 NP could influence fungal colony growth only in the early stages, but their effect diminishes over time. Interestingly, these findings imply that SiO2 nanoparticles may primarily affect Fusarium structural components rather than directly inhibiting mycelium expansion.

Table 1. Inhibition rate of growth of Fusarium brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control group.
Further structural analysis of F. brachygibbosum grown under different conditions revealed significant variations (Figure 4). In the control only the fungal hyphae and sparse structures were observed, with no visible macroconidia (Figure 4a). At 100 ppm SiO2, hyphae and fungal fragments were present, but macroconidia were still absent (Figure 4b). However, treatment with 200 ppm SiO2 led to the formation of macroconidia, clearly marked by their elongated, canoe-shaped morphology. These observations suggest that while lower concentrations of SiO2 nanoparticles primarily affect fungal growth, higher concentrations promote macroconidia formation in F. brachygibbosum. This stimulatory effect on macroconidia formation at 200 ppm provides insight into the structural and developmental impacts of SiO2 nanoparticles on fungal physiology.
The impact of SiO2 nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) on F. brachygibbosum spore formation and morphology was assessed by counting the different structures of the fungus. Spore counts revealed clear differences between treatments. Chlamydospore production was highest in the untreated control, while macroconidia were absent in this condition. Treatment with 200 ppm SiO2 NPs significantly increased the production of macroconidia, whereas the 100 ppm treatment resulted in minimal macroconidia and an intermediate level of chlamydospore production, suggesting a dose-dependent stimulation of macroconidia formation (Figure 5a). The assessment of spore area followed a similar trend. Macroconidia observed in the 200 ppm treatment had the largest area, significantly exceeding those in other treatments. In contrast, the area of chlamydospores remained consistent across the untreated and 100 ppm conditions, indicating a limited effect of lower SiO2 concentrations on this structural feature (Figure 5b). Furthermore, the perimeter of macroconidia in the 200 ppm treatment was the largest, aligning with the elongated, canoe-shaped morphology noted in previous microscopic observations (Figure 4). Chlamydospores in the untreated and 100 ppm treatments exhibited significantly smaller perimeters, further highlighting the distinct morphological impact of the higher SiO2 NP concentration (Figure 5c).

Figure 5. Assessement of spore number (a) Area (b) Perimeter (c) of Fusarium brachygibbosum spores grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control group. Results represent the mean ± standard error (SE). Bars with a different letter indicate significant differences according to Tukey’s HSD test at P < 0.05.
These findings align with earlier results, showing that SiO2 nanoparticles exert a limited effect on mycelial growth but significantly influence Fusarium structural development.
3.3 SEM analysis
The analysis of SEM images revealed significant differences in the morphology of Fusarium hyphae depending on the concentration of SiO2 nanoparticles and the incubation time. At 3 days post-incubation (dpi), untreated Fusarium hyphae exhibited an organized filamentous structure (Figure 6a,d), while the addition of 100 ppm or 200 ppm SiO2 induced progressive hyphal disorganization, with a more pronounced effect at 200 ppm (Figures 6b,e). At 8 dpi, untreated Fusarium showed dense hyphal proliferation, whereas SiO2 treatments, particularly at 200 ppm, resulted in hyphal fragmentation and an apparent reduction in density.

Figure 6. Scanning electron micrographs of Fusarium brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control. (a,d) Control fungi grown for 3 and 10 days post-incubation (dpi), respectively. (b,e): Fungi grown on PDA medium with 100 ppm SiO2 for 3 and 10 dpi, respectively. (c,f) Fungi grown on PDA medium with 200 ppm SiO2 for 3 and 10 dpi, respectively.
As a consequence, the assessment of hyphal deformation severity, indicated by mycelium diameter measurement, showed a significant reduction with increasing SiO2 concentration. The control group exhibited the largest mycelium diameter (7.102 ± 0.463 µm), which was not significantly different from the group treated with 100 ppm SiO2 (6.151 ± 0.404 µm). However, treatment with 200 ppm SiO2 resulted in a significantly lower mycelium diameter (3.175 ± 0.158 µm), highlighting the inhibitory effect of higher SiO2 concentrations on fungal growth (Table 2).

Table 2. Mycelium diameter of Fusarium brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control group.
In the SEM micrographs of the treatments with 100 ppm and 200 ppm SiO2, nanoparticles appeared to be visible on the surface of the hyphae. These particles manifested as small granular structures adhering to the hyphal walls, especially at 200 ppm (Figures 6c,f), where their density seems higher. This suggests direct interaction between the NPs and the hyphae, potentially contributing to the observed inhibitory effect. Such interactions could induce mechanical alterations, modify cell wall permeability, or disrupt normal biological functions of the hyphae.
3.4 Membrane integrity
The mean optical density values obtained at 260 and 280 nm were used to detect absorbing materials, reflecting the potential loss of macromolecules such as nucleic acids and proteins. This loss is associated with plasma membrane disruption and is evident in F. brachygibbosum treated with SiO2 nanoparticles (Table 3). The control group exhibited low optical density values at both wavelengths, indicating intact fungal cells under the given culture conditions. Conversely, treatment with 100 ppm SiO2 nanoparticles led to a significant rise in the optical density of fungal suspensions, suggesting increased membrane permeability. Surprisingly, the group treated with 200 ppm SiO2 nanoparticles displayed the lowest absorbance values, a finding that will be further examined in the discussion.

Table 3. Detection of absorbing material at 260 and 280 nm in suspensions of Fusarium brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control group.
3.5 Impact of SiO2 on oxidative stress in Fusarium brachygibbosum
The impact of SiO2 supplementation on H2O2 content and total antioxidant activity in Fusarium spp. was assessed in untreated Fusarium (NTF) and cultures grown on PDA supplemented with 100 ppm and 200 ppm SiO2. The highest H2O2 content was recorded in the untreated control, with a significant reduction observed at 100 ppm SiO2. However, at 200 ppm SiO2, H2O2 levels increased compared to the 100 ppm treatment, though they remained slightly lower than those in the untreated control (Figure 7a). A similar trend was observed for total phenolic compound levels, illustrating the pattern of H2O2 variation (Figure 7b).

Figure 7. Assessment of the peroxyde hydrogen concentration (a) total polyphenols concentration (b) and total antioxidant activity (c) in Fusarium brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control group. Results represent the mean ± standard error (SE). Bars with a different letter indicate significant differences according to Tukey’s HSD test at P < 0.05.
The total antioxidant activity exhibited a dose-dependent response, with the lowest activity in the untreated control, a moderate increase at 100 ppm SiO2, and the highest antioxidant activity observed at 200 ppm SiO2 (Figure 7c).
These results indicate that 100 ppm SiO2 reduces oxidative stress in F. brachygibbosum as evidenced by decreased H2O2 levels, while 200 ppm SiO2 enhances antioxidant activity, potentially as a response to elevated H2O2 content.
3.6 Mycotoxin analyses of Fusarium brachygibbosum under SiO2 NPS treatments
The mycotoxin analysis of F. brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the non-treated fungal (NTF) control was able to highlight the change in the quantified mycotoxins including Fusaric Acid (FA), neosolaniol (NEO), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-15 AC DON), and 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) as represented in Table 4. In the non-treated Fusarium, FA was detected at 203.1 mg kg-1, while 3-15 AC DON was present at 57.5 mg kg-1, respectively. NEO and DAS were not detected under these conditions. Upon exposure to 100 ppm SiO2 NPs, FA remained undetectable, whereas NEO was measured at 1308.4 mg kg-1 3-15 AC DON was produced at a lower concentration (32.4 mg kg-1), while DAS increased to 430.4 mg kg-1. At the higher concentration of 200 ppm SiO2 NPs, FA remained undetectable, while NEO levels further increased to 2197.3 mg kg-1 3-15 AC DON was not detected in this condition, whereas DAS production rose to 734.2 mg kg-1.

Table 4. Trichothecenes production of Fusarium brachygibbosum grown on PDA medium amended with SiO2 at concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm, compared to the control group.
These results indicate that SiO2 NPs significantly influenced trichothecene biosynthesis in F. brachygibbosum, particularly enhancing neosolaniol and DAS production while suppressing FA synthesis. Additionally, 3-15 AC DON levels decreased with increasing SiO2 NP concentrations, becoming undetectable at 200 ppm.
3.7 In vitro assessment of SiO2 treatment on fusarium in olive and sorghum
The effect of SiO2 NPs at two concentrations (100 and 200 ppm) was assessed on olive tree leaves and stems, and on sorghum shoots. Severe symptoms, including necrosis and browning on leaves and dark streaks or lesions on stems, indicating significant tissue damage, were observed on olive leaves inoculated with untreated F. brachygibbosum conidial suspension (Figure 8). Treatment with SiO2 at 100 ppm reduced these symptoms, with leaves exhibiting milder necrosis and stems showing less browning and lesion formation. At 200 ppm, symptoms were further mitigated, with olive leaves displaying minimal necrosis and stems showing near-normal appearance with reduced streaking.

Figure 8. Binocular magnifier observations showing symptoms on olive tree leaves and shoots, and sorghum leaves after inoculation with sporal suspensions prepared under different treatments: Water, NTF (untreated), FSiO2 at 100 ppm, and FSiO2 at 200 ppm.
The measurement of the infected zone rate (%) validates the observed results in Figure 9. The untreated Fusarium showed the highest infection severity, with an infected zone rate exceeding 40%, which aligned with the severe necrosis, browning, and tissue damage observed in olive leaves and stems. In contrast, treatments with SiO2 at 100 ppm and 200 ppm significantly reduce the infected zone rate to approximately 10%. These findings confirm the visual observations, where SiO2 treatment, particularly at higher concentrations, mitigated symptoms such as necrosis, discoloration, and structural degradation, highlighting its effectiveness in reducing Fusarium-induced damage.

Figure 9. Infected surface of olive leaves treated with NTF, FSiO2 100 ppm and FSiO2 200 ppm compared to total leaf surface. Results represent the mean ± standard error (SE). Bars with a different letter indicate significant differences according to Tukey’s HSD test at P < 0.05.
For sorghum shoots, the NTF group exhibited extensive tissue degradation and mycelium development. Treatment with SiO2 at 100 ppm led to moderate recovery, with a reduction in Fusarium mycelium development, while at 200 ppm, significant improvement was observed, with shoots showing minimal structural damage and reduced mycelium presence (Figure 8). These results support the observations made on olive trees and confirm the loss of F. brachygibbosum pathogenicity under SiO2 treatment in both olive leaves and shoots and sorghum shoots.
3.8 Analysis of principal components and the relationships among various measured parameters
Based on the principal component analysis (PCA), the first two components, Dim1 (PC1) and Dim2 (PC2), explain 71.8% and 28.2% of the total variance, respectively, providing a comprehensive representation of the dataset’s variability (Figure 10). PC1 primarily separates FSiO2 100 ppm from FSiO2 200 ppm and NTF, driven by parameters such as H2O2 levels, infected zone rate, and fungal growth inhibition. In contrast, PC2 distinctly discriminates FSiO2 200 ppm from the other samples, with strong contributions from macroconidia-related traits (number, area, and percentage), chlamydospore parameters, and biochemical markers such as polyphenols and AAT activity. The PCA highlights a clear dose-dependent effect of FSiO2 nanoparticles on Fusarium physiology and biochemistry, with higher concentrations (200 ppm) inducing more pronounced alterations. The clustering patterns and variable correlations suggest that FSiO2 nanoparticles at higher concentrations effectively disrupt fungal growth and metabolism, with macroconidia and polyphenol-related traits emerging as key indicators of antifungal activity and stress responses.

Figure 10. Principal component analysis of (a) variables influencing the effect of SiO2 nanoparticles on Fusarium brachygibbosum and (b) treatments: non-treated fusarium, and fusarium treated with 100 ppm and 200 ppm SiO2 nanoparticles.
4 Discussion
Fusarium species have frequently been isolated from olive tissues that display wilt symptoms in Tunisia (Trabelsi et al., 2017) probably due to the co-cultivation of olive trees with other crops susceptible to Fusarium infection. Several pathogenic Fusarium species were isolated from olive trees showing dieback and wilting symptoms, representing an increasing concern for olive producers. Indeed, some Fusarium species, including F. brachygibbosum, caused important damages in nurseries and newly established olive orchards (Trabelsi et al., 2017). Among the pest management strategies, treatment with synthetic fungicides is the most effective tool against phytopathogenic Fusarium species. However, despite the efficacy of chemical pesticides in reducing Fusarium growth, their heavy use can lead to the occurrence of resistant strains in the fungal populations (Lucas et al., 2015), as well as adverse environmental impact (Siamak and Zheng, 2018). For that reason, it is crucial to develop alternative eco-friendly tools for controlling Fusarium species (Balakumaran et al., 2015). In this study the activity of SiO2 on F. brachygybbosum isolated from olive tree has been evaluated.
4.1 Impact of SiO2 on mycelium growth and structure
The SiO2 nanoparticles used in this study exhibit a spherical shape with a uniform and narrow size distribution, as mentioned in our previous work (Baazaoui et al., 2023). Their mesoporous structure and an average particle size of approximately 6 nm contribute to their distinctive physicochemical and morphological properties, which may facilitate effective contact with fungal cells. However, unlike previous studies that reported antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani (Abdelrhim et al., 2021), Alternaria (Derbalah et al., 2018), and Fusarium oxysporum (Parveen and Siddiqui, 2022), their presence did not inhibit mycelial growth. However, SEM analysis revealed significant structural damage to fungal hyphae treated with SiO2 nanoparticles, including hyphal disorganization, irregular shrinkage, and nanoparticle adherence, particularly at higher concentrations. Similar structural damage was reported for Fusarium treated with ZnO or ZnO-CuO nanoparticles, where TEM analysis showed cell wall disintegration, plasma membrane damage, and destruction of intracellular contents (Gaber et al., 2024; Subba et al., 2024). The observed adherence of SiO2 nanoparticles to the mycelium suggests a direct interaction with the fungal cell wall, potentially affecting its integrity and function. AgNPs have been shown to induce similar effects, forming pits and cavities on the Fusarium cell wall, leading to compromised structural integrity and increased permeability (ElSharawy et al., 2023; Todorova et al., 2024). These findings indicate that nanoparticles may disrupt fungal cell wall function, ultimately contributing to oxidative stress and cellular damage.
The harmful effects of nanoparticles on fungal mycelium are further supported by evidence that ions released from nanoparticles penetrate fungal cells, disrupting essential processes such as protein synthesis and DNA replication (Todorova et al., 2024). Our study confirmed these effects, showing DNA damage and loss of plasma membrane integrity when SiO2 nanoparticles were added at 100 ppm to the Fusarium culture medium. However, the absence of effect at 200 ppm could be due to the observed adherence of nanoparticles to the mycelium surface at this concentration. The adherence of nanoparticles to microbial cell membranes, whether through direct or electrostatic interactions, influences membrane permeability (Zhang et al., 2007). This interaction may physically target the membrane, preventing further loss of integrity.
In response to this stress, F. brachygibbosum exhibited increased macroconidia sporulation, while chlamydospore production remained unaffected. Asexual spores play a crucial role in fungal survival, enabling colonization of new resource patches, particularly in suboptimal and disturbed environments (Wyatt et al., 2013; Boddy and Hiscox, 2016). Interestingly, stress-induced sporulation has been reported in fungi exposed to resource limitations, where increased investment in spore production allows fungal populations to persist under adverse conditions (Camenzind et al., 2022). Although asexual reproduction is a key factor in the rapid spread of fungal disease outbreaks (Ashu and Xu, 2015), the structural damage induced by SiO2 NPs may influence the viability or pathogenic potential of the resulting spores, potentially affecting fungal dissemination and host infection dynamics. Given these findings, the increased sporulation observed in F. brachygibbosum following SiO2 treatment may not indicate enhanced fungal proliferation but rather a stress-induced survival mechanism aimed at ensuring persistence under unfavorable conditions. This disruption in fungal cell integrity and function may also contribute to oxidative stress, further exacerbating cellular damage.
4.2 Impact of SiO2 on fungal oxidative systems and mycotoxin production
SiO2 nanoparticles demonstrated a concentration-dependent impact on oxidative stress and antioxidant activity in F. brachygibbosum. Silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) have been shown to interact with cellular membranes and induce oxidative stress in various organisms. Specifically, SiO2 NPs can damage phospholipid membrane integrity and fluidity, potentially leading to cytotoxicity (Wei et al., 2015). At 100 ppm, SiO2 significantly reduced oxidative stress by lowering H2O2 levels and total polyphenol content, indicating that this concentration effectively mitigates oxidative damage, possibly by enhancing cellular defense mechanisms.
In contrast, at 200 ppm SiO2, H2O2 levels increased compared to the 100 ppm treatment, although they remained lower than those in the untreated group. This suggests that at higher concentrations, SiO2 exposure may disrupt redox balance, potentially through direct oxidative damage to cellular components. Furthermore, mesoporous silica nanoparticles have been found to induce intracellular peroxidation damage in Phytophthora infestans by selectively triggering excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), offering potential as a green fungicide for controlling late blight in potatoes (Chen et al., 2023). A similar mechanism may be involved in F. brachygibbosum, where the observed increase in total antioxidant activity at 200 ppm suggests an adaptive response to counteract ROS accumulation.
At the proteomic level, previous studies on AgNPs have shown that brief exposure of E. coli leads to changes in the expression of envelope proteins (OmpA, OmpC, OmpF, OppA, MetQ) and heat shock proteins (IbpA, IbpB, and ribosomal subunit 30S S6), indicating that the cell membrane is a primary target of nanoparticle-induced stress (Rodrigues et al., 2024). Similarly, SiO2 NPs may interact with fungal membrane-associated proteins, potentially affecting cell wall integrity and cellular homeostasis. Proteomic analyses of bacteria treated with AgNPs have also revealed elevated levels of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD), along with hydroperoxide resistance proteins, suggesting that oxidative stress plays a central role in nanoparticle toxicity (Liao et al., 2019). Given that SiO2 NPs induce oxidative stress in F. brachygibbosum, a similar proteomic response involving antioxidant defenses may occur in fungi.
The antimicrobial activity of AgNPs has been attributed to a synergistic effect of silver ion release and nanoparticle-specific interactions (Yan et al., 2018). While SiO2 NPs do not release metal ions in the same manner, their ability to generate ROS and interact with cellular membranes suggests that they may share common cytotoxic mechanisms with AgNPs. However, the precise mode of action of SiO2 NPs remains unclear. Further studies are needed to elucidate the proteomic changes in fungal cells exposed to SiO2 NPs, particularly in membrane-associated proteins and oxidative stress response pathways, to better understand their antifungal potential.
Since oxidative stress is known to influence fungal secondary metabolism, these changes in redox balance may also impact the biosynthesis of mycotoxins (Reverberi et al., 2010). Given the observed oxidative stress modulation by SiO2 nanoparticles, we investigated whether these changes correlated with alterations in trichothecene production by F. brachygibbosum.
Our analysis of mycotoxin profiles revealed a distinct pattern dependent on SiO2 NP concentration. Fusaric acid production was completely inhibited in presence of SiO2. Previous studies have demonstrated the virulence of this toxin, showing that deletion of key regulatory genes such as FUB1 and FUB4 resulted in reduced FA synthesis and decreased virulence of Fusarium oxysporum in both plant and mammalian hosts (Ding et al., 2018; López-Díaz et al., 2018). Additionally, FA has been shown to increase host susceptibility to fungal invasion (Liu et al., 2019b), suggesting that its inhibition by SiO2 NPs could directly impact the pathogenicity of F. brachygibbosum. Supporting this, Singh et al. (2017) demonstrated that FA alone can induce Fusarium wilt symptoms in tomato plants, triggering cell death, oxidative stress, and disruptions in photosynthesis and protein expression upon injection of purified FA into tomato leaves.
In contrast to FA, SiO2 NPs significantly increased NEO production. Previous studies demonstrated that 100 ppm silver nanoparticles reduced NEO production by 9% in F. chlamydosporum (Bakri et al., 2020). In our study, the inhibition of FA production under SiO2 treatments suggests a shift in metabolic flux toward alternative pathways, including NEO biosynthesis (Wei et al., 2022). The absence of FA production could have allowed more precursors to be diverted toward the NEO biosynthesis pathway. Alternatively, oxidative stress induced by nanoparticles may have influenced mycotoxin biosynthesis in a different way. Ferrigo et al. (2021) reported that H2O2 treatment at a lower concentration (1 mM) caused an almost total disappearance of MON and a strong reduction of FBs content in two Fusarium species. This suggests that oxidative stress could either suppress specific toxin biosynthesis pathways or trigger compensatory mechanisms leading to increased production of other secondary metabolites. A similar trend was observed with the trichothecene toxin DAS which increased concentration with the increasing dose of nanoparticles. However, 15-Acetyldeoxynivalenol production progressively declined with increasing nanoparticle doses, reaching undetectable levels at highest tested dose.
4.3 Impact of SiO2 on the reduction of fungal pathogenicity
Patogenicity test revealed a reduced pathogenic effect of F. brachygibbosum conidia treated with SiO2 NPs. Similarly, reduction in H2O2 and increasing of total antioxidant activity were observed in F. brachygibbosum after treatment. This change in H2O2 levels played a significant role in impairing the pathogen’s ability to form infection structures necessary for effective host colonization (Scott and Eaton, 2008). ROS, including H2O2, are known to act as signaling molecules crucial for fungal differentiation, particularly in the development of structures such as appressoria, which facilitate plant penetration. NADPH oxidases (Nox) are key enzymes responsible for the localized generation of ROS during such processes, and their activity is often essential for fungal virulence (Zhang et al., 2020). Previous studies have demonstrated that fungal mutants with diminished ROS production due to impaired Nox activity exhibit delayed or defective development of primary lesions and a reduction in the functional efficiency of appressoria (Heller and Tudzynski, 2011). This aligns with our observations of reduced necrotic symptoms in leaves inoculated with treated Fusarium, suggesting that the treatment may have disrupted the ROS-mediated signaling pathways required for the differentiation of pathogenic structures. This phenomenon is similar to the mode of action of Succinate Dehydrogenase Inhibitor (SDHI) fungicides which impair spore germination by inhibiting succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) (Xu et al., 2019). This disruption prevents the development of infection structures necessary for host colonization, ultimately limiting fungal pathogenicity. Given this similarity, our findings suggest that silicon nanoparticles may have the potential to replace certain conventional pesticides by targeting fungal pathogenicity through comparable mechanisms.
To our knowledge, most studies on the role of SiO2 NPs in plant-pathogen interactions focused on their ability to enhance plant defense mechanisms (Suriyaprabha et al., 2014; Albalawi et al., 2022; Goswami et al., 2022; Parveen and Siddiqui, 2022). Few in vitro studies have been conducted, based only on macroscopic observations rather than molecular analyses (Qin and Tian, 2005). Sakr (2016) demonstrated that the inhibition of Fusarium mycelial growth observed in silicon-amended PDA was due to the alkaline pH rather than silicon itself, suggesting that silicon does not have intrinsic antifungal properties. However, the same author hypothesized that the SiO2 NPs ability to reduce fungal infection severity was due to host-mediated resistance (Sakr, 2021b).
While SiO2 NPs show potential as nanofertilizers and biopesticides (Sghaier-Hammami et al., 2024), further research is needed to fully understand their long-term impacts on ecosystems and optimize their use in sustainable agriculture (Ahmad et al., 2023). Although SiNPs can potentially enhance soil microbiome and fertility (Rajput et al., 2021; Sghaier-Hammami et al., 2024), there are concerns regarding the accumulation of nanoparticles in soil, which may adversely affect soil microbiota, fertility, and plant growth, as reported by several researchers (Grün et al., 2018; Javed et al., 2019; Baazaoui et al., 2021). An important yet unexplored question is whether fungi can develop resistance to SiO2 NPs, similar to what has been observed with silver nanoparticles. Studies on silver have shown that fungi can adapt through genetic mechanisms, such as mutations in the RLM1 gene, which strengthens cell wall integrity, or the activation of copper-transporting ATPases, which help detoxify metal stress (Antsotegi-Uskola et al., 2017; Terzioğlu et al., 2020). Investigating whether similar resistance mechanisms exist for SiO2 NPs is crucial for assessing their long-term antifungal efficacy and environmental impact. Further research is imperative to better understand the metabolic activity of F. brachygibbosum in the presence of SiO2, not only to explore its fungicidal potential but also to assess its environmental implications. Such inquiries hold the potential to open novel pathways in pesticide research, where silicon could serve not only as a bio-stimulant but also as a fungicide against Fusarium infections in olive trees.
5 Conclusion
This study sheds light on the potential of SiO2 NPs as a sustainable alternative to conventional fungicides for managing F. brachygibbosum, a pathogen threatening olive tree cultivation in Tunisia. Despite SiO2 NPs not exhibiting direct inhibitory effects on mycelial growth, significant alterations in fungal physiology and mycotoxin production were observed. These findings suggest that SiO2 NPs interact with the fungus in ways that modify its developmental processes rather than directly inhibiting its growth. Pathogenicity tests further demonstrated that Fusarium treated with SiO2 NPs caused less severe disease symptoms on olive leaves. This reduction in disease severity aligns with the observed changes in fungal sporulation and highlights the ability of SiO2 NPs to mitigate the pathogen’s virulence. The study also revealed that SiO2 NPs influenced oxidative stress within the fungus, as evidenced by altered H2O2 levels and increased antioxidant activity and total polyphenol compounds. The findings underscore the importance of exploring alternative and environmentally friendly strategies to address the challenges posed by Fusarium species in agriculture. While this study provides a foundation for using SiO2 NPs as a tool for fungal management, further research is essential to elucidate their precise mechanisms of action and optimize their application. In particular, comparing their effects with non-nanostructured SiO2 would help determine whether the observed pathogenicity reductions are specifically due to nanoscale properties. Although the application of nanoparticles in the field, outside of laboratory conditions is still restricted due to the lack of information on the toxicity of these compounds and their impact on the environment, the preliminary results of this study should encourage research to delve in depth in this aspect to minimize the use of conventional fungicides and limit their deleterious impact.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
MB: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Investigation, Methodology, Validation. BS-H: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. MM: Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review and editing. HN: Methodology, Writing – review and editing. SS: Formal Analysis, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review and editing. LG: Methodology, Writing – review and editing. RS: Methodology, Writing – review and editing. MM: Methodology, Writing – review and editing. SL: Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review and editing. AM: Investigation, Supervision, Writing – review and editing. SBMH: Investigation, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Technology under grant number PEJC2023-D4P03.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their appreciation to the laboratory members for their technical help.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
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Keywords: Fusarium spp., Olea europaea, silicon dioxide nanoparticles, sporulation, mycotoxins, pathogenicity test
Citation: Belhedi M, Sghaier-Hammami B, Masiello M, Nafati H, Somma S, Gambacorta L, Salhi R, Messaoud M, Labidi S, Moretti A and Hammami SBM (2025) Silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanoparticles affect the morphology, sporulation, mycotoxin production, and pathogenicity of Fusarium brachygibbosum infecting olive trees. Front. Nanotechnol. 7:1569453. doi: 10.3389/fnano.2025.1569453
Received: 31 January 2025; Accepted: 10 April 2025;
Published: 20 May 2025.
Edited by:
Ramesh Namdeo Pudake, Amity University, IndiaReviewed by:
Binod Bihari Sahu, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, IndiaHugo Gerardo Lazcano-Ramirez, Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Mexico
Copyright © 2025 Belhedi, Sghaier-Hammami, Masiello, Nafati, Somma, Gambacorta, Salhi, Messaoud, Labidi, Moretti and Hammami. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Besma Sghaier-Hammami, YmVzbWEuc2doYWllckBpbmF0LnVjYXIudG4=; Sofiene B. M. Hammami, c29maWVuZS5oYW1tYW1pQGluYXQudWNhci50bg==
†These authors have contributed equally to this work