Antimicrobial nanoparticles: a new horizon to combat multidrug-resistant bacteria

Antimicrobial nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit revolutionary potential against infections due to their unique physicochemical properties that enhance antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial NPs employ various mechanisms and pathways, including ROS generation, cell membrane disruption, DNA and protein damage, interference with metabolic pathways, and the electron transport chain, that eventually lead to microbial cell death. They are more beneficial than conventional antibiotics and have broad-spectrum efficacy with lower risk of resistance. Specifically, antibacterial NPs have a wide range of applications in various fields, such as food safety (e.g., antimicrobial packaging), water purification, healthcare (e.g., wound healing, coatings on medical devices), agriculture (e.g., disease management, plant protection), and industrial products (e.g., textiles, personal care items). Despite their promising potential, challenges such as toxicity, environmental impact, and regulatory limitations remain critical for their sustainable use. This review aims to provide the critical insight into various antibacterial NPs applications, mechanisms of action, and future scope, highlighting their potential prospects for safe and optimal use.

1 Introduction

Types of nanoparticles with increasing multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria generate a serious concern in modern medicine, significantly reducing the efficacy of antibiotics. The major cause of MDR bacteria is the overuse of antibiotics; to combat such a problem, it is necessary to explore alternative strategies. Consequently, it is anticipated that if research on novel medications does not advance, it will be impossible to treat such antibiotic-resistant bacteria until 2050 (Bharadwaj et al., 2022; Ahmed et al., 2024; Almutairy, 2024).

Amid this serious concern, NPs have emerged as promising antimicrobial agents (Ogunsona et al., 2020; Yılmaz et al., 2023). The unique physicochemical properties of NPs, such as high surface-area-to-volume ratio, ability to disrupt bacterial cells, tuneable reactivity, etc., make them an effective antibacterial method. In general, traditional antibiotics work on target-specific molecular pathways, whereas NPs are known for their broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity via interaction with the bacterial cell membrane, adsorption through the cell wall, generation of reactive oxygen species, interference with intracellular components, and modulation of essential molecular pathways (Thapa and Choudhury, 2021; Shoudho et al., 2024; Ali et al., 2025).

Various NPs exhibit antimicrobial abilities, such as metallic NPs, carbon-based NPs, polymeric NPs, and hybrid NPs (Jessop et al., 2021; Tirkey et al., 2022; Bhattacharyya et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024; Shenasa et al., 2025; Zare et al., 2025). Metallic NPs such as silver (AgNPs) (Bruna et al., 2021; Sati et al., 2025), copper (CuNPs) (Ortega-Nieto et al., 2023; Banerjee et al., 2024; Bozhkov et al., 2024), and zinc oxide (ZnONPs) (Singh et al., 2018; Arun et al., 2020; Thakral et al., 2021; Eskani et al., 2023) have potent antibacterial properties and can disrupt bacterial cells by generating reactive oxygen species. Additionally, polymeric NPs and carbon-based NPs offer controlled drug release and biofilm penetration ability, which are crucial for treating chronic infections. Moreover, to improve biocompatibility and enhance target bacterial eradication, NPs can be modified accordingly, such as by modifying surface chemistry, which may influence the conjugation frequency and biochemical pathways (Habibullah et al., 2022; Shoudho et al., 2024). Furthermore, green synthesis NPs are proven effective antibacterial agents when compared to traditional methods; green-synthesised NPs are less harmful to the environment and use less energy. Large-scale applications are, however, constrained by differences in size, stability, and repeatability. With lower health and environmental concerns and cost-effectiveness, green synthesis offers a sustainable substitute for traditional chemical processes. For wider applications, more research on standardising procedures and enhancing yield and purity is essential (Ying et al., 2022; Banjara et al., 2024). As interest in employing smart nanoparticles to manage microbial illnesses has grown, research on nanomaterials with antimicrobial qualities has increased dramatically during the past decade. This demonstrates the field’s widespread appeal as well as its room for further research (Hu et al., 2020; Dop et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2025; Qiao et al., 2022).

Despite their wide range of potential, the clinical application of nanoparticles (NPs) remains arbitrary due to concerns about cytotoxicity, possible resistance, and stability. NP optimisation for successful antibacterial applications requires further research (Składanowski et al., 2016; Li et al., 2018; Pulingam et al., 2021). Therefore, the development of safer and more effective antimicrobial agents requires detailed knowledge of the interaction of NPs with microbial systems at the molecular level. To combat resistance, understanding of toxicity reduction, dose optimisation, and synergistic usage with already available antibiotics is necessary. In light of this, this review aims to present a detailed analysis of the various NPs’ modes of action, antibacterial effectiveness, obstacles to their clinical translation, and potential future uses in the fight against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

1.1 Metal-based NPs for antimicrobial action

Metallic NPs are well known for their unique antimicrobial activity, which makes them suitable for pharmaceuticals and healthcare sectors. However, not all NPs are effective against disease-causing pathogens (Bankier et al., 2019; Duval et al., 2019). Metallic NPs, derived from noble metals like gold, silver, and copper, have gained prominence in recent years due to their various benefits (Maruthupandy et al., 2017; Sharma et al., 2019; Karimadom and Kornweitz, 2021). These NPs are used in catalysis, composites, disease diagnosis, sensor technology, and optoelectronic labelling (Serna-Gallén and Mužina, 2024). Different methods, including electrochemical changes, chemical reduction, and photochemical reduction, are used for their preparation and stabilisation (Jamkhande et al., 2019). The use of metallic NPs is increasing worldwide in biomedicine and related disciplines. Various examples were reported of antibacterial NPs such as AgNPs, known for their antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its antimicrobial activity are significantly increased when it is used in combination with tungsten carbide and copper NPs (Bankier et al., 2019). Metallo-antimicrobials lower the likelihood of resistance development by providing potential multi-targeted ways to address antimicrobial resistance (AMR). To further their clinical translation, it is still imperative to improve their delivery and selectivity (Wang C et al., 2025). They provide a viable avenue for the development of targeted and multipurpose antibacterial treatments for oral health. The suggested hierarchical structure offers a useful starting point for directing further investigation and the logical development of next-generation anti-infective compounds (Qi et al., 2025). By improving medication delivery, reducing side effects, and specifically targeting various injured organ regions, they provide a potential new avenue for disease treatment. Their ability to serve several purposes provides a revolutionary method of treating many cardiovascular conditions (Haji, 2025). Below are more metallic NPs illustrated with their antibacterial activity.

1.1.1 Silver NPs (AgNPs): pathogen disruption via ROS

AgNPs provide exclusive optical, electronic, and chemical properties. The relationship between physicochemical activity and toxicity of silver NPs and their shapes, such as sheets (Zhang et al., 2013), mats (Abdelgawad et al., 2014), rods (Zhang and Yin, 2013), and beads (Nazari and Kashi, 2021), etc., is continuously explored for proper understanding of the antibacterial activity. The antibacterial property and the extent of its toxicity are largely affected by the size; the smaller the size of NPs, the higher the toxicity (Fredj et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2012; Chernousova & Epple et al., 2013). The combination of polymer with metallic NPs provides modified optical activity and microelectronic and photoelectronic chemistry. AgNPs’ antimicrobial activity is enhanced against carbapenemase and β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae specifically when used in combination with ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, ceftazidime, cefotaxime, and meropenem (Panáček et al., 2016).

AgNPs generate free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that trigger apoptosis, which kills cells and stops them from replicating. AgNPs infiltrate into cells and breach the cell wall because they are smaller than the bacteria. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that smaller NPs are more harmful than larger ones. AgNPs are also utilised in packaging to stop bacteria from destroying food items (Siddiqi et al., 2018).

Consequently, the preparation of AgNPs for antimicrobial activity has become an ongoing research focus. They can be prepared by various means, such as plants, microorganisms, marine organisms, etc. NP biosynthesis is currently recognised as a new field of study in nanoscience. Because of the numerous uses of AgNPs in nonlinear optics, spectrally selective coating for solar energy absorption, bio-labelling, intercalation materials for electrical batteries, optical receptors, catalysts in chemical reactions, and antibacterial materials in food and pharmaceutical production, biosynthesis of silver NPs is receiving more attention (Philip et al., 2011). Synthesis of NPs can be achieved by various methods, for example, physical, chemical, and biological methods (Samadi et al., 2010; Gholami-Shabani et al., 2014). For the synthesis of AgNPs, the physical method is based on laser burning, gas-phase deposition, ion sputtering, etc., but the size of NPs is quite larger than the NPs synthesised from chemical and biological methods. The NPs synthesised from chemical and physical methods are less environmentally friendly than biological methods. Quintero-Quiroz et al. synthesised silver NPs through chemical reduction and evaluated their antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Quintero-Quiroz et al., 2019). Maiti et al. synthesised silver NPs using an eco-friendly approach with Lycopersicon esculentum (red tomato) extract. And test its antimicrobial activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of AgNP of about 50 μg/mL (Maiti et al., 2014). The extract of Lysiloma acapulcensis can reduce silver to AgNPs, and these NPs show enhanced antimicrobial activity (Garibo et al., 2020). The AgNPs synthesised from the extract and the peel of Annona muricata show effective antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. faecalis, E. coli, and C. albicans in culture (González-Pedroza et al., 2024). AgNPs having strong antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including those resistant to antibiotics, are produced biogenically. Additionally, Pernas-Pleite and colleagues’ study demonstrated their synergistic effects with other antibiotics and proposed a number of processes, including the generation of ROS, that contribute to the death of bacteria (Pernas-Pleite et al., 2025). They also offer wound-healing efficacy, for example. Strong antibacterial efficacy against S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa is demonstrated by AgNPs, which have an average size of 24.3 nm and are biocompatible with fibroblast cells. 90% wound re-epithelialisation and increased fibroblast production were encouraged by AgNP therapy in vivo, suggesting efficient bacterial control and tissue regeneration. These results prove the AgNPs’ potential as a topical, scalable treatment for infected wounds (Baveloni et al., 2025). The antibacterial activity of positively charged quercetin-coated silver NPs (Que@AgNPs) against S. aureus and E. coli is greater than that of uncoated AgNPs, and this activity is further enhanced in complexes with lysozyme or γ-globulin. These proteins and Que@AgNPs interact through hydrophobic or electrostatic forces as well as static quenching, which alters the proteins’ structural makeup and chemisorption kinetics (Li et al., 2025). Bacillus vietnamensis, which was isolated from marine soil, was used to synthesise AgNPs intracellularly. Bacterial nitrate reductase helped reduce Ag^{+ to Ag}0. Salmonella sp., Klebsiella sp., Escherichia coli, and Micrococcus flavus were among the clinical pathogens against which the biosynthesised AgNPs had strong antibacterial action. These results demonstrate the potential of biologically produced, marine-derived AgNPs as strong, environmentally benign antibacterial agents with uses in biomedicine and nanobiotechnology (Aswini et al., 2025).

1.1.2 Gold NPs (AuNPs): targeted antiviral applications

AuNPs have become effective nanoplatforms in antiviral treatment because of their easy surface functionalisation and special physicochemical characteristics. With the continuous increase of various pathogens, the need of low toxic and tenable antibacterial agents is also increasing (Wang L et al., 2020). AuNP biogenesis has been extensively researched and documented. An active search for novel compounds with antibacterial capabilities or a new type of antibiotics with effective action is essential. Consequently, additional research is being done on the antibacterial properties of AuNPs functionalized with natural chemicals. AuNPs that have been functionalized with plant-derived bioactive chemicals or biosynthesized using plant extract seem to be helpful in medicinal approaches (Timoszyk and Grochowalska, 2022). Both NPs and ionic forms of gold show effective antibiotic activity, specifically Au in I&II form. These AuNPs are also used as a delivery vehicle for antibiotics (Zhang et al., 2015). Sathiyaraj et al. synthesized the gold NPs (PG-AuNPs) using the panchagavaya and evaluated the antibacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Bacillus subtilis. Their research concludes that there is more efficient activity against gram-negative bacteria than gram-positive bacteria (Sathiyaraj et al., 2021).

The gold NPs were prepared from the extract of Galaxaura elongata also effective against K. pneumoniae and E. coli (Abdel-Raouf et al., 2017). An envelope that may include proteins, lipids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, vitamins, and carbohydrates stabilizes the biosynthesized AuNPs. The stability and its interaction mechanism with pathogens are also determined by its coating (Timoszyk and Grochowalska, 2022). The coating of AuNPs with thiol and amine-tethered phenylboronic acids is potent coating agent for AuNPs and increases Gram bacteria selectivity (Wang L et al., 2020). In comparison to medium-chain (AHT) modified AuNPs, ultrasmall gold NPs modified with short (APT) and long (AUT) aminopropylthiol ligands shown greater antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli, according to research by Yao and colleagues. This discrepancy was explained by increased membrane adsorption, which increased ROS production and membrane disruption (Yao et al., 2025). Similarly, a study, star-shaped gold NPs (AuNSTs) with an average size of 48 nm were synthesised. They exhibited intense absorption of visible light (maximum at 685 nm) and effective photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye (up to 94% in 135 min at pH 9), which was ascribed to improved charge transfer and electrostatic interactions. Furthermore, with low MIC values and considerable inhibitory zones, AuNSTs demonstrated noteworthy antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, underscoring their potential for dual antimicrobial and environmental applications (El-Khawaga et al., 2025). Adding to this, 5-A-2MBI_Au gold NPs, shows strong antibacterial action against gram-negative bacteria resistant to carbapenem. The NPs exhibit oxidative stress disruption, ROS production, improved membrane permeability, and reduced MIC (Zhang et al., 2025).

1.1.3 Zinc oxide NPs (ZnONPs): photocatalytic pathogen control

ZnONPs effectively combat microbial infections by generating reactive oxygen species through photocatalysis, offering a sustainable approach to light-activated pathogen control. One of the biggest problems facing world healthcare is the emergence of microorganisms that are resistant to antibiotics. Using metal NPs and their oxides is a potential strategy for combating microbial resistance. Numerous investigations have shown that ZnONPs have excellent antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Gudkov S. V. et al., 2021). ZnONPs and microparticles, created using chemical and physical techniques, exhibit strong antibacterial activity and are potent in combating Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli due to their large specific surface area. ZnO hollow spheres also suppress bacterial growth, with S. aureus being more vulnerable to ZnO particles (Babayevska et al., 2022). Similarly, green synthesised ZnONPs from Phlomis leaf extract as a reducing agent are efficient against microbes. The characterisation by various techniques, including UV-Vis spectrophotometry, FTIR, XRD, DLS, zeta potential, and FESEM, of the ZnONPs showed a crystalline structure, no cytotoxicity on L929 normal cells, and significant antibacterial activity efficiently against S. aureus and E. coli (Alyamani et al., 2021). Similarly, ZnO NPs can be green synthesised from various sources such as Ficus carica latex (Al-darwesh et al., 2024), Allium sativum extract (Al-Badaii et al., 2024), Vernicia fordii seed extract (Chamaraja et al., 2023), clove (Syzygium aromaticum) (Elbagory et al., 2022), Capparis spinosa extract (Sezen et al., 2023), Simarouba glauca leaf extract (Prashanth et al., 2025), etc.

Furthermore, Riahi and colleagues report that the ZnONPs synthesised from the sol-gel technique can be an effective antibacterial agent against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae wild type, Klebsiella pneumoniae, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (Riahi et al., 2023). If the various sources of obtained chitosan are used in the sol-gel synthesised ZnONPs as a capping agent, they show differential antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria innocua, Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Ben Amor et al., 2022). Moreover, green synthesised ZnO NPs prepared from plantain peel extracts demonstrate effective antibacterial activity with an MIC value of about 100 μg/mL in the following sequence: S. aureus, B. cereus, K. pneumoniae, S. enterica (Imade et al., 2022). Hexagonal ZnONPs modified from the wet chemical method and decorated with Ag and Cu NPs combinedly meet the optical properties effective for long-lasting antibacterial activity (Geioushy et al., 2024). Similarly, ZnO NPs are effective against various microbes such as Propionibacterium acnes (Al-Momani et al., 2024), Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Rezaei et al., 2024), Klebsiella pneumoniae (Al-Badaii et al., 2024), etc.

1.1.4 Copper oxide NPs (CuONPs)

CuONPs have gained significant attention in therapeutics because of their physicochemical properties, such as catalytic activity and chemical and physical nature. CuONPs can be synthesised from various methods such as vapour deposition, liquid phase, sol-colloidal, electrodeposition gel, etc. (Dörner et al., 2019; Ma et al., 2019; Faisala et al., 2022; Patel et al., 2022). However, the hazardous effect of these NPs remains a concern, and to address these limitations, green-synthesised CuONPs have been employed (Naz et al., 2020; Bouafia et al., 2020). Previous reports suggest that these NPs have antibacterial properties and are also effective against MDR bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus as well as biofilm bacteria (Mohamed et al., 2021; El-Sherbiny et al., 2022). Various conjugations with these NPs are also effective as antibacterial agents, for instance. Ibne Shoukani and a colleague green synthesised the CuONPs using Moringa oleifera root extract and prepared a CuONP fabricated into a form of aspartic acid-ciprofloxacin-polyethylene glycol coated with copper oxide nanotherapeutics, and the formulation was called CIP-PEG-CuO, which shows enhanced antibacterial activity and completely eradicates Staphylococcus aureus from infected skin and shows efficient wound-healing properties (Ibne Shoukani et al., 2024a). Similarly, CuONPs conjugate with AuNPs showed effective MIC for S. aureus, S. typhi, and E. faecalis, i.e., 62.5 μg/mL, 62.5 μg/mL, and 31.25 μg/mL, respectively (Alghonaim et al., 2024). Similarly, Mosleh et al. report that Ag-doped CuONPs are effective against various human pathogens with an MIC of 100–120 μg/mL (Mosleh et al., 2024). Moreover, chitosan and curcumin-capped CuO nanostructures are effective against MDR microorganisms, and lipase-CuONPs show enhanced antibacterial activity (Elkattan et al., 2025; Handak et al., 2025). Recent reports also claim that these NPs are not only effective against bacteria but also inhibit viral infections (Jayaramudu and Kokkarachedu, 2024; Shehabeldine et al., 2025).

1.1.5 Other metal oxide NPs

Similarly, other metal oxide nanoparticles (MeO-NPs) have prospective uses in sensing, energy storage, information technology, medicine, and catalysis. Cell membrane destruction, metal/metal ion homeostasis disruption, reactive oxygen species generation, protein enzyme malfunction, genotoxicity, signal transduction blockage, and photokilling are some of the modes of action of certain MeO-NPs, which have potent antibacterial qualities. The synthesis techniques and variables that impact MeO-NPs’ antibacterial processes, emphasising the possibility of an energy-efficient preparation process and the final structural morphology for effective antimicrobial qualities. However, due to its toxicity and potential usage as a substitute for conventional antibiotics in the eradication of infectious diseases, care is urged. (Jagadeeshan and Parsanathan, 2019). Advanced nanomaterial-based therapy is becoming necessary due to bacterial infections and antibiotic resistance. Because of their biocompatibility and adjustable characteristics, metal oxides such as TiO₂, MgO, and, CaO, show promise (Abou El Fadl et al., 2023).

For instance, biocompatible nanomaterials having a variety of biomedical uses are titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs). At 1,000 μg/mL, they generally show up to 94.6% 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and 88.2% 2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical scavenging, demonstrating significant antioxidant activity. They typically have spherical, crystalline structures (10–50 nm). TiO₂-NPs have strong antibacterial action, outperforming gentamicin against Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis, as well as greater antifungal activity in comparison to fluconazole. Additionally, they exhibit minimal haemolytic activity, selective cytotoxicity towards cancer cells while sparing normal cells, moderate wound healing, and over 90% inhibition of bacterial and fungal biofilms, making them promising multifunctional agents for tissue repair, cancer therapy, and infection control (Ghareeb et al., 2025). Similarly, research describes the use of magnesium oxide nanoparticles (nMgO) in a 3D-printed denture base resin to give antifungal action against Candida albicans. The nMgO-modified resin preserved mechanical strength, stability, and biocompatibility in accordance with ISO requirements while reducing fungal growth by up to 91% and preventing the formation of biofilms. These findings demonstrate that magnesium oxide (nMgO) is a secure and efficient antibacterial addition for dental prosthesis (Xue et al., 2025).

Iron oxide is one of the groundbreaking metal oxide NPs, its superparamagnetic forms, i.e., SPIONs, have low toxicity to eukaryotic cells and strong antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and fungi (Gudkov S. V. et al., 2021). They can be produced chemically, environmentally, or biosynthetically, such as using plant extracts or β-cyclodextrin, and they can be used as antifungal agents, drug carriers, and imaging (Antony et al., 2020; Almutairi et al., 2023; Abedini et al., 2024). These NPs have the potential against multidrug-resistant pathogens like Klebsiella pneumoniae through improving bacterial inhibition via controlled drug release, magnetic hyperthermia, and antibiofilm activity (Álvarez et al., 2022; Kadhim and Aldujaili, 2025). They are eco-friendly NPs with diverse biomedical and environmental utility.

1.2 Carbon-based NPs for sensing and defense

The significant antibacterial activity of carbon-based nanomaterials stems from their remarkable physicochemical and structural features, as well as their comparatively high biocompatibility and ecologically benign nature. One of the most prevalent elements in the crust of the Earth is carbon. Diverse CNMs are produced by the diverse ways that carbon atoms link with one another to generate distinct allotropes of carbon. 0D fullerene, carbon dots (CDs), graphene quantum dots (GQDs), nanodiamonds (NDs), 1D carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 2D graphene and its variants, and graphitic carbon nitride (g-CN), nitrogen-rich graphene-like nanostructure, are among them. Sp2 hybridized carbon atoms make up the majority of fullerenes CNTs, and graphene (and its derivatives); NDs are primarily composed of sp3 hybridized carbon atoms; CDs and GQDs contain a mixture of sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbon along with defects and heteroatoms; and g-CN is made up of π-conjugated graphitic planes created by sp2 hybridization of carbon and nitrogen atoms (Georgakilas et al., 2015).

The previous report concludes that CNMs with varying dimensionalities exhibit notable changes in their antibacterial activity and mode of action when compared to CNMs with similar orbital hybridization of carbon atoms. Similarly, additional factors including lateral size, shape, number of layers, surface charge, the presence and kind of surface functional groups, and doping are discovered to affect the antibacterial activity of CNMs of a specific dimensionality (Zou et al., 2016; Al-Jumaili et al., 2017; Karahan et al., 2018). The particular preparation techniques also affect these physicochemical characteristics. CNMs with various physicochemical properties are made up of 60 sp2 carbon atoms grouped into a spherical shape using 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons (Qiao et al., 2007). The synthesis of GQDs and CDs, which are smaller than 20 nm and have thicknesses between 0.5 and 2 nm, can be done top-down by cleaving or breaking up a carbonaceous substance, or bottom-up by pyrolysing or carbonising tiny organic molecules (Sun et al., 2013). GQDs and CDs have many similar characteristics, such as high-intensity fluorescence and peroxidase-like activity, but can be distinguished from each other by their crystallinity, surface area, and number of layers. When compared with GQDs, CDs, which are composed of stacked multilayers, have lower crystallinity and smaller specific surface area (Zhu et al., 2015; Shen et al., 2012). This section discusses various antibacterial mechanisms in CNMs, focusing on their physicochemical properties. The bacterial outer membrane, crucial for cell shape, osmotic regulation, and infection control, can be damaged, leading to dysfunction and cytoplasmic leakage, resulting in bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects.

When exposed to Escherichia coli, 0D CNMs can break down the cell wall of bacteria, including carboxylated NDs, which have antibacterial properties (Chatterjee et al., 2015). Through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, positively charged CDs, such as spermidine CDs, can attach to peptidoglycans and cell membrane proteins, inhibiting membrane formation and generating synergistic membrane destabilisation (Jian et al., 2017).

Ravikumar and their colleagues’ work offers a comprehensive grasp of graphene oxide’s (GO) long-term antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus. According to the research, GO uses a variety of processes, including first wrapping and trapping bacteria, then membrane penetration, and finally the generation of ROS, all of which contribute to oxidative stress, membrane leakage, and cell death. The development of these effects is validated by experimental methods such as protein analysis, ROS detection, live/dead labelling, and viability experiments. The extensive influence of GO on bacterial activities was further illustrated by proteomic data, which show notable alterations in proteins related to cell wall construction, oxidative stress management, virulence, and biofilm formation (Ravikumar et al., 2022). GO shows electrical and thermal conductivity, high mechanical strength, and outstanding biocompatibility. GO improves the characteristics of the scaffold when it is made sustainably from bio-waste materials and combined with calcium hydroxyapatite (HAp) and polycaprolactone (PCL) in a composite. In particular, GO promotes osteogenic differentiation and enhances the scaffold’s antibacterial efficiency, which has been shown against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. As such, it is an essential part of the scaffold’s prospective uses in bone tissue regeneration and clinical medicine (Daulbayev et al., 2022). A durable GO-PEI-Ag nanocomposite with broad-spectrum antibacterial action against drug-resistant bacteria and fungi was synthesized which successfully inhibiting the development of biofilms while retaining minimal cytotoxicity with an effectiveness of >99% against Gram-negative bacteria and >95% against Gram-positive bacteria and fungus, the nanocomposite showed exceptional stability, long-term efficacy, and reusability. Its antibacterial method entails cytoplasmic leakage and damage to the integrity of cell membranes. These characteristics make GO−PEI−Ag a potential material for use in public health and biomedical applications, especially in the fight against resistant bacteria and biofilms (Zhao et al., 2018).

A sol-gel/ultrasound technique was used to successfully create the Ag₂S-MgO/GO nanocomposite. With peak performance under UV light, at pH 9 and a catalyst dosage of 1 g/L, it showed increased photocatalytic activity for RhB degradation. Better charge transfer and photocatalytic performance were made possible by the synergistic effects of MgO and Ag₂S NPs supported on GO, which were responsible for the increased degradation efficiency. The nanocomposite also demonstrated notable bactericidal qualities, underscoring its potential for use in antimicrobial and water treatment technologies (Wang H et al., 2020). Research suggests that GO disrupted S. aureus biofilm by 30%–70% at 100 μg/mL and killed 80% of intracellular bacteria at 200 μg/mL, dependent on actin polymerization. It enhances Mac-T cell viability below 250 μg/mL, with cytotoxicity only at higher doses, highlighting its antimicrobial potential and biocompatibility (Saeed et al., 2023). Carbon-based NPs fullerol (hydroxylated C60), two fullerenes, can generate ROS. In microbial growth media, fullerol produces superoxide and singlet oxygen. PVP/C60 produced these ROS more effectively. These characteristics imply that materials based on fullerenes might be useful in concentrating on particular contaminants or microbes that are susceptible to ROS, providing possible uses in water treatment (Brunet et al., 2009). Fullerenes, a promising nanomaterial because of their antibacterial and antioxidant qualities, fullerenes, a promising nanomaterial, have drawn interest as a possible treatment for acne vulgaris, a chronic skin disorder linked to Propionibacterium acnes. However, their usage in cosmeceuticals is limited due to their low water solubility. Glycine-fullerene conjugate (Gly-Ful), a water-soluble fullerene derivative, was created and refined to get around this. To treat acne topically, chitosan-modified Gly-Ful NPs (Chi-Gly-Ful NPs) were created. According to in vitro experiments, Chi-Gly-Ful NPs had antibacterial activity similar to streptomycin and successfully reduced the growth of P. acnes at 25–400 µM doses, The Chi-Gly-Ful NPs formulation showed no signs of cytotoxicity. According to these results, Chi-Gly-Ful NPs are a safe and efficient antibacterial agent that presents a promising new therapeutic strategy for treating acne vulgaris (Ghabdian et al., 2021). A silver-deposited fullerene (Ag(I)–C60) is an efficient antibacterial agent that acts through Ag+ release and ROS generation under light (Pan et al., 2023). The pristine surface plasmonic electrons of AgNPs increase the activity of the fullerene (C60) molecule and exhibit great toxicity against pathogens and cancer cells in the AgNPs/endo-fullerene nanocomposite (Biswas et al., 2022). Additionally, CNTs have antibacterial action against a variety of pathogens, including Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Treatment with sodium dodecyl-benzenesulfonate (SDBS) improved CNT dispersion while maintaining their structural integrity and boosting antimicrobial activity. According to UV-Vis, FTIR, TEM, and FESEM investigations, multi-walled CNTs demonstrated higher antibacterial activity than double-walled CNTs, most likely as a result of stronger cell wall contacts (Saleemi et al., 2020). Significant antibacterial activity against Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungal strains is produced by the improved dispersion of DWCNTs and MWCNTs functionalised with SDBS, which enables efficient contact with microbial cells. MWCNTs exhibit greater performance in this regard (Mohammed et al., 2019).

1.3 Polymeric NPs for controlled agro-delivery

Polymeric NPs range in size from 1 to 1,000 nm. They are sometimes referred to as nanocapsules or nanospheres because of their ability to trap active compounds in their core or adsorb on their surface. They may serve as a flexible medication delivery method. Nanospheres are prepared by nanoprecipitation, solvent evaporation, emulsification/solvent diffusion, emulsification/reverse salting-out, and nanocapsules by nanoprecipitation (Zielińska et al., 2020). Polymeric NPs showed minimal cytotoxicity against mammalian liver cells and were shown to prevent the production of S. aureus biofilms. The interaction with cysteine as a model thiol indicates that the polymeric particles may interact with cellular thiols as a possible mechanism of action against bacterial cells (Dop et al., 2023).

Previous study highlights that positively charged clindamycin/positively charged PLGA-PEI NPs increase the adherence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, enhancing wound healing and antibacterial effectiveness (Hasan et al., 2019). Moreover, some cationic NPs with embedded silver provide efficient antibacterial activity one such example is silver NPs embedded Poly[2-(tert-butylaminoethyl) methacrylate] (PTBAM) and silver-embedded poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanofibers in which silver embedded PTBAM shows enhanced bactericidal performance (Song et al., 2012). With MIC and minimum bactericidal concentration against S. aureus values of 0.39 and 6.25 μg/mL, respectively, polyurethane nanofibers loaded with clindamycin molecularly imprinted polymeric NPs (Clin-MIP) exhibit potent antibacterial action. It displays bactericidal action within 180 min of incubation in vitro and dramatically reduces the bacterial count from 1 × 108 to 39 × 101 CFU/mL in vivo (Elhabal et al., 2024). In order to reach the infection site, negatively charged NO-PE/PLL NPs effectively penetrated the airway mucus. PLL and colistin worked in concert, lowering the MIC of colistin from 2 to 0.5 μg/mL. By taking advantage of this synergistic antibacterial action and NO-mediated biofilm disruption, NO-PE/PLL NPs were able to achieve a 99.99 percent eradication rate against P. aeruginosa biofilms (Yu et al., 2024).

According to recent research, poly(amino acid)-based nanoparticles created by photoinduced electron/energy transfer–reversible addition fragmentation chain-transfer polymerisation has the potential to improve drug loading efficiency and antimicrobial activity by enabling tunable antibiotic release through regulated hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and hydrogen bonding interactions (Li et al., 2024). Similarly, spherical nanoparticles with uniform size, good cellular affinity, and pH-responsive targeted release were demonstrated by three-block poly(amino acid) polymers synthesised and characterised using sophisticated techniques, underscoring their biomedical potential for efficient drug delivery (Shen et al., 2023). Furthermore, Staphylococcus biofilm infections in mice were completely eradicated thanks to novel poly(d-amino acid) nanoparticles that target bacterial peptidoglycan and block intracellular metabolism. These nanoparticles also effectively disassemble biofilms, disrupt extracellular polymeric substances, and greatly increase the penetration and efficacy of encapsulated antibiotics (Feng et al., 2024).

All of these developments highlight the potential of amino acid-based nanomaterials as next-generation therapeutic approaches to treat disorders linked to biofilms and resistant bacterial infections. The physicochemical characteristics, including architecture, size, shape, charge, surface functionality, and adeptness of polymeric NPs, are responsible for the effective release of therapeutic cargo (Beach et al., 2024). Examples of such polymeric NPs are listed in Table 1.

Table 1

Table 1. Represents the examples of antibacterial activity of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with various peptide-based drugs, as well as intrinsic antimicrobial activity exhibited by unloaded polymeric NPs.

1.4 Hybrid NPs for multi-functional protection

In recent years, research towards the analytical procedures and improving the effectiveness of NPs has been sparked by the growing use of NPs in therapeutics. New analytical problems can now be solved because of the development of hybrid NPs, which help to improve analytical methods even further. With their unique set of characteristics, hybrid NPs provide outstanding advantages in enhancing material performance for a variety of uses. There are various examples of hybrid antibacterial NPs, such as Fe₃O₄–Ag hybrid NPs, proven highly effective against E. coli (Ngo et al., 2016). Scientists have developed hybrid NPs by mixing various substrates with NPs, such as citric acid with quaternary ammonium cellulose derivatives demonstrate effective inhibition against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The tensile strength of the film was 47.2% higher when they were included in a polyvinyl alcohol matrix (Li J et al., 2023). To increase the antibacterial activity of polymyxins against a range of pathogens, the study reported a sophisticated delivery mechanism. With a poly (glutamic acid) shell and a silver core, hybrid core-shell NPs were created that showed no discernible macrophage absorption or cytotoxicity. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was examined after the NPs were placed onto composite materials using agarose hydrogel. The hybrid system of polymyxin B demonstrated a synergistic impact (Iudin et al., 2022). Cs/Ni/NiO hybrid NPs (HNPs) are a potential example of antibacterial and anticancer uses. The NPs showed high cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cancer cells and successfully inhibited S. aureus and E. coli. Notably, L929 cell lines demonstrated minimal toxicity to healthy cells in biocompatibility testing, indicating their potential for application in biomedicine. Although these results are promising, more investigation is required to see whether improving their structure might increase their antibacterial and anticancer efficacy (Karthikeyan et al., 2022). Hybrid NPs provide multifunctional antibacterial methods by combining many functional components (David et al., 2021). By using regulated release mechanisms, they improve target selectivity, biocompatibility, and ROS production (Wu et al., 2023; Tariq and Bokhari, 2020). By combining many processes into a single, adjustable nanoplatform, these NPs can overcome antimicrobial resistance by improving oxidative stress, site-specific activity, and cytotoxicity.

Furthermore, some antibacterial encapsulation in AuNPs with ZnO hybrid enhances antibacterial activity, and this composite also destroys excess antibiotics (Ahmed et al., 2022). Ag–ZnO nanohybrids can be prepared by green bioreduction method and enhanced antibacterial action against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas entomophila, and Bacillus oceanisediminis at 100 μg/mL, 125 μg/mL, and 50 μg/mL, respectively (Mohapatra et al., 2023). Hybrid NPs can be modified in a variety of ways to improve their chemical and physical characteristics. For example, adding silver and titanium dioxide NPs to the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA) matrix significantly improved its structural, thermal, and electrical properties, as demonstrated by several analytical methods. The materials’ potential for use in semiconductors, energy storage, and food packaging is highlighted by their notable improvements in thermal stability, conductivity, and antibacterial activity. These results imply that these nanocomposites may be useful biomaterials with wide-ranging industrial applications (El Gohary et al., 2023). Adding to this, Mg/Pd hybrid NPs proved efficient against gram-positive, gram-negative, and fungal pathogens. In silico study also confirmed strong binding associations of the D-glucose cyclic 1, 2-ethanediylmercaptal pentaacetate molecule with the HuH-7 cancer cell line, EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, and Bcl2 gene target proteins; these results also suggest exciting opportunities to Significant anticancer activity (Kamaraj et al., 2025). Hybrid NPs can be used as versatile delivery vehicles. For example, Papain-loaded PLGA-phosphatidylcholine NPs were determined to be 77.5% efficient in drug encapsulation, which is about 28% more efficient than papain-loaded PLGA NPs (Sinha and Rupachandra, 2025).

1.5 Nanocomposites: mode of action

Researchers are focusing on developing novel materials from sustainable and biorenewable sources to address environmental concerns and depletion of fossil resources. Nanocomposites, made from biorenewable resources, offer benefits like high mechanical characteristics, thermal stability, and ease of production, benefiting various industries like food, biomedicine, and automotive (Ates et al., 2020). Increasing research on nanocomposite significantly focus on creating eco-friendly, nontoxic, biocompatible, and biobased fillers and composites. These materials are used in biosensors and biomedicine, particularly in microbiology as antibacterial agents (Warangkar et al., 2022). A study fabricated nanocomposites combining reduced graphene oxide (RGO) with metal oxides like silver oxide (AgO), nickel oxide (NiO), and zinc oxide (ZnO). The materials showed strong antibacterial and antifungal activities against pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans, with antibiofilm inhibition exceeding 90%. The nanocomposites also disrupted bacterial cell membranes, leading to cell death, highlighting their potential in combating resistant microbial strains (Elbasuney et al., 2023). Abd El-Fattah study presents an eco-friendly method for creating a multifunctional smart nanobiocomposite (NBC) made from ZnO, PIACSB, and TiO₂. The NBC was created by converting shrimp shells into polyimidazolium amphiphilic chitosan Schiff base (PIACSB), which was then used as an encapsulating and coating agent. The NBC demonstrated remarkable antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and superior antibiofilm activity against ciprofloxacin (Abd El-Fattah et al., 2023). Nanocomposite can also be use to treat heavy metal pollution for instance Shewanella onesidensis metabolism is used to create bio-ZnS/CuS composites, which have broad-spectrum antibacterial properties and high visible light-driven photocatalytic activity. More than 95% of the heavy metal ions in wastewater are effectively recovered by the composites. Superior photocatalytic activity was revealed by the composite with a 1:9 Zn to Cu ratio, which achieved sterilisation rates of over 99.99% against Escherichia coli and 99.98% against Staphylococcus aureus (Ma et al., 2023). Various nanocomposite are used for environmentally friendly antibacterial fruit packing, for example; polylactic acid (PLA), in concert with nanofillers and antimicrobial compounds to increase mechanical strength and antibacterial effectiveness (Abdul Malek et al., 2025). Because of their nanoscale structure, which allows for targeted and sustained release, nanocomposites improve the stability and delivery of active substances (Singh and Agarwal, 2016). Their special physico-chemical characteristics enable them to interact closely with microbial cells. They work by producing ROS, rupturing cell membranes, interfering with DNA replication, and subsequently affecting metabolic pathways (Saravanan et al., 2023; Azadi et al., 2025). However, the broad usage of nanocomposites is hampered by constraints such possible toxicity risk, environmental adaptability, production costs, implementation of large-scale applications, and regulatory approval (Santhosh et al., 2021). Table 2, highlights the overview of various microbes’ inhibition by various nanoparticles.

Table 2

Table 2. Overview of various NPs and the microbial pathogens they mitigate, highlighting their antimicrobial properties and potential applications in plant disease management.

2 Mechanism of antibacterial action

2.1 ROS generation and membrane disruption

Based on existing research the antibacterial effect of NPs is primarily employed by the following mechanism; disruption of the bacterial cell wall and cell membrane; ROS generation; intracellular antibacterial actions (Wang et al., 2017). Since the plasma membrane and cell wall are vital barriers, hence making their interaction with nanomaterials is a key component of NPs antibacterial activity (Werner et al., 2018). NPs adsorption is an active process employed by endocytosis. The fate and cytotoxic effect of NPs are determined by the subsequent intracellular accumulation of NPs. Although it is well acknowledged that NPs have antibacterial properties, it is unclear how exactly they work to prevent microbes; in particular, it is thought that big NPs are unable to pass through cell walls. According to studies, the NPs may adsorb due to the increased membrane tension, resulting in mechanical deformation such as cell rupture and cell death. Based on a biophysical model that shows how NPs interact with membranes to cause membrane stretching and squeezing, which in turn facilitates NP adsorption (Linklater et al., 2020). Regardless of their surface functionalization, NPs smaller than 10 nm can passively pass through cellular membranes without seriously disrupting them (Werner et al., 2018; Lin et al., 2020; Burgess et al., 2020). Small NPs work by the formation of large irreversible pores so that they efficiently translocate from bacterial cell barriers. In order to effectively translocate from bacterial cell barriers, small NPs create enormous, irreversible holes. In the meantime, there are more and more reports about the antibacterial properties of NPs that are between 80 and 100 nm in size (Shaikh et al., 2019). After intruding into bacterial cell walls there is a requirement to cope with bacterial defense response, bacterial possess numerous defence responses and one of them is the oxidative stress response, although, the oxidative defence response is not that essential, but it is important for normal bacterial growth. ROS have a tremendous oxidation potential and seriously harm proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Numerous researchers are interested in ROS-based antimicrobials since they target numerous locations in bacteria (Vaishampayan and Grohmann, 2021). Various NPs such as AgNPs, ZnO NPs, and TiO₂ NPs respond through ROS generation, and target multiple cellular components by inducing lipid peroxidation in bacterial membranes, protein thiol group oxidation, disrupt cell integrity and enzymatic disfunctioning and leading to cell lysis. In defence to this, bacteria show various responses like, SoxRS and OxyR regulation (Méndez et al., 2022) which regulate antioxidant genes such as sodA (superoxide dismutase) (Giengkam et al., 2025), katG (Wan et al., 2021b), and ahpC (Xu et al., 2025).

In general, there are four forms of reactive oxygen species: hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), singlet oxygen (O₂), superoxide radical (O−2), and hydroxyl radical (·OH). Distinct NPs produce distinct NPs; for example, ZnNPs produce H₂O₂ and OH, whereas MgO and CaO NPs produce O-2. Meanwhile, CuONPs can create all four types of reactive oxygen. According to the literature, OH and O₂ may be more effective for immediate microbial death, whereas O−2 and H₂O₂ are known for less acute stress responses that are readily neutralised by endogenous antioxidants. Defects, reorganisation, and oxygen vacancies are the main sources of ROS generation. On the other hand, oxidation is preferred by the cells redox balance when ROS generation is high. Oxidative stress, which is caused by an out-of-balance condition, harms the separate parts of bacterial cells (Li et al., 2012; Malka et al., 2013; Peng et al., 2013). One such example is MnO₂ nanosheets, which show high antimicrobial properties by triggering ROS generation furthermore they also elevate ATPase activity and microbial membrane disruption which ultimately leading to cell death. 125 μg/mL concentration of these nanosheets may wipe out about 99% bacteria (Du et al., 2020). Additionally, Ag NPs on TiO₂ nanorods slow down the recombination rate of electrons-holes, and they demonstrated 90% killing efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus (gram-positive/cocci) and Escherichia coli (gram-negative/rods). The design of ROS responsive Ag decorated TiO₂ hybrid nanorods (HNRs) with dual functionalities of enhanced photodynamic therapy and antibacterial activity (Hou et al., 2022).

2.2 NPs against biofilms

Nanoantibacterial formulations accelerate protection from bacterial infections by various mechanisms, such as disrupting biofilms, damaging cell walls, and inducing oxidative stress. Antibiotics are frequently inadequate due to biofilm resistance to them and other antimicrobials. Metal oxide NPs are one of several biofilm-fighting tactics that have been developed as a result of advances in NPs manufacturing. These tactics deal with the functional and structural elements of drug resistance mechanisms and microbial biofilms. Various bacterial species may be treated using photodynamic therapy, quorum sensing, and nanotechnology to overcome resistance (Mishra et al., 2023). Focus should be on repurposing existing antimicrobial medications to enhance effectiveness, especially for persistent illnesses linked to biofilms. S. aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus are common sources of biofilm-associated illnesses. NPs could improve drug transport into biofilms, but mechanisms governing interactions remain unclear (Fulaz et al., 2020). For instance, Se@Ag@EGCG NPs demonstrated potent antibacterial activity against MDR, S. aureus and E. coli at 40 μg/mL through ROS overproduction. It also possesses efficient wound healing properties and low toxicity, which highlights its potential for ROS-mediated strategies for addressing antibiotic resistance (Yang et al., 2022). Similarly, in some AgNPs, the massive accumulation of ROS leads to antibacterial action (Pernas-Pleite et al., 2023; Li PP et al., 2023). Adding GO to Cu₂O significantly enhances photodynamic antibacterial efficiency and improves electron-hole separation and ROS generation. The resulting PLLA/Cu₂O@rGO scaffold shows strong antibacterial activity (He et al., 2024). Successful synthesis of Ag, Cu, and Se NPs (50–100 nm) prepared by the DES-based method, ensuring stability and enhanced bioactivity against S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans. The NPs mediated ROS generation, leading to enzyme inactivation, metabolic disruption, and bacterial cell degradation. Additionally, Cu NPs from copper (II) acetate demonstrated significant antiviral activity, reducing virus titers of influenza A/H1N1, HCoV-OC43, and VSV by over 93.7%–99.96% (Długosz et al., 2025).

2.3 Stimuli-responsive NPs

NPs interact with the bacterial cell’s basic components, such as DNA, lysosomes, ribosomes, and enzymes, leading to oxidative stress, heterogeneous alterations, changes in cell membrane permeability, electrolyte balance disorders, enzyme inhibition, protein deactivation, and changes in gene expression (Shrivastava et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2016). Figure 1 represent the mechanism of action of NPs against microbes.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Diagrammatic illustration of the mechanism of action of NPs against bacteria. NPs interact with bacterial cells through multiple pathways, including: (i) breaking down the bacterial cell membrane, which allows intracellular contents to leak out; (ii) producing ROS, which causes oxidative stress and cellular damage; (iii) interacting with intracellular components like proteins and DNA, which inhibits replication and causes enzyme dysfunction; and (iv) interfering with electron transport and metabolic pathways, which ultimately results in bacterial cell death.

According to a biophysical model, both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are impacted by the stretching and squeezing of membranes caused by NPs. AuNPs that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic are created in order to investigate antibacterial processes. NPs induced membrane squeezing and tension are demonstrated in a microfluidic system; quasi-spherical NPs have stronger bactericidal activity (Linklater et al., 2020). For example, some metallic NPs dissolve close to the cell envelope in contact with bacteria, disrupting their cells and facilitating antibiotic activity (Bondarenko et al., 2018). The generation of ROS species in light by SA-CS@CuO/ZnO (sodium alginate (SA) and chitosan (CS)/CuONP and ZnONP) promotes improved antibacterial activity, which is another example of an antibacterial action mechanism. Differentially expressed genes that were mostly involved in membrane transport, cell wall and membrane formation, cellular antioxidant defence, and DNA repair mechanisms enable the generation of ROS, which in turn enhances antibacterial activity (Guan et al., 2021). Similarly, Bacitracin-AgNCs mechanism against S. flexneri by change in membrane permeability which lead to leakage of intracellular substances (Wang et al., 2021). After interacting through the cell membrane, various intracellular events are associated with antibacterial action, such as disruption of the electron transport chain, catalytic killing, cell cycle arrest, and bacterial DNA degradation (Xie et al., 2023). For instance, CuNPs may arrest bacterial cell division by destabilizing cell division proteins, FtsZ and FtsI (Ganesh et al., 2020). Furthermore, reports claim that the DI-SeNPs, actinomycetes-based AuNPs (Ac-AuNPs), possess antibacterial properties by cell cycle arrest (Ameen et al., 2025; Aati et al., 2025). Various mode of antimicrobial action of NPs are illustrated in Figure 1.

3 Application

Antibacterial NPs are multifunctional and used in various fields, including medicinal, healthcare, agriculture, plant disease management, food preservation and packaging, and personal hygiene products. In field of medicine, wound healing is an important application of antibacterial NPs. Various NPs used in wound healing, such as, lipid-based NPs (LBNs) (Motsoene et al., 2023), AgNPs (Chinnasamy et al., 2021), AuNPs (Boomi et al., 2020), LL37 and Serpin A1 encapsulated NPs (Fumakia and Ho, 2016), chitosan (Shao et al., 2019), etc.

3.1 Antibacterial NPs in healthcare

There is an immediate need for noble antimicrobial or antibiofilm surfaces and biomedical equipment that provide defence against planktonic infections, especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant strains, and biofilm development. Antibacterial NPs in healthcare have enhanced wound healing properties by reducing inflammation as well as regulating collagen deposition. Healthcare professionals are concerned about bacterial colonisation on surfaces, which results in biofilms that cause chronic illnesses. Some recently created nanotechnology-based biomaterials describe the fundamental techniques used to develop antibiofilm surfaces (Naik et al., 2015; Ramasamy and Lee, 2016). Pathogenic bacterial infection is one of the serious health concerns with high infection and lethality rates. Conventional antibiotics are not able to mitigate drug-resistant microbes. Nanosystem employment is a revolutionary approach to specifically target the infection location. Nanomedicine may increase the effectiveness of antibiotic administration. These nanocarriers improve stability, solubility, and half-life of antibiotics. NPs that react to pH changes in the environment or enzyme modifications to cause the release of antibiotics are being developed as passive and active targeting techniques (Yeh et al., 2020). One important method for enhancing medication bioavailability or targeted distribution at the site of action is polymeric NPs. Polymers are perfect for meeting the needs of each unique drug-delivery system because of their flexibility (Begines et al., 2020). NPs, such as Ag, Cu, Se, Ni, Mg, and Fe NPs, also play a vital role in agriculture, and they have all been thoroughly investigated for possible antifungal uses. Because of their potent antifungal qualities, AgNPs have been the subject of the most investigation. Other NPs with encouraging outcomes include Se, Ni, Mg, Pd, and Fe (Cruz-Luna et al., 2021).

3.2 Antibacterial NPs in healthcare

NPs have been extensively studied in plant disease management for sustainable agriculture (Kumar, 2020). For instance, Wohlmuth and colleagues’ study of eight NPs against Xanthomonas hortorum pv. Carotae and the study against the seed-borne disease by Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae, which affects plants in the Apiaceae family, found that the three most effective NPs against a particular microbe were built of copper, silver, and silver/selenium composite. Copper-based NPs were shown to be the most effective when tested on infected carrot seedlings, causing a ten-fold reduction in the prevalence of Xhc (Wohlmuth et al., 2024). Whereas, SeNPs offer a more efficient and eco-friendlier alternative for boosting plant resistance while decreasing toxicity, especially at low dosages (Qin et al., 2025).

3.3 Antibacterial NPs in food packaging and preservation

Antimicrobial NPs are also employed as preservatives. By preventing microbial development, antibacterial NPs are also used in food packaging aid to prolong shelf life and guarantee food safety. By acting as active barriers, these clever NPs lower the chance of contamination and spoiling. Nanomaterials like: lipid NPs, nanoemulsion, nanoliposomes, nanosponges, graphene, mesoporous silica, copper, gold, titanium dioxide, magnesium oxide, zinc oxide, gelatine, alginate, cellulose, and nanofibers (Suvarna et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2024). For instance, the Ta4C3Tx nanosheet as a template to create antibacterial bioplastic packaging that is strong, controlled, and long-lasting. The bioplastic CTa-Ag, which is based on nanocellulose, exhibits steady photothermal conversion efficiency, low oxygen permeability, and good mechanical qualities. New ideas for food packaging design are also made possible by its long-lasting antibacterial qualities and controlled release of antibacterial active chemicals (Wang X et al., 2024). For instant, a food packaging antibacterial nanocomposite film composed of NiO–CuONPs and polyvinyl alcohol/starch/chitosan (PVA/ST/CS) demonstrated no toxicity to fibroblast cells and higher antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The film is a preferred material for food packaging because of the over 84% survival rate of these cells in contact with it (Momtaz et al., 2024). Furthermore, ZnO NPs at varying concentrations in a starch matrix are used in formation of biodegradable packaging solutions. The starch biofilms’ mechanical qualities are improved by the NPs, which increases their strength and heat resistance. Additionally, the films offer UV protection and antimicrobial qualities (Dhiman et al., 2025). Moreover, the application of bio-based food packaging materials—more especially, biosynthesised ZnONPs, or ZnONPs—is investigated in Hashem and colleagues work. Superior antibacterial and antifungal qualities were demonstrated by the films, which were made with HPS/PVA, palmitic acid, and ZnONPs. Additionally, the films demonstrated biodegradability; after 4 weeks in soil, their biodegradability was around 85% (Hashem et al., 2023).

Nano emulsion is also one of the approaches of antibacterial NPs in food safety (Özogul et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2024; Cui et al., 2025) such as, Gao and colleagues report that the strong antibacterial action against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli is demonstrated using cinamaldehyde nanoemulsion. 84% w/w deionised water, 10% w/w surfactant EL-90, and 6% w/w cinnamon aldehyde make up the ideal mixture. The droplet size of cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion is uniformly tiny and steady. cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion is efficient against these infections because of its lipophilic nature and ability to induce oxidative stress. The study offers a point of reference for upcoming food-grade preservative development (Gao et al., 2021).

3.4 Antibacterial NPs in water purification

To avoid harmful infections and extend the shelf life of medical devices, water purification systems, and food safety, antimicrobial coatings are crucial in medical applications. By creating protective shells on the material’s surface, these coatings prevent the growth of microorganisms and guarantee both quality and safety. Commonly used metal-based coatings include copper, zinc, titanium dioxide, and silver-based coatings. However, excessive discharge of tainted water degrades water quality and has detrimental impacts on ecosystems. Water purifying techniques that are cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and sustainable are required. Ceramic filters work well with polydimethylsiloxane and polyurethane polymers (Goel and Arya, 2024; Kalakonda et al., 2024). One such example is Improved filtration velocity, efficient microbial elimination, and self-disinfecting potential are features of a 2D Ti3C2/Al2O3/Ag/Cu nanocomposite-modified filtration material with promising POU water treatment. The materials potential for real-world water treatment was demonstrated by the confirmation of its stability and antibacterial effectiveness (Jakubczak et al., 2021). Similarly, functionalised TiO₂ NPs in water purification membranes made of polyurethane and cellulose acetate. To initiate the membranes’ photocatalytic activity against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, they were exposed to ultraviolet light. The membranes mechanical strength, water retention, thermal stability, and shape were all examined. According to the findings, these membranes may help purify water since they have strong antibacterial qualities (Ahmad et al., 2022).

Among various NPs, AgNPs are the most widely studied, primarily because of their strong antimicrobial activity at low concentrations. AgNPs work by releasing silver ions that disrupt bacterial cell membranes, generate ROS, and interfere with DNA replication, ultimately leading to bacterial cell death (Al-Rawajfeh et al., 2024). For instant, Terminalia chebula fruit extract synthesized AgNPs have distinct morphology and antibacterial properties for water purification. Under exposure to visible light, the AgNPs demonstrated catalytic capability in the degradation of commercial methylene dyes and effectiveness against E. coli. The biogenically produced TC-AgNPs show great promise for microbial control and long-term environmental restoration initiatives due to their remarkable capacity to break down organic contaminants and deactivate microorganisms (Kalakonda et al., 2024). Furthermore, for applications including water purification and ultrafast nitrophenol catalysis, a unique two-dimensional Ti3C2Tx MXene membrane enhanced with AgNW have reported. With AgNW optimisation, the membrane maintained a high bovine serum albumin rejection of 95.4% while demonstrating a water flow of up to 191.9 L/(m2 h). The M@A-12% membrane showed the highest recycling utilisation and catalytic reduction capabilities, with an antibacterial rate of more than 99% against S. aureus and E. coli (Qin et al., 2023). Similarly, in order to purify water, the study offers a 95% effective antibacterial sponge that has a high clearance ratio of bacterial corpses. The steady releasing feature of Ag+ and the charge interaction of quaternary amine salts are responsible for the sponge’s efficacy. A fresh approach to water purification without bacterial residue is provided by this creative technique (Yin et al., 2024).

As people’s awareness of health and hygiene problems, has grown that needs more ecofriendly bioactive materials. Wearers are shielded from bacteria and fabrics from biodeterioration by bioactive coatings. There is continuous research on environmentally friendly production methods and quality requirements (El-Shamy et al., 2024). Researchers also assess how well thermoregulation-based smart fabrics and nanomaterials work as self-sanitizing face masks. It demonstrates how these masks can improve filtration efficiency by overcoming the drawbacks of traditional masks (Pattanaik et al., 2024). An overview of various applications offer by NPs is represented in Figure 2.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Diagrammatic illustration of the applications of antibacterial NPs: from healthcare to Agriculture, Enhancing Safety and Sustainability.

4 Challenges of widescale usage of antimicrobial NPs

The potential for environmental durability, cost-effectiveness, and industrial scalability also present difficulties (Mondal et al., 2024). Although, there has been great advancement, such as smart NPs that react to particular stimuli like light, bacterial enzymes, or pH changes, there are still challenges ahead (Zhang et al., 2023). With problems like cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and the possibility of long-term environmental accumulation remaining unsolved, safety is still a top concern which is problematic for their real-world applications. Issues like uneven manufacturing, high prices, restricted scalability, and insufficient regulatory backing are also a major concern despite promising developments like hybrid nano-antibiotics, CRISPR-based carriers, and peptide-loaded systems (Xuan et al., 2023; Wang YL et al., 2024). Moving forward researchers must focus on creating biodegradable, biocompatible nanomaterials ideally developed through eco-friendly methods backed by strong safety testing, AI-guided design, and supportive public policies to truly bring these innovations from lab to life (Olawade et al., 2024; Yan et al., 2020). For safe biomedical uses and to reduce cytotoxic effects, NPs must be biocompatible. Their therapeutic potential can be increased while negative effects can be decreased by carefully designing and altering their surface to accommodate their flexibility (Wang YL et al., 2024).

5 Discussion

NP-based therapeutics, developed from nanotechnology, have improved therapeutic efficacy, reduced toxicity, and enable precise targeting. Since the 1980s, they have expanded the pharmaceutical market. However, developing comprehensive regulatory frameworks remains a challenge. This review analyses market-approved NPs therapeutics, highlighting the importance of adaptive pathways and supporting researchers in commercializing and clinical translating these therapeutics (Desai et al., 2025). Global public health is being threatened by antibiotic resistance. Although antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are crucial for the innate immune response, they have drawbacks such as poor pharmacokinetic characteristics and cytotoxicity. By altering AMP delivery for accurate, regulated release at infection sites, delivery technologies such as hydrogels and NPs might overcome these difficulties. The purpose of this study is to provide light on how to get over translational obstacles and get AMPs medications closer to clinical use (Zheng et al., 2025) Notwithstanding these challenges, there is a lot of promise for infection control with nanotechnology (Ma and Poma, 2025). The future antibacterial NPs research is focused on the development of precise targeting, bioinspired designs, sustainable production processes, smart delivery systems, and AI-driven optimisation. Drug delivery methods based on nanoparticles provide improved bioavailability, less side effects, and accurate targeting; yet, creating the ideal nanoparticles is still difficult. Predictive modelling speeds up the process of finding efficient formulations, while artificial intelligence (AI) offers strong tools like machine learning, neural networks, and optimisation algorithms to customise NP properties and enhance drug loading, targeting, and controlled release (Kapoor et al., 2024). Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), such as amoxicillin-loaded LNPs for anti-Helicobacter pylori treatment, have also been optimised using AI-driven trial design, increasing stability, efficacy, and bioavailability with little chemical usage (Kumari et al., 2025). In a broader sense, AI facilitates the development of nanomaterials from design and synthesis to characterisation, allowing for quicker, data-driven advancements in biomedicine (Zhu et al., 2023).

6 Future perspectives

Antibacterial NPs became more common as the threat of MDR bacterial infection increased. Future studies on these NPs may concentrate on lowering toxicity while maintaining effective biocompatibility and specificity, as well as environmental biocompatibility (Dutt et al., 2024; Yaşayan et al., 2024; Khane et al., 2024). NPs should be specific stimuli-responsive to have an effective antimicrobial impact; this means that they can only work in reaction to certain stimuli, such as bacterial enzymes, pH variations, or outside influences like light and magnetic fields. The target-specific NPs will help reduce needless adverse effects (Cheeseman et al., 2020; Naskar and Kim, 2022; Zhang et al., 2023; Hao et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2024; Bera, 2024). For instance, copper sulfide (CuS) NPs show antibacterial properties and stimulate wound healing by utilizing photodynamic (PDT) and photothermal (PTT) strategies (Naskar and Kim, 2022). Similarly, lignin-based photodynamic nanoconjugates embedded in nanocomposite hydrogels utilize pH-triggered controlled release and may completely eradicate microbial populations upon laser exposure whereas Fe₃O₄ microbubbles (microbubble-based carriers embedded with Fe₃O₄ NPs) utilize a magnetic-targeted mechanism (Chandna et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2024).

The integration of NPs with antibiotics is another significant advancement that enhances the therapeutic horizon (Quiñones-Vico et al., 2024; Pisani et al., 2024; Costabile et al., 2024). Metal NPs loaded with antibiotics have already shown promising microbial resistance (Abdullah et al., 2024). Future research is also focused on optimizing hybrid nano-antibiotic systems for synergistic effects. Additionally, the encapsulation of antibiotics with polymeric NPs offers sustainable release with efficient penetration ability which reduces the dosage requirement and improves drug bioavailability (Ibraheem et al., 2022). For example, AgNPs are a promising tool for biomedical drug delivery due to their appropriate carrier property, the AgNPs loaded with ciprofloxacin prepared by chemical reduction and AgNPs loaded with vancomycin exhibit enhanced antibacterial ability (Ibraheem et al., 2022; Veriato et al., 2023).

The NPs may mimic a natural defence mechanism and can contribute to improving targeting efficacy, such as cell membrane-coated NPs and antimicrobial peptide-loaded NPs. The NPs may mimic a natural defence mechanism and can contribute to improving targeting efficacy, such as cell membrane-coated NPs and antimicrobial peptide-loaded NPs. These NPs may prevent the decomposition of the encapsulated drug due to their unique physicochemical property (Falciani et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2023; Omidian et al., 2025). One such example is chitosan NPs loaded with recombinant ll37 antimicrobial peptide with about 78% encapsulation efficiency and an average size of 127.12 nm, which provides enhanced stability and efficient antimicrobial activity (Fahimirad et al., 2021). Similarly, Nal-P-113-PEG-CSNPs formulation (Nal-P-113 loaded PEG-Chitosan NPs) effectively inhibited the growth of Streptococcus gordonii, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Fusobacterium nucleatum with the MIC of 6 μg/mL, 23 μg/mL, and 31 μg/mL, respectively (Hu et al., 2021). Moreover, a study showed that the Cecropin-B peptide loaded-chitosan NPs are proven effective against MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates (Okasha et al., 2023). Research based on CRISPR/Cas nanocarrier against microbes is also renowned (Wan et al., 2021a; Aziz et al., 2023). NPs have been extensively studied in the past decades, and their toxicity is a huge concern. Future studies are focused on developing less toxic biodegradable NPs (Remya et al., 2022; Wahab et al., 2024; Parvin et al., 2025). One of the most serious and difficult risks to human health is biofilm-associated illness, for which traditional antibiotics are ineffective. NPs are one of the newest therapeutic areas which show antibacterial activity, and it is also believed that the nanocarriers facilitate the effective penetration of biofilm by downregulating biofilm-related genes: ALS3, EFG1, ALS1, and HWP1, as well as inhibiting the bacterial defence mechanism. And the integration of both nanotechnology and the pharmaceutical would be a milestone for future therapeutics (Shkodenko et al., 2020; Campos et al., 2025). Studies are continuously exploring efficient antibacterial NPs, such as titanium dioxide NPs, AgNPs, chitosan NPs, etc. For instance, spherical-shaped ZnONPs with −21.9 zeta potential provide MICs of about 62 and 125 μg/mL against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Additionally, at 125 μg/mL concentration, they may eradicate the biofilm-forming microorganisms (Masadeh et al., 2025; Wang P et al., 2025; Bano, 2025; Fakeeha et al., 2025). Regulatory obstacles, expenses, and public opinion are some of the difficulties in developing nanotechnology instruments for infection control, their clinical translation, and their possible influence on healthcare. By creating antimicrobial nanomaterials and medicinal nanocarriers, nanotechnology provides novel ways to fight infectious illnesses. It is essential to strike a balance between patient safety and quick clinical integration. Clinical translation is also impacted by high expenses and public opinion. Through processes including upregulating efflux pumps to release harmful ions or particles and creating biofilms that serve as chemical and physical barriers, bacteria can become resistant to NPs. By creating an extracellular matrix that restricts NPs penetration, lowers ROS transport, and sequesters metal ions, biofilm shielding greatly increases bacterial resistance to antimicrobial therapies based on NPs (Huang et al., 2022; Rajasekharan and Shemesh, 2022). Despite their promising applications, the antimicrobial action of NPs faces various limitations which hiders their environmental adaptability and clinical implementations (Nikzamir et al., 2021). More critical assessment of current constraints is necessary for the further development of antibacterial NPs (Mba and Nweze, 2021).

Author contributions

AC: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing – original draft. RR: Supervision, Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

Aati, S., Aati, H. Y., Hamed, A. A., El-Shamy, S., Aati, S. H., Abdelmohsen, U. R., et al. (2025). Gold nanoparticles synthesized from soil-derived Streptomyces sp. ASM19: characterization, antimicrobial, anticancer potency targeted G2/M phase cell-cycle arrest, and in silico studies. RSC Adv. 15 (5), 3954–3968. doi:10.1039/d4ra07608g

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abd El-Fattah, W., Alfaifi, M. Y., Alkabli, J., Ramadan, H. A., Shati, A. A., Elbehairi, S. E. I., et al. (2023). Immobilization of ZnO-TiO2 nanocomposite into polyimidazolium amphiphilic chitosan film, targeting improving its antimicrobial and antibiofilm applications. Antibiotics 12 (7), 1110. doi:10.3390/antibiotics12071110

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abd El-Kader, M. F. H., Elabbasy, M. T., Ahmed, M. K., and Menazea, A. A. (2021). Structural, morphological features, and antibacterial behavior of PVA/PVP polymeric blends doped with silver nanoparticles via pulsed laser ablation. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 13, 291–300. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.04.055

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abdel-Raouf, N., Al-Enazi, N. M., and Ibraheem, I. B. (2017). Green biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles using Galaxaura elongata and characterization of their antibacterial activity. Arabian J. Chem. 10, S3029–S3039. doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.11.044

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abdelgawad, A. M., Hudson, S. M., and Rojas, O. J. (2014). Antimicrobial wound dressing nanofiber mats from multicomponent (chitosan/silver-NPs/polyvinyl alcohol) systems. Carbohydr. Polym. 100, 166–178. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.12.043

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abdul Malek, N. S., Omar, H., Rosman, N., Hajar, N., Aizamddin, M. F., Bonnia, N. N., et al. (2025). Tailoring synergistic polylactic acid–based nanocomposites for sustainable antimicrobial fruit packaging. Packag. Technol. Sci. 38 (2), 163–192. doi:10.1002/pts.2864

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abdullah, J., Jamil, T., Atif, M., Khalid, S., Metwally, K., Yahya, G., et al. (2024). Recent advances in the development of metal/metal oxide nanoparticle and antibiotic conjugates (MNP–antibiotics) to address antibiotic resistance: review and perspective. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 25 (16), 8915. doi:10.3390/ijms25168915

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abdulrahman, M. F., Al-Rawi, A. S., Hamid, L. L., Aljumialy, A. M., Saod, W. M., and Al-Fahdawi, A. M. (2024). Preparation of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) aerogel microsphere loaded with biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles as potential antibacterial drug. J. Mol. Struct. 1306, 137901. doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2024.137901

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abedini, S., Pourseyedi, S., Zolala, J., Mohammadi, H., and Abdolshahi, R. (2024). Green synthesis of superparamagnetic iron oxide and silver nanoparticles in Satureja hortensis leave extract: evaluation of antifungal effects on botryosphaeriaceae species. Curr. Microbiol. 81 (6), 149. doi:10.1007/s00284-024-03647-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Abou El Fadl, F. I., Hegazy, D. E., Maziad, N. A., and Ghobashy, M. M. (2023). Effect of nano-metal oxides (TiO₂, MgO, CaO, and ZnO) on antibacterial property of (PEO/PEC-co-AAm) hydrogel synthesized by gamma irradiation. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 250, 126248. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126248

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ahmad, A., Sabir, A., Iqbal, S. S., Felemban, B. F., Riaz, T., Bahadar, A., et al. (2022). Novel antibacterial polyurethane and cellulose acetate mixed matrix membrane modified with functionalized TiO₂ nanoparticles for water treatment applications. Chemosphere 301, 134711. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134711

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ahmed, S. A., Hasan, M. N., Altass, H. M., Bera, A., Alsantali, R. I., Pan, N., et al. (2022). Tetracycline encapsulated in Au nanoparticle-decorated ZnO nanohybrids for enhanced antibacterial activity. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 5 (3), 4484–4492. doi:10.1021/acsanm.2c00655

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ahmed, S. K., Hussein, S., Qurbani, K., Ibrahim, R. H., Fareeq, A., Mahmood, K. A., et al. (2024). Antimicrobial resistance: impacts, challenges, and future prospects. J. Med. Surg. Public Health 2, 100081. doi:10.1016/j.glmedi.2024.100081

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Badaii, F., Al-Khalidy, A., Khalid, M., Al-Jarfi, A., Al-Ansi, F. A., Al-Jarfi, A., et al. (2024). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Allium sativum extract: evaluation of antibacterial activity against nosocomial bacteria. Thamar Univ. J. Nat. and Appl. Sci. 9 (1), 14–19. doi:10.59167/tujnas.v9i1.2049

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Darwesh, M. Y., Ibrahim, S. S., and Hamid, L. L. (2024). Ficus carica latex mediated biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and assessment of their antibacterial activity and biological safety. Nano-Structures and Nano-Objects 38, 101163. doi:10.1016/j.nanoso.2024.101163

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Jumaili, A., Alancherry, S., Bazaka, K., and Jacob, M. V. (2017). Review on the antimicrobial properties of carbon nanostructures. Materials 10 (9), 1066. doi:10.3390/ma10091066

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Momani, H., Massadeh, M. I., Almasri, M., Al Balawi, D. A., Aolymat, I., Hamed, S., et al. (2024). Anti-bacterial activity of green synthesised silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles against Propionibacterium acnes. Pharmaceuticals 17 (2), 255. doi:10.3390/ph17020255

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Rawajfeh, A. E., Alrawashdeh, A. I., Etiwi, M. T., Alnawaiseh, A., Shahid, M. K., Masad, M. H., et al. (2024). Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) embedded in zeolite framework: a comprehensive study on bromide removal from water, including characterization, antibacterial properties, and adsorption mechanisms. Desalination Water Treat. 317, 100139. doi:10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100139

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Al-Zaqri, N., Umamakeshvari, K., Mohana, V., Muthuvel, A., and Boshaala, A. (2022). Green synthesis of nickel oxide nanoparticles and its photocatalytic degradation and antibacterial activity. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 33 (15), 11864–11880. doi:10.1007/s10854-022-08149-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Alghonaim, M. I., Alsalamah, S. A., Bazaid, A. S., and Abdelghany, T. M. (2024). Biosynthesis of CuO@Au NPs and its formulated into biopolymers carboxymethyl cellulose and chitosan: characterizations, antimicrobial, anticancer and antioxidant properties. Waste Biomass Valorization 15 (9), 5191–5204. doi:10.1007/s12649-024-02469-5

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ali, S., Bahadur, A., Hassan, A., Ahmad, S., Shah, W., and Iqbal, S. (2025). Optimized silver nanostructures for enhanced antibacterial potential: recent trends and challenges in the development of metallo-antimicrobials. Chem. Eng. J. 507, 160470. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2025.160470

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Almutairi, T. M., Al-Rasheed, H. H., Alaqil, Z. M., Hajri, A. K., and Elsayed, N. H. (2023). Green synthesis of magnetic supramolecules β-cyclodextrin/iron oxide nanoparticles for photocatalytic and antibacterial applications. ACS Omega 8 (35), 32067–32077. doi:10.1021/acsomega.3c04117

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Almutairy, B. (2024). Extensively and multidrug-resistant bacterial strains: case studies of antibiotics resistance. Front. Microbiol. 15, 1381511. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2024.1381511

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Álvarez, E., Estevez, M., Gallo-Cordova, A., Gonzalez, B., Castillo, R. R., Morales, M. D. P., et al. (2022). Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles decorated mesoporous silica nanosystem for combined antibiofilm therapy. Pharmaceutics 14 (1), 163. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14010163

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Alyamani, A. A., Albukhaty, S., Aloufi, S., AlMalki, F. A., Al-Karagoly, H., and Sulaiman, G. M. (2021). Green fabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Phlomis leaf extract: characterization and in vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity and antibacterial properties. Molecules 26 (20), 6140. doi:10.3390/molecules26206140

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ameen, F., Almalki, N. S., Alshalan, R., and Sakayanathan, P. (2025). Green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Drimia indica: insights into anticancer and antimicrobial activities. Microsc. Res. Tech. 88 (3), 749–760. doi:10.1002/jemt.24726

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Amiri, M., Etemadifar, Z., Daneshkazemi, A., and Nateghi, M. (2017). Antimicrobial effect of copper oxide nanoparticles on some oral bacteria and Candida species. J. Dent. Biomaterials 4 (1), 347–352.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Antony, V. S., Sahithya, C. S., Durga Sruthi, P., Selvarani, J., Raji, P., Prakash, P., et al. (2020). Itraconazole coated super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for antimicrobial studies. Biointerface Res. Appl. Chem. 10, 6218–6225. doi:10.33263/BRIAC105.62186225

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Arun, D., Adikari Mudiyanselage, D., Gulam Mohamed, R., Liddell, M., Monsur Hassan, N. M., and Sharma, D. (2020). Does the addition of zinc oxide nanoparticles improve the antibacterial properties of direct dental composite resins? A systematic review. Materials 14 (1), 40. doi:10.3390/ma14010040

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aswini, A., Jenifer, S., Ashina, J. N. B., Jeba Raj, Y., and Subashkumar, R. (2025). Fabrication of biogenic silver nanoparticles using Bacillus vietnamensis JA01: characterization and antibacterial activity. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 15 (5), 7119–7126. doi:10.1007/s13399-024-05468-7

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ates, B., Koytepe, S., Ulu, A., Gurses, C., and Thakur, V. K. (2020). Chemistry, structures, and advanced applications of nanocomposites from biorenewable resources. Chem. Rev. 120 (17), 9304–9362. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00553

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Azadi, S., Amani, A. M., Jangjou, A., Vaez, A., Zareshahrabadi, Z., Zare, A., et al. (2025). Fe3O4@ SiO2/Schiff-base/Zn (II) nanocomposite functioning as a versatile antimicrobial agent against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Sci. Rep. 15 (1), 5694. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-86518-6

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aziz, A., Rehman, U., Sheikh, A., Abourehab, M. A., and Kesharwani, P. (2023). Lipid-based nanocarrier mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery for cancer therapy. J. Biomaterials Sci. Polym. Ed. 34 (3), 398–418. doi:10.1080/09205063.2022.2121592

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Babayevska, N., Przysiecka, Ł., Iatsunskyi, I., Nowaczyk, G., Jarek, M., Janiszewska, E., et al. (2022). ZnO size and shape effect on antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity profile. Sci. Rep. 12 (1), 8148. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-12134-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Banerjee, A., Roy, R. K., Sarkar, S., López, J. L., Vuree, S., and Bandopadhyay, R. (2024). Synthesis of hot spring origin bacterial cell wall polysaccharide-based copper nanoparticles with antibacterial property. Electron. J. Biotechnol. 68, 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.ejbt.2023.11.005

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Banjara, R. A., Kumar, A., Aneshwari, R. K., Satnami, M. L., and Sinha, S. K. (2024). A comparative analysis of chemical vs green synthesis of nanoparticles and their various applications. Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. and Manag. 22, 100988. doi:10.1016/j.enmm.2024.100988

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bankier, C., Matharu, R. K., Cheong, Y. K., Ren, G. G., Cloutman-Green, E., and Ciric, L. (2019). Synergistic antibacterial effects of metallic nanoparticle combinations. Sci. Rep. 9 (1), 16074. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52473-2

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bano, F. (2025). Green-synthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles inhibit and eradicate the biofilms of pathogenic bacteria through intracellular ROS production. Microbiol. Res. 16 (2), 48. doi:10.3390/microbiolres16020048

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barani, H., Haseloer, A., Mathur, S., and Klein, A. (2020). Sustained release of a thiosemicarbazone from antibacterial electrospun poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) fiber mats. Polym. Adv. Technol. 31 (12), 3182–3193. doi:10.1002/pat.5043

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Barros, C. H., Hiebner, D. W., Fulaz, S., Vitale, S., Quinn, L., and Casey, E. (2021). Synthesis and self-assembly of curcumin-modified amphiphilic polymeric micelles with antibacterial activity. J. Nanobiotechnology 19, 104–115. doi:10.1186/s12951-021-00851-2

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Baveloni, F. G., Meneguin, A. B., Sábio, R. M., de Camargo, B. A. F., Trevisan, D. P. V., Duarte, J. L., et al. (2025). Antimicrobial effect of silver nanoparticles as a potential healing treatment for wounds contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus in wistar rats. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 103, 106445. doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2024.106445

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Beach, M. A., Nayanathara, U., Gao, Y., Zhang, C., Xiong, Y., Wang, Y., et al. (2024). Polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery. Chem. Rev. 124 (9), 5505–5616. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00705

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Begines, B., Ortiz, T., Pérez-Aranda, M., Martínez, G., Merinero, M., Argüelles-Arias, F., et al. (2020). Polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery: recent developments and future prospects. Nanomaterials 10 (7), 1403. doi:10.3390/nano10071403

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ben Amor, I., Hemmami, H., Laouini, S. E., Mahboub, M. S., and Barhoum, A. (2022). Sol-gel synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using different chitosan sources: effects on antibacterial activity and photocatalytic degradation of AZO dye. Catalysts 12 (12), 1611. doi:10.3390/catal12121611

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bera, S. (2024). “Photodynamic and light-response nanomaterials against multidrug-resistant bacteria,” in Nanotechnology based strategies for combating antimicrobial resistance (Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore), 351–391.

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bharadwaj, A., Rastogi, A., Pandey, S., Gupta, S., and Sohal, J. S. (2022). Multidrug-resistant bacteria: their mechanism of action and prophylaxis. BioMed Res. Int. 2022 (1), 5419874. doi:10.1155/2022/5419874

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bhattacharyya, S. K., Maiti, S., Das, N. C., and Banerjee, S. (2023). Antibacterial and antiviral functional materials based on polymer nanocomposites. Antibact. Antivir. Funct. Mater. 1, 171–202. doi:10.1021/bk-2023-1458.ch006

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Biswas, K., Mishra, A. K., Rauta, P. R., Al-Sehemi, A. G., Pannipara, M., Sett, A., et al. (2022). Exploring the bioactive potentials of C60-AgNPs nano-composites against malignancies and microbial infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23 (2), 714. doi:10.3390/ijms23020714

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bondarenko, O. M., Sihtmäe, M., Kuzmičiova, J., Ragelienė, L., Kahru, A., and Daugelavičius, R. (2018). Plasma membrane is the target of rapid antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles in Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Int. J. Nanomedicine 13, 6779–6790. doi:10.2147/ijn.s177163

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Boomi, P., Ganesan, R., Prabu Poorani, G., Jegatheeswaran, S., Balakumar, C., Gurumallesh Prabu, H., et al. (2020). Phyto-engineered gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with potential antibacterial, antioxidant, and wound healing activities under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Int. J. Nanomedicine 15, 7553–7568. doi:10.2147/ijn.s257499

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bouafia, A., Laouini, S. E., and Ouahrani, M. R. (2020). A review on green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles using plant extract and evaluation of antimicrobial activity. Asian J. Res. Chem. 13 (1), 65–70. doi:10.5958/0974-4150.2020.00014.0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bozhkov, A. I., Bobkov, V. V., Osolodchenko, T. P., Yurchenko, O. I., Ganin, V. Y., Ivanov, E. G., et al. (2024). The antibacterial activity of the copper for Staphylococcus aureus 124 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa 18 depends on its state: metalized, chelated and ionic. Heliyon 10 (20), e39098. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39098

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bruna, T., Maldonado-Bravo, F., Jara, P., and Caro, N. (2021). Silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22 (13), 7202. doi:10.3390/ijms22137202

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Brunet, L., Lyon, D. Y., Hotze, E. M., Alvarez, P. J., and Wiesner, M. R. (2009). Comparative photoactivity and antibacterial properties of C60 fullerenes and titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. and Technol. 43 (12), 4355–4360. doi:10.1021/es803093t

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Burgess, S., Wang, Z., Vishnyakov, A., and Neimark, A. V. (2020). Adhesion, intake, and release of nanoparticles by lipid bilayers. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 561, 58–70. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2019.11.106

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Campos, J. V., Pontes, J. T. C., Canales, C. S. C., Roque-Borda, C. A., and Pavan, F. R. (2025). Advancing nanotechnology: targeting biofilm-forming bacteria with antimicrobial peptides. BME Front. 6, 0104. doi:10.34133/bmef.0104

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chamaraja, N. A., Mahesh, B., and Rekha, N. D. (2023). Green synthesis of Zn/Cu oxide nanoparticles by Vernicia fordii seed extract: their photocatalytic activity toward industrial dye degradation and their biological activity. Inorg. Nano-Metal Chem. 53 (4), 388–400. doi:10.1080/24701556.2022.2069123

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chandna, S., Thakur, N. S., Kaur, R., and Bhaumik, J. (2020). Lignin–bimetallic nanoconjugate doped pH-responsive hydrogels for laser-assisted antimicrobial photodynamic therapy. Biomacromolecules 21 (8), 3216–3230. doi:10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00695

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chatterjee, A., Perevedentseva, E., Jani, M., Cheng, C. Y., Ye, Y. S., Chung, P. H., et al. (2015). Antibacterial effect of ultrafine nanodiamond against gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli. J. Biomed. Opt. 20 (5), 051014. doi:10.1117/1.jbo.20.5.051014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cheeseman, S., Christofferson, A. J., Kariuki, R., Cozzolino, D., Daeneke, T., Crawford, R. J., et al. (2020). Antimicrobial metal nanomaterials: from passive to stimuli-activated applications. Adv. Sci. 7 (10), 1902913. doi:10.1002/advs.201902913

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chen, Y., Xu, M., Pan, J., Liao, Y., Na, J., Li, P., et al. (2025). Moxifloxacin-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for overcoming multidrug resistance in chronic pulmonary infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. ACS Appl. Mater. and Interfaces 17, 5695–5709. doi:10.1021/acsami.4c14991

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chernousova, S., and Epple, M. (2013). Silver as antibacterial agent: ion, nanoparticle, and metal. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52 (6), 1636–1653. doi:10.1002/anie.201205923

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chinnasamy, G., Chandrasekharan, S., Koh, T. W., and Bhatnagar, S. (2021). Synthesis, characterization, antibacterial and wound healing efficacy of silver nanoparticles from Azadirachta indica. Front. Microbiol. 12, 611560. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.611560

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Costabile, G., Baldassi, D., Müller, C., Groß, B., Ungaro, F., Schubert, S., et al. (2024). Antibiotic-loaded nanoparticles for the treatment of intracellular methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: in vitro and in vivo efficacy of a novel antibiotic. J. Control. Release 374, 454–465. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.08.029

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cresti, L., Conte, G., Cappello, G., Brunetti, J., Falciani, C., Bracci, L., et al. (2023). Inhalable polymeric nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery of antimicrobial peptide SET-M33: antibacterial activity and toxicity in vitro and in vivo. Pharmaceutics 15 (1), 3. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics15010003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cruz-Luna, A. R., Cruz-Martínez, H., Vásquez-López, A., and Medina, D. I. (2021). Metal nanoparticles as novel antifungal agents for sustainable agriculture: current advances and future directions. J. Fungi 7 (12), 1033. doi:10.3390/jof7121033

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cui, R., Liu, F. Y., and Wu, H. (2025). Enhancement of antibacterial activity of cinnamaldehyde against Bacillus cereus by nanoemulsion and its application in milk. Food Biosci. 64, 105931. doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2025.105931

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Daulbayev, C., Sultanov, F., Korobeinyk, A. V., Yeleuov, M., Taurbekov, A., Bakbolat, B., et al. (2022). Effect of graphene oxide/hydroxyapatite nanocomposite on osteogenic differentiation and antimicrobial activity. Surfaces Interfaces 28, 101683. doi:10.1016/j.surfin.2021.101683

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

David, M. E., Ion, R. M., Grigorescu, R. M., Iancu, L., Holban, A. M., Nicoara, A. I., et al. (2021). Hybrid materials based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles with antimicrobial properties. Nanomaterials 11 (6), 1415. doi:10.3390/nano11061415

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Demissie, M. G., Sabir, F. K., Edossa, G. D., and Gonfa, B. A. (2020). Synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using leaf extract of Lippia adoensis (koseret) and evaluation of its antibacterial activity. J. Chem. 2020 (1), 1–9. doi:10.1155/2020/7459042

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Desai, N., Rana, D., Patel, M., Bajwa, N., Prasad, R., and Vora, L. K. (2025). Nanoparticle therapeutics in clinical perspective: classification, marketed products, and regulatory landscape. Small 21, 2502315. doi:10.1002/smll.202502315

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dhiman, S., Kumari, A., Kumari, S., and Sharma, R. (2025). Advanced biodegradable starch-based nanocomposite films incorporating zinc oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and efficacy in antibacterial food packaging applications. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 13 (3), 116296. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2025.116296

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Długosz, O., Żebracka, A., Sochocka, M., Franz, D., Ochnik, M., Chmielowiec-Korzeniowska, A., et al. (2025). Selective and complementary antimicrobial and antiviral activity of silver, copper, and selenium nanoparticle suspensions in deep eutectic solvent. Environ. Res. 264, 120351. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.120351

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dop, R. A., Neill, D. R., and Hasell, T. (2023). Sulfur-polymer nanoparticles: preparation and antibacterial activity. ACS Appl. Mater. and Interfaces 15 (17), 20822–20832. doi:10.1021/acsami.3c03826

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dörner, L., Cancellieri, C., Rheingans, B., Walter, M., Kägi, R., Schmutz, P., et al. (2019). Cost-effective sol-gel synthesis of porous CuO nanoparticle aggregates with tunable specific surface area. Sci. Rep. 9 (1), 11758. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48020-8

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Du, T., Chen, S., Zhang, J., Li, T., Li, P., Liu, J., et al. (2020). Antibacterial activity of manganese dioxide nanosheets by ROS-mediated pathways and destroying membrane integrity. Nanomaterials 10 (8), 1545. doi:10.3390/nano10081545

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dutt, A., Saini, N., Kalia, A., Madan, P., Srikanth, T., and Talukdar, S. (2024). Biocompatible nanomaterials for sustainable biomedical applications. E3S Web Conf. 547. doi:10.1051/e3sconf/202454703020

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Duval, R. E., Gouyau, J., and Lamouroux, E. (2019). Limitations of recent studies dealing with the antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles: fact and opinion. Nanomaterials 9 (12), 1775. doi:10.3390/nano9121775

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ebrahimzadeh, M. A., Naghizadeh, A., Amiri, O., Shirzadi-Ahodashti, M., and Mortazavi-Derazkola, S. (2020). Green and facile synthesis of Ag nanoparticles using Crataegus pentagyna fruit extract (CP-AgNPs) for organic pollution dyes degradation and antibacterial application. Bioorg. Chem. 94, 103425. doi:10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103425

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

El Gohary, H. G., Alhagri, I. A., Qahtan, T. F., Al-Hakimi, A. N., Saeed, A., Abolaban, F., et al. (2023). Reinforcement of structural, thermal and electrical properties and antibacterial activity of PVA/SA blend filled with hybrid nanoparticles (Ag and TiO₂ NPs): nanodielectric for energy storage and food packaging industries. Ceram. Int. 49 (12), 20174–20184. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2023.03.141

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

El-Khawaga, A. M., Elsaidy, A., Correa-Duarte, M. A., and Elbasuney, S. (2025). Unveiling the photocatalytic and antimicrobial activities of star–shaped gold nanoparticles under visible spectrum. Sci. Rep. 15 (1), 1201. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-82332-8

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

El-Shamy, M. N., Mohamed, H. A., Gaafar, Z. S., Roshdy, Y. A. E. M., and Hassabo, A. G. (2024). Advancements in bioactive textiles: a review of antimicrobial fabric finishes and commercial products. J. Text. Coloration Polym. Sci. 0, 0. doi:10.21608/jtcps.2024.259173.1281

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

El-Sherbiny, G. M., Kalaba, M. H., Sharaf, M. H., Moghannem, S. A., Radwan, A. A., Askar, A. A., et al. (2022). Biogenic synthesis of CuO-NPs as nanotherapeutics approaches to overcome multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MDRSA). Artif. Cells, Nanomedicine, Biotechnol. 50 (1), 260–274. doi:10.1080/21691401.2022.2126492

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Elbagory, A. M., Rahman, A., Cheikhyoussef, N., Cheikhyoussef, A., Begum, N. M., and Hussein, A. A. (2022). “Clove (Syzygium aromaticum)-mediated metallic nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and possible pharmacological and industrial applications,” in Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) (Academic Press), 639–661.

Google Scholar

Elbasuney, S., Yehia, M., Ismael, S., Al-Hazmi, N. E., El-Sayyad, G. S., and Tantawy, H. (2023). Potential impact of reduced graphene oxide incorporated metal oxide nanocomposites as antimicrobial, and antibiofilm agents against pathogenic microbes: bacterial protein leakage reaction mechanism. J. Clust. Sci. 34 (2), 823–840. doi:10.1007/s10876-022-02255-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Elhabal, S. F., Abdelmonem, R., El Nashar, R. M., Elrefai, M. F. M., Hamdan, A. M. E., Safwat, N. A., et al. (2024). Enhanced antibacterial activity of clindamycin using molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles loaded with polyurethane nanofibrous scaffolds for the treatment of acne vulgaris. Pharmaceutics 16 (7), 947. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics16070947

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Elkattan, N., Ibrahim, M. A., Emam, A. N., Metwally, K. F., Youssef, F. S., Nassar, N. A., et al. (2025). Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of chitosan and curcumin-capped copper oxide nanostructures against multi-drug resistance microorganisms. Nanoscale Adv. doi:10.1039/D4NA00955J

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Eskani, I. N., Rahayuningsih, E., Astuti, W., and Pidhatika, B. (2023). Low temperature in situ synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles from electric arc furnace dust (EAFD) waste to impart antibacterial properties on natural dye-colored batik fabrics. Polymers 15 (3), 746. doi:10.3390/polym15030746

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fahimirad, S., Ghaznavi-Rad, E., Abtahi, H., and Sarlak, N. (2021). Antimicrobial activity, stability and wound healing performances of chitosan nanoparticles loaded recombinant LL37 antimicrobial peptide. Int. J. Peptide Res. Ther. 27 (4), 2505–2515. doi:10.1007/s10989-021-10268-y

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Faisala, D., Kalefb, W. K., Salimb, E. T., and Alsultanyc, F. H. (2022). Synthesis of CuO/SnO₂ NPs on quartz substrate for temperature sensors application. Parameters 20, 19.

Google Scholar

Fakeeha, G., AlHarbi, S., Auda, S., and Balto, H. (2025). The impact of silver nanoparticles’ size on biofilm eradication. Int. Dent. J. 75 (2), 1213–1222. doi:10.1016/j.identj.2024.08.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Falciani, C., Zevolini, F., Brunetti, J., Riolo, G., Gracia, R., Marradi, M., et al. (2020). Antimicrobial peptide-loaded nanoparticles as inhalation therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Int. J. Nanomedicine 15, 1117–1128. doi:10.2147/ijn.s218966

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Feng, W., Chittò, M., Xie, W., Ren, Q., Liu, F., Kang, X., et al. (2024). Poly(d-amino acid) nanoparticles target staphylococcal growth and biofilm disassembly by interfering with peptidoglycan synthesis. ACS Nano 18 (11), 8017–8028. doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c10983

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fredj, H. B., Helali, S., Esseghaier, C., Vonna, L., Vidal, L., and Abdelghani, A. (2008). Labeled magnetic nanoparticles assembly on polypyrrole film for biosensor applications. Talanta 75 (3), 740–747. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2007.12.034

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fulaz, S., Devlin, H., Vitale, S., Quinn, L., O’Gara, J. P., and Casey, E. (2020). Tailoring nanoparticle-biofilm interactions to increase the efficacy of antimicrobial agents against Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Nanomedicine 15, 4779–4791. doi:10.2147/ijn.s256227

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fumakia, M., and Ho, E. A. (2016). Nanoparticles encapsulated with LL37 and serpin A1 promotes wound healing and synergistically enhances antibacterial activity. Mol. Pharm. 13 (7), 2318–2331. doi:10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00099

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ganesh, K. N., Pandey, S. D., Mallick, S., Ghosh, S. K., Pramanik, P., and Ghosh, A. S. (2020). Thiol stabilized copper nanoparticles exert antimicrobial properties by preventing cell division in Escherichia coli.

Google Scholar

Gao, Y., Liu, Q., Wang, Z., Zhuansun, X., Chen, J., Zhang, Z., et al. (2021). Cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsions: physical stability, antibacterial properties/mechanisms, and biosafety. J. Food Meas. Charact. 15, 5326–5336. doi:10.1007/s11694-021-01110-6

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Garibo, D., Borbón-Nuñez, H. A., de León, J. N. D., García Mendoza, E., Estrada, I., Toledano-Magaña, Y., et al. (2020). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Lysiloma acapulcensis exhibit high-antimicrobial activity. Sci. Rep. 10 (1), 12805. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69606-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Geioushy, R. A., El-Sherbiny, S., Mohamed, E. T., Fouad, O. A., and Samir, M. (2024). Mechanical characteristics and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus of sustainable cellulosic paper coated with Ag and Cu modified ZnO nanoparticles. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 29722. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-79265-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Georgakilas, V., Perman, J. A., Tucek, J., and Zboril, R. (2015). Broad family of carbon nanoallotropes: classification, chemistry, and applications of fullerenes, carbon dots, nanotubes, graphene, nanodiamonds, and combined superstructures. Chem. Rev. 115 (11), 4744–4822. doi:10.1021/cr500304f

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ghabdian, Y., Taheri, A., and Jahanian-Najafabadi, A. (2021). Development of novel topical formulation from fullerene with antibacterial activity against Propionibacterium acnes. Fullerenes, Nanotub. Carbon Nanostructures 29 (2), 163–173. doi:10.1080/1536383x.2020.1825388

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ghareeb, A., Fouda, A., Kishk, R. M., and El Kazzaz, W. M. (2025). Multifaceted biomedical applications of biogenic titanium dioxide nanoparticles fabricated by marine actinobacterium Streptomyces vinaceusdrappus AMG31. Sci. Rep. 15 (1), 20244. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00541-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ghawanmeh, A. A. (2024). Polymeric nanoparticles delivery circumvents bacterial resistance to ciprofloxacin. DARU J. Pharm. Sci. 32 (1), 455–459. doi:10.1007/s40199-023-00498-4

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gheffar, C., Le, H., Jouenne, T., Schaumann, A., Corbière, A., Vaudry, D., et al. (2021). Antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-nanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus. Part. and Part. Syst. Charact. 38 (1), 2000253. doi:10.1002/ppsc.202000253

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gholami-Shabani, M., Akbarzadeh, A., Norouzian, D., Amini, A., Gholami-Shabani, Z., Imani, A., et al. (2014). Antimicrobial activity and physical characterization of silver nanoparticles green synthesized using nitrate reductase from Fusarium oxysporum. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 172, 4084–4098. doi:10.1007/s12010-014-0809-2

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Giengkam, S., Charoenlap, N., Whangsuk, W., Bhinija, K., Mongkolsuk, S., and Vattanaviboon, P. (2025). SoxR-dependent regulation of sodA1 and its impact on Stenotrophomonas maltophilia survival under external oxidative stress. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 372, fnae112. doi:10.1093/femsle/fnae112

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Goel, S., and Arya, R. K. (2024). “Antimicrobial coatings for water purification: applications and future perspectives,” in Functional coatings for biomedical, energy, and environmental applications, 467–483.

Google Scholar

González-Pedroza, M. G., Lira-Díaz, E., Acevedo-Fernández, J. J., Morales-Luckie, R. A., and Díaz-Talamantes, C. (2024). Biosynthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial evaluation of silver nanoparticles based on Annona muricata extracts. MRS Adv., 1–8. doi:10.1557/s43580-024-00899-w

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Guan, G., Zhang, L., Zhu, J., Wu, H., Li, W., and Sun, Q. (2021). Antibacterial properties and mechanism of biopolymer-based films functionalized by CuO/ZnO nanoparticles against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. J. Hazard. Mater. 402, 123542. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123542

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gudkov, S. V., Burmistrov, D. E., Serov, D. A., Rebezov, M. B., Semenova, A. A., and Lisitsyn, A. B. (2021a). Do iron oxide nanoparticles have significant antibacterial properties? Antibiotics 10 (7), 884. doi:10.3390/antibiotics10070884

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gudkov, S. V., Burmistrov, D. E., Serov, D. A., Rebezov, M. B., Semenova, A. A., and Lisitsyn, A. B. (2021b). A mini review of antibacterial properties of ZnO nanoparticles. Front. Phys. 9, 641481. doi:10.3389/fphy.2021.641481

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Guo, Q., Guo, H., Lan, T., Chen, Y., Chen, X., Feng, Y., et al. (2021). Co-delivery of antibiotic and baicalein by using different polymeric nanoparticle cargos with enhanced synergistic antibacterial activity. Int. J. Pharm. 599, 120419. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120419

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Habibullah, G., Viktorova, J., Ulbrich, P., and Ruml, T. (2022). Effect of the physicochemical changes in the antimicrobial durability of green synthesized silver nanoparticles during their long-term storage. RSC Adv. 12 (47), 30386–30403. doi:10.1039/d2ra04667a

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Haitao, Y., Yifan, C., Mingchao, S., and Shuaijuan, H. (2022). A novel polymeric nanohybrid antimicrobial engineered by antimicrobial peptide MccJ25 and chitosan nanoparticles exerts strong antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. Front. Immunol. 12, 811381. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.811381

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Haji, E. M. (2025). From bench to the heart: metal-based complexes and nanoparticles as pioneers in cardio-protection and cardiovascular management. J. Young Pharm. 17 (2), 306–318. doi:10.5530/jyp.20251663

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Handak, E. M., Amin, D. H., and Elhateir, M. M. (2025). Design and assessment of lipase-CuO nanoparticle conjugates for enhanced antimicrobial efficacy against clinical pathogens. BMC Biotechnol. 25, 16. doi:10.1186/s12896-025-00950-0

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hao, Z., Li, X., Zhang, R., and Zhang, L. (2024). Stimuli-responsive hydrogels for antibacterial applications. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 13 (22), 2400513. doi:10.1002/adhm.202400513

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hasan, N., Cao, J., Lee, J., Hlaing, S. P., Oshi, M. A., Naeem, M., et al. (2019). Bacteria-targeted clindamycin loaded polymeric nanoparticles: effect of surface charge on nanoparticle adhesion to MRSA, antibacterial activity, and wound healing. Pharmaceutics 11 (5), 236. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics11050236

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hashem, A. H., El-Naggar, M. E., Abdelaziz, A. M., Abdelbary, S., Hassan, Y. R., and Hasanin, M. S. (2023). Bio-based antimicrobial food packaging films based on hydroxypropyl starch/polyvinyl alcohol loaded with the biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 249, 126011. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126011

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

He, Y., Zan, J., He, Z., Bai, X., Shuai, C., and Pan, H. (2024). A photochemically active Cu₂O nanoparticle endows scaffolds with good antibacterial performance by efficiently generating reactive oxygen species. Nanomaterials 14 (5), 452. doi:10.3390/nano14050452

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hojjati-Najafabadi, A., Davar, F., Enteshari, Z., and Hosseini-Koupaei, M. (2021). Antibacterial and photocatalytic behaviour of green synthesis of Zn₀.₉₅Ag₀.₀₅O nanoparticles using herbal medicine extract. Ceram. Int. 47 (22), 31617–31624. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.08.042

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hou, Y., Mushtaq, A., Tang, Z., Dempsey, E., Wu, Y., Lu, Y., et al. (2022). ROS-responsive Ag-TiO₂ hybrid nanorods for enhanced photodynamic therapy of breast cancer and antimicrobial applications. J. Sci. Adv. Mater. Devices 7 (2), 100417. doi:10.1016/j.jsamd.2022.100417

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hu, W. C., Younis, M. R., Zhou, Y., Wang, C., and Xia, X. H. (2020). In situ fabrication of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles/2D MOFs hybrid as nanozyme for antibacterial therapy. Small 16 (23), 2000553. doi:10.1002/smll.202000553

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hu, Y., Chen, Y., Lin, L., Zhang, J., Lan, R., and Wu, B. (2021). Studies on antimicrobial peptide-loaded nanomaterial for root caries restorations to inhibit periodontitis related pathogens in periodontitis care. J. Microencapsul. 38 (2), 89–99. doi:10.1080/02652048.2020.1842528

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Huang, L., Wu, C., Gao, H., Xu, C., Dai, M., Huang, L., et al. (2022). Bacterial multidrug efflux pumps at the frontline of antimicrobial resistance: an overview. Antibiotics 11 (4), 520. doi:10.3390/antibiotics11040520

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ibne Shoukani, H., Nisa, S., Bibi, Y., Ishfaq, A., Ali, A., Alharthi, S., et al. (2024a). Green synthesis of polyethylene glycol coated, ciprofloxacin loaded CuO nanoparticles and its antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 21246. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-72322-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ibne Shoukani, H., Nisa, S., Bibi, Y., Zia, M., Sajjad, A., Ishfaq, A., et al. (2024b). Ciprofloxacin loaded PEG coated ZnO nanoparticles with enhanced antibacterial and wound healing effects. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 4689. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-55306-z

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ibraheem, D. R., Hussein, N. N., Sulaiman, G. M., Mohammed, H. A., Khan, R. A., and Al Rugaie, O. (2022). Ciprofloxacin-loaded silver nanoparticles as potent nano-antibiotics against resistant pathogenic bacteria. Nanomaterials 12 (16), 2808. doi:10.3390/nano12162808

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Imade, E. E., Ajiboye, T. O., Fadiji, A. E., Onwudiwe, D. C., and Babalola, O. O. (2022). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using plantain peel extracts and the evaluation of their antibacterial activity. Sci. Afr. 16, e01152. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01152

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Iudin, D., Vasilieva, M., Knyazeva, E., Korzhikov-Vlakh, V., Demyanova, E., Lavrentieva, A., et al. (2022). Hybrid nanoparticles and composite hydrogel systems for delivery of peptide antibiotics. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23 (5), 2771. doi:10.3390/ijms23052771

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jagadeeshan, S., and Parsanathan, R. (2019). “Nano-metal oxides for antibacterial activity,” in Advanced nanostructured materials for environmental remediation (Cham: Springer International Publishing), 59–90.

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jakubczak, M., Karwowska, E., Rozmysłowska-Wojciechowska, A., Petrus, M., Woźniak, J., Mitrzak, J., et al. (2021). Filtration materials modified with 2D nanocomposites—A new perspective for point-of-use water treatment. Materials 14 (1), 182. doi:10.3390/ma14010182

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jamkhande, P. G., Ghule, N. W., Bamer, A. H., and Kalaskar, M. G. (2019). Metal nanoparticles synthesis: an overview on methods of preparation, advantages and disadvantages, and applications. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 53, 101174. doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101174

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Javaid, S., Ahmad, N. M., Mahmood, A., Nasir, H., Iqbal, M., Ahmad, N., et al. (2021). Cefotaxime loaded polycaprolactone based polymeric nanoparticles with antifouling properties for in-vitro drug release applications. Polymers 13 (13), 2180. doi:10.3390/polym13132180

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jayaramudu, T., and Kokkarachedu, V. (2024). “CuO nanoparticles for antimicrobial/antiviral applications,” in Nanoparticles in modern antimicrobial and antiviral applications (Cham: Springer International Publishing), 97–118.

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jessop, I. A., Perez, Y. P., Jachura, A., Nunez, H., Saldias, C., Isaacs, M., et al. (2021). New hybrid copper nanoparticles/conjugated polyelectrolyte composite with antibacterial activity. Polymers 13 (3), 401. doi:10.3390/polym13030401

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jian, H. J., Wu, R. S., Lin, T. Y., Li, Y. J., Lin, H. J., Harroun, S. G., et al. (2017). Super-cationic carbon quantum dots synthesized from spermidine as an eye drop formulation for topical treatment of bacterial keratitis. ACS Nano 11 (7), 6703–6716. doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b01023

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kadhim, N. J., and Aldujaili, N. H. (2025). Biosynthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using Bacillus thermotolerans and their antimicrobial potential against multidrug-resistant Klebsiella Pneumoniae. J. Nanostructures 15 (3), 1394–1405. doi:10.22052/JNS.2025.03.054

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kalakonda, P., Thodeti, M., Ganneboina, C., Ankathi, K., Kathri, S., Begari, K., et al. (2024). Eco-friendly fabrication of silver nanoparticles for sustainable water purification and antibacterial synergy. Plasmonics 19, 2857–2869. doi:10.1007/s11468-024-02251-2

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kamaraj, C., Naveenkumar, S., Prem, P., Al-Ghanim, K. A., Balashanmugam, P., Priyadharsan, A., et al. (2025). Design and synthesis of magnesium and palladium hybrid nanoparticles using Cyperus rotundus: an assessment of antimicrobial and anticancer applications. J. Industrial Eng. Chem. 142, 329–347. doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2024.07.039

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kapoor, D. U., Sharma, J. B., Gandhi, S. M., Prajapati, B. G., Thanawuth, K., Limmatvapirat, S., et al. (2024). AI-driven design and optimization of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. Sci. Eng. Health Stud. 24, 24010003–010003. doi:10.69598/sehs.18.24010003

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Karahan, H. E., Wiraja, C., Xu, C., Wei, J., Wang, Y., Wang, L., et al. (2018). Graphene materials in antimicrobial nanomedicine: current status and future perspectives. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 7 (13), 1701406. doi:10.1002/adhm.201701406

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Karimadom, B. R., and Kornweitz, H. (2021). Mechanism of producing metallic nanoparticles, with an emphasis on silver and gold nanoparticles, using bottom-up methods. Molecules 26 (10), 2968. doi:10.3390/molecules26102968

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Karthikeyan, C., Sisubalan, N., Varaprasad, K., Aepuru, R., Yallapu, M. M., Viswanathan, M. R., et al. (2022). Hybrid nanoparticles from chitosan and nickel for enhanced biocidal activities. New J. Chem. 46 (27), 13240–13248. doi:10.1039/d2nj02009b

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Keshari, A. K., Srivastava, R., Singh, P., Yadav, V. B., and Nath, G. (2020). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized by Cestrum nocturnum. J. Ayurveda Integr. Med. 11 (1), 37–44. doi:10.1016/j.jaim.2017.11.003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Khan, M., Khan, A. U., Bogdanchikova, N., and Garibo, D. (2021). Antibacterial and antifungal studies of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles against plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita, plant pathogens Ralstonia solanacearum and Fusarium oxysporum. Molecules 26 (9), 2462. doi:10.3390/molecules26092462

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Khane, Y., Albukhaty, S., Sulaiman, G. M., Fennich, F., Bensalah, B., Hafsi, Z., et al. (2024). Fabrication, characterization and application of biocompatible nanocomposites: a review. Eur. Polym. J. 214, 113187. doi:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2024.113187

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Khashan, K. S., Sulaiman, G. M., Abdulameer, F. A., Albukhaty, S., Ibrahem, M. A., Al-Muhimeed, T., et al. (2021). Antibacterial activity of TiO₂ nanoparticles prepared by one-step laser ablation in liquid. Appl. Sci. 11 (10), 4623. doi:10.3390/app11104623

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Korcoban, D., Huang, L. Z., Elbourne, A., Li, Q., Wen, X., Chen, D., et al. (2025). Electroless Ag nanoparticle deposition on TiO₂ nanorod arrays, enhancing photocatalytic and antibacterial properties. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 680, 146–156. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2024.11.079

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumar, R. (2020). Application of nanotechnology in crop disease management. Universe Int. J. Interdiscip. Res. 1 (2).

Google Scholar

Kumar, P., Gautam, S., Bansal, D., and Kaur, R. (2024). Starch-based antibacterial food packaging with ZnO nanoparticle. J. Food Sci. Technol. 61 (1), 178–191. doi:10.1007/s13197-023-05834-9

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumari, K., Singh, H. R., and Sampath, M. K. (2025). Enhanced amoxicillin delivery via artificial intelligence (AI)-based optimized lipid nanoparticles for Helicobacter pylori. Biologia 80 (1), 133–148. doi:10.1007/s11756-024-01825-z

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, Y., Zhang, W., Niu, J., and Chen, Y. (2012). Mechanism of photogenerated reactive oxygen species and correlation with the antibacterial properties of engineered metal-oxide nanoparticles. ACS Nano 6 (6), 5164–5173. doi:10.1021/nn300934k

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, Y., Tan, J., Liu, Z., Wang, G., Zhao, C., Duan, K., et al. (2018). Antibacterial activity and cyto-/tissue-compatibility of micro-/nano-structured titanium decorated with silver nanoparticles. J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 14 (4), 675–687. doi:10.1166/jbn.2018.2482

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, J., Meng, L., Xu, Y., Wang, Y., Xiao, Z., Wang, H., et al. (2023). Hybrid nanoparticles of quaternary ammonium cellulose derivatives and citric acid for enhancing the antibacterial activity of polyvinyl alcohol composites. Cellulose 30 (6), 3625–3638. doi:10.1007/s10570-023-05121-y

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, P. P., Zhang, Y., Wang, C., Wang, S. J., Yan, W. Q., Xiao, D. X., et al. (2023). Promotion of reactive oxygen species activated by nanosilver surface engineering for resistant bacteria-infected skin tissue therapy. Rare Met. 42 (12), 4167–4183. doi:10.1007/s12598-023-02481-z

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, H., Yang, L., Feng, W., Liu, W., Wang, M., Liu, F., et al. (2024). Poly(amino acid)-based drug delivery nanoparticles eliminate methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus via tunable release of antibiotic. Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces 239, 113882. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfb.2024.113882

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, X., Shi, L., Song, Z., Geng, Z., and Yan, Y. (2025). The antibacterial activity and formation mechanism of quercetin-coated silver nanoparticles and protein complex. J. Mol. Struct. 1334, 141878. doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2025.141878

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, J., Miao, L., Zhong, G., Lin, C. H., Dargazangy, R., and Alexander-Katz, A. (2020). Understanding the synergistic effect of physicochemical properties of nanoparticles and their cellular entry pathways. Commun. Biol. 3 (1), 205. doi:10.1038/s42003-020-0917-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Linklater, D. P., Baulin, V. A., Le Guével, X., Fleury, J. B., Hanssen, E., Nguyen, T. H. P., et al. (2020). Antibacterial action of nanoparticles by lethal stretching of bacterial cell membranes. Adv. Mater. 32 (52), 2005679. doi:10.1002/adma.202005679

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Liu, X., Feng, Z., Ran, Z., Zeng, Y., Cao, G., Li, X., et al. (2024). External stimuli-responsive strategies for surface modification of orthopedic implants: killing bacteria and enhancing osteogenesis. ACS Appl. Mater. and Interfaces 16 (49), 67028–67044. doi:10.1021/acsami.3c19149

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lu, L., Liu, Y., Chen, X., Xu, F., Zhang, Q., Yin, Z., et al. (2024). Magnetic field/ultrasound-responsive Fe₃O₄ microbubbles for targeted mechanical/catalytic removal of bacterial biofilms. Nanomaterials 14 (22), 1830. doi:10.3390/nano14221830

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ma, X., and Poma, A. (2025). “Clinical translation and envisioned impact of nanotech for infection control: economy, government policy and public awareness,” in Nanotechnology tools for infection control (Elsevier), 299–392.

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ma, P., Ma, X., Suo, Q., and Chen, F. (2019). Cu NPs@NiF electrode preparation by rapid one-step electrodeposition and its sensing performance for glucose. Sensors Actuators B Chem. 292, 203–209. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2019.04.132

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ma, R., Wang, W., Yang, P., Wang, C., Guo, D., and Wang, K. (2020). In vitro antibacterial activity and cytocompatibility of magnesium-incorporated poly(lactide-co-glycolic acid) scaffolds. Biomed. Eng. OnLine 19, 12. doi:10.1186/s12938-020-0755-x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ma, J., Jiang, L., and Liu, G. (2022). Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles for the treatment of bacterial infection. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomedicine Nanobiotechnology 14 (5), e1825. doi:10.1002/wnan.1825

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ma, H., Wang, K., Zeng, Q., Li, P., Lyu, S., Li, B., et al. (2023). Photocatalytic properties and antibacterial mechanisms of microbial-derived ZnS/CuS nanocomposites. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 11 (6), 111425. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2023.111425

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Maiti, S., Krishnan, D., Barman, G., Ghosh, S. K., and Laha, J. K. (2014). Antimicrobial activities of silver nanoparticles synthesized from Lycopersicon esculentum extract. J. Anal. Sci. Technol. 5, 40–47. doi:10.1186/s40543-014-0040-3

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Malka, E., Perelshtein, I., Lipovsky, A., Shalom, Y., Naparstek, L., Perkas, N., et al. (2013). Eradication of multi-drug resistant bacteria by a novel zn-doped CuO nanocomposite. Small 9 (23), 4069–4076. doi:10.1002/smll.201301081

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Maruthupandy, M., Zuo, Y., Chen, J. S., Song, J. M., Niu, H. L., Mao, C. J., et al. (2017). Synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles (CuO and ZnO NPs) via biological template and their optical sensor applications. Appl. Surf. Sci. 397, 167–174. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.11.118

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Masadeh, M. M., Bany-Ali, N. M., Khanfar, M. S., Alzoubi, K. H., Masadeh, M. M., and Al Momany, E. M. (2025). Synergistic antibacterial effect of ZnO nanoparticles and antibiotics against multidrug-resistant biofilm bacteria. Curr. Drug Deliv. 22 (1), 92–106. doi:10.2174/0115672018279213240110045557

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mba, I. E., and Nweze, E. I. (2021). Nanoparticles as therapeutic options for treating multidrug-resistant bacteria: research progress, challenges, and prospects. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 37, 108–130. doi:10.1007/s11274-021-03070-x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Melkamu, W. W., and Bitew, L. T. (2021). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) JF Gmel plant leaf extract and their antibacterial and anti-oxidant activities. Heliyon 7 (11), e08459. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08459

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Menazea, A. A., and Ahmed, M. K. (2020). Synthesis and antibacterial activity of graphene oxide decorated by silver and copper oxide nanoparticles. J. Mol. Struct. 1218, 128536. doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.128536

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mendes, C. R., Dilarri, G., Forsan, C. F., Sapata, V. D. M. R., Lopes, P. R. M., de Moraes, P. B., et al. (2022). Antibacterial action and target mechanisms of zinc oxide nanoparticles against bacterial pathogens. Sci. Rep. 12 (1), 2658. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06657-y

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Méndez, V., Rodríguez-Castro, L., Durán, R. E., Padrón, G., and Seeger, M. (2022). The OxyR and SoxR transcriptional regulators are involved in a broad oxidative stress response in Paraburkholderia xenovorans LB400. Biol. Res. 55 (1), 7. doi:10.1186/s40659-022-00373-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mishra, S., Gupta, A., Upadhye, V., Singh, S. C., Sinha, R. P., and Häder, D. P. (2023). Therapeutic strategies against biofilm infections. Life 13 (1), 172. doi:10.3390/life13010172

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mohamed, A. A., Abu-Elghait, M., Ahmed, N. E., and Salem, S. S. (2021). Eco-friendly mycogenic synthesis of ZnO and CuO nanoparticles for in vitro antibacterial, antibiofilm, and antifungal applications. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 199 (7), 2788–2799. doi:10.1007/s12011-020-02369-4

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mohammed, M. K., Ahmed, D. S., and Mohammad, M. R. (2019). Studying antimicrobial activity of carbon nanotubes decorated with metal-doped ZnO hybrid materials. Mater. Res. Express 6 (5), 055404. doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab0687

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mohapatra, B., Mohapatra, S., and Sharma, N. (2023). Biosynthesized Ag–ZnO nanohybrids exhibit strong antibacterial activity by inducing oxidative stress. Ceram. Int. 49 (12), 20218–20233. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2023.03.146

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Momtaz, F., Momtaz, E., Mehrgardi, M. A., Momtaz, M., Narimani, T., and Poursina, F. (2024). Enhanced antibacterial properties of polyvinyl alcohol/starch/chitosan films with NiO–CuO nanoparticles for food packaging. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 7356. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-58210-8

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mondal, S. K., Chakraborty, S., Manna, S., and Mandal, S. M. (2024). Antimicrobial nanoparticles: current landscape and future challenges. RSC Pharm. 1 (3), 388–402. doi:10.1039/d4pm00032c

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mosleh, A. T., Kamoun, E. A., El-Moslamy, S. H., Salim, S. A., Zahran, H. Y., Zyoud, S. H., et al. (2024). Performance of Ag-doped CuO nanoparticles for photocatalytic activity applications: synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial activity. Discov. Nano 19 (1), 166. doi:10.1186/s11671-024-04108-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Motsoene, F., Abrahamse, H., and Kumar, S. S. D. (2023). Multifunctional lipid-based nanoparticles for wound healing and antibacterial applications: a review. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 321, 103002. doi:10.1016/j.cis.2023.103002

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Naik, K., Srivastava, P., Deshmukh, K., Monsoor, S. M., and Kowshik, M. (2015). Nanomaterial-based approaches for prevention of biofilm-associated infections on medical devices and implants. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 15 (12), 10108–10119. doi:10.1166/jnn.2015.11688

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Naskar, A., and Kim, K. S. (2022). Photo-stimuli-responsive CuS nanomaterials as cutting-edge platform materials for antibacterial applications. Pharmaceutics 14 (11), 2343. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14112343

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Naz, S., Gul, A., and Zia, M. (2020). Toxicity of copper oxide nanoparticles: a review study. IET Nanobiotechnology 14 (1), 1–13. doi:10.1049/iet-nbt.2019.0176

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nazari, N., and Kashi, F. J. (2021). A novel microbial synthesis of silver nanoparticles: its bioactivity, Ag/Ca-Alg beads as an effective catalyst for decolorization disperse blue 183 from textile industry effluent. Sep. Purif. Technol. 259, 118117. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2020.118117

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ngo, T. D., Le, T. M. H., Nguyen, T. H., Nguyen, T. V., Nguyen, T. A., Le, T. L., et al. (2016). Antibacterial nanocomposites based on Fe3O4–Ag hybrid nanoparticles and natural rubber-polyethylene blends. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2016 (1), 7478161–7478169. doi:10.1155/2016/7478161

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nikzamir, M., Akbarzadeh, A., and Panahi, Y. (2021). An overview on nanoparticles used in biomedicine and their cytotoxicity. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 61, 102316. doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2020.102316

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ogunsona, E. O., Muthuraj, R., Ojogbo, E., Valerio, O., and Mekonnen, T. H. (2020). Engineered nanomaterials for antimicrobial applications: a review. Appl. Mater. Today 18, 100473. doi:10.1016/j.apmt.2019.100473

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Okasha, H., Dahroug, H., Gouda, A. E., and Shemis, M. A. (2023). A novel antibacterial approach of Cecropin-B peptide loaded on chitosan nanoparticles against MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates. Amino Acids 55 (12), 1965–1980. doi:10.1007/s00726-023-03356-4

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Olawade, D. B., Ige, A. O., Olaremu, A. G., Ijiwade, J. O., and Adeola, A. O. (2024). The synergy of artificial intelligence and nanotechnology towards advancing innovation and sustainability—a mini-review. Nano Trends 8, 100052. doi:10.1016/j.nwnano.2024.100052

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Omidian, H., Wilson, R. L., and Castejon, A. M. (2025). Recent advances in peptide-loaded PLGA nanocarriers for drug delivery and regenerative medicine. Pharmaceuticals 18 (1), 127. doi:10.3390/ph18010127

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ortega-Nieto, C., Losada-Garcia, N., Pessela, B. C., Domingo-Calap, P., and Palomo, J. M. (2023). Design and synthesis of copper nanobiomaterials with antimicrobial properties. ACS Bio and Med Chem Au 3 (4), 349–358. doi:10.1021/acsbiomedchemau.2c00089

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Özogul, Y., El Abed, N., and Özogul, F. (2022). Antimicrobial effect of laurel essential oil nanoemulsion on food-borne pathogens and fish spoilage bacteria. Food Chem. 368, 130831. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130831

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pan, Y. X., Xu, Q. H., Xiao, H. M., and Li, C. Y. (2023). Insights into the antibacterial activity and antibacterial mechanism of silver modified fullerene towards Staphylococcus aureus by multiple spectrometric examinations. Chemosphere 342, 140136. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140136

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Panáček, A., Smékalová, M., Večeřová, R., Bogdanová, K., Röderová, M., Kolář, M., et al. (2016). Silver nanoparticles strongly enhance and restore bactericidal activity of inactive antibiotics against multiresistant Enterobacteriaceae. Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces 142, 392–399. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.03.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Parvin, N., Joo, S. W., and Mandal, T. K. (2025). Biodegradable and stimuli-responsive nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery in autoimmune diseases. J. Funct. Biomaterials 16 (1), 24. doi:10.3390/jfb16010024

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Patel, M., Mishra, S., Verma, R., and Shikha, D. (2022). Synthesis of ZnO and CuO nanoparticles via sol-gel method and its characterization by using various technique. Discov. Mater. 2 (1), 1. doi:10.1007/s43939-022-00022-6

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pattanaik, P., Venkatraman, P. D., Tripathy, H. P., Butler, J. A., Mishra, D. K., and Holderbaum, W. (2024). Next generation self-sanitising face coverings: nanomaterials and smart thermo-regulation systems. Textiles 5 (1), 1. doi:10.3390/textiles5010001

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Peng, Z., Ni, J., Zheng, K., Shen, Y., Wang, X., He, G., et al. (2013). Dual effects and mechanism of TiO₂ nanotube arrays in reducing bacterial colonization and enhancing C3H10T1/2 cell adhesion. Int. J. Nanomedicine 8, 3093–3105. doi:10.2147/ijn.s48084

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pernas-Pleite, C., Conejo-Martínez, A. M., Fernández Freire, P., Hazen, M. J., Marín, I., and Abad, J. P. (2023). Microalga broths synthesize antibacterial and non-cytotoxic silver nanoparticles showing synergy with antibiotics and bacterial ROS induction and can be reused for successive AgNP batches. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24 (22), 16183. doi:10.3390/ijms242216183

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pernas-Pleite, C., Conejo-Martínez, A. M., Marín, I., and Abad, J. P. (2025). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from lysinibacillus sp. culture broths: antibacterial activity, mechanism insights, and synergy with classical antibiotics. Biomolecules 15 (5), 731. doi:10.3390/biom15050731

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Philip, D., Unni, C., Aromal, S. A., and Vidhu, V. K. (2011). Murraya koenigii leaf-assisted rapid green synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles. Spectrochimica Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 78 (2), 899–904. doi:10.1016/j.saa.2010.12.060

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pisani, S., Tufail, S., Rosalia, M., Dorati, R., Genta, I., Chiesa, E., et al. (2024). Antibiotic-loaded nano-sized delivery systems: an insight into gentamicin and vancomycin. J. Funct. Biomaterials 15 (7), 194. doi:10.3390/jfb15070194

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Prashanth, G. K., Giresha, A. S., Lalithamba, H. S., Aman, M., Rao, S., Ravindra, K. N., et al. (2025). Sustainable bio-fabrication of Ni/Mn co-doped ZnO nanoparticles using Simarouba glauca leaf extract: evaluation of non-cytotoxic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-tubercular, antibacterial, antioxidant and hyaluronidase inhibition activities. Inorg. Chem. Commun. 171, 113592. doi:10.1016/j.inoche.2024.113592

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pulingam, T., Thong, K. L., Appaturi, J. N., Lai, C. W., and Leo, B. F. (2021). Mechanistic actions and contributing factors affecting the antibacterial property and cytotoxicity of graphene oxide. Chemosphere 281, 130739. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130739

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qi, J., Si, C., Liu, H., Li, H., Kong, C., Wang, Y., et al. (2025). Advances of metal-based nanomaterials in the prevention and treatment of oral infections. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 14, 2500416. doi:10.1002/adhm.202500416

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qiao, R., Roberts, A. P., Mount, A. S., Klaine, S. J., and Ke, P. C. (2007). Translocation of C60 and its derivatives across a lipid bilayer. Nano Lett. 7 (3), 614–619. doi:10.1021/nl062515f

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qiao, Y., Xu, Y., Liu, X., Zheng, Y., Li, B., Han, Y., et al. (2022). Microwave-assisted antibacterial action of Garcinia nanoparticles on Gram-negative bacteria. Nat. Commun. 13 (1), 2461. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-30125-w

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qin, X., Ding, C., Tian, Y., Dong, J., and Cheng, B. (2023). Multifunctional Ti₃C₂T_x MXene/silver nanowire membranes with excellent catalytic, antifouling, and antibacterial properties for nitrophenol-containing water purification. ACS Appl. Mater. and Interfaces 15 (41), 48154–48167. doi:10.1021/acsami.3c09983

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qin, X., Wang, Z., Lai, J., Liang, Y., and Qian, K. (2025). The synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and their applications in enhancing plant stress resistance: a review. Nanomaterials 15 (4), 301. doi:10.3390/nano15040301

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Quiñones-Vico, M. I., Ubago-Rodríguez, A., Fernández-González, A., Sanabria-de la Torre, R., Sierra-Sánchez, Á., Montero-Vilchez, T., et al. (2024). Antibiotic nanoparticles-loaded wound dressings against Pseudomonas aeruginosa’s skin infection: a systematic review. Int. J. Nanomedicine 19, 7895–7926. doi:10.2147/ijn.s469724

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Quintero-Quiroz, C., Acevedo, N., Zapata-Giraldo, J., Botero, L. E., Quintero, J., Zárate-Triviño, D., et al. (2019). Optimization of silver nanoparticle synthesis by chemical reduction and evaluation of its antimicrobial and toxic activity. Biomaterials Res. 23 (1), 27. doi:10.1186/s40824-019-0173-y

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rajasekharan, S. K., and Shemesh, M. (2022). Spatiotemporal bio-shielding of bacteria through consolidated geometrical structuring. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 8 (1), 37. doi:10.1038/s41522-022-00302-2

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ramasamy, M., and Lee, J. (2016). Recent nanotechnology approaches for prevention and treatment of biofilm-associated infections on medical devices. BioMed Res. Int. 2016 (1), 1–17. doi:10.1155/2016/1851242

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ravikumar, V., Mijakovic, I., and Pandit, S. (2022). Antimicrobial activity of graphene oxide contributes to alteration of key stress-related and membrane bound proteins. Int. J. Nanomedicine 17, 6707–6721. doi:10.2147/ijn.s387590

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Remya, R. R., Julius, A., Suman, T. Y., Mohanavel, V., Karthick, A., Pazhanimuthu, C., et al. (2022). Role of nanoparticles in biodegradation and their importance in environmental and biomedical applications. J. Nanomater. 2022 (1), 6090846. doi:10.1155/2022/6090846

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Rezaei, F. Y., Pircheraghi, G., and Nikbin, V. S. (2024). Antibacterial activity, cell wall damage, and cytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanospheres, nanorods, and nanoflowers. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 7 (13), 15242–15254. doi:10.1021/acsanm.4c02046

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Riahi, S., Moussa, N. B., Lajnef, M., Jebari, N., Dabek, A., Chtourou, R., et al. (2023). Bactericidal activity of ZnO nanoparticles against multidrug-resistant bacteria. J. Mol. Liq. 387, 122596. doi:10.1016/j.molliq.2023.122596

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Saeed, S. I., Vivian, L., Zalati, C. S. C., Sani, N. I. M., Aklilu, E., Mohamad, M., et al. (2023). Antimicrobial activities of graphene oxide against biofilm and intracellular Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis. BMC Veterinary Res. 19 (1), 10. doi:10.1186/s12917-022-03560-6

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Saleemi, M. A., Fouladi, M. H., Yong, P. V. C., and Wong, E. H. (2020). Elucidation of antimicrobial activity of non-covalently dispersed carbon nanotubes. Materials 13 (7), 1676. doi:10.3390/ma13071676

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Samadi, N., Hosseini, S. V., Fazeli, A., and Fazeli, M. R. (2010). Synthesis and antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles produced by chemical reduction method. DARU J. Pharm. Sci. 18 (3), 168–172.

Google Scholar

Santhosh, S. K., Sarojini, S., and Umesh, M. (2021). “Anti-biofilm activities of nanocomposites: current scopes and limitations,” in Bio-manufactured nanomaterials: perspectives and promotion (Cham: Springer International Publishing), 83–94.

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Saravanan, H., Subramani, T., Rajaramon, S., David, H., Sajeevan, A., Sujith, S., et al. (2023). Exploring nanocomposites for controlling infectious microorganisms: charting the path forward in antimicrobial strategies. Front. Pharmacol. 14, 1282073. doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1282073

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sarfraz, M. H., Zubair, M., Aslam, B., Ashraf, A., Siddique, M. H., Hayat, S., et al. (2023). Comparative analysis of phyto-fabricated chitosan, copper oxide, and chitosan-based CuO nanoparticles: antibacterial potential against Acinetobacter baumannii isolates and anticancer activity against HepG2 cell lines. Front. Microbiol. 14, 1188743. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1188743

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sathiyaraj, S., Suriyakala, G., Gandhi, A. D., Babujanarthanam, R., Almaary, K. S., Chen, T. W., et al. (2021). Biosynthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity of gold nanoparticles. J. Infect. Public Health 14 (12), 1842–1847. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2021.10.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sati, A., Ranade, T. N., Mali, S. N., Ahmad Yasin, H. K., and Pratap, A. (2025). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs): comprehensive insights into Bio/Synthesis, key influencing factors, multifaceted applications, and toxicity─ A 2024 update. ACS Omega 10, 7549–7582. doi:10.1021/acsomega.4c11045

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Serna-Gallén, P., and Mužina, K. (2024). Metallic nanoparticles at the forefront of research: novel trends in catalysis and plasmonics. Nano Mater. Sci.

Google Scholar

Sezen, S., Ertuğrul, M. S., Balpınar, Ö., Bayram, C., Özkaraca, M., Okkay, I. F., et al. (2023). Assessment of antimicrobial activity and in vitro wound healing potential of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized with Capparis spinosa extract. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30 (55), 117609–117623. doi:10.1007/s11356-023-30417-8

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shaikh, S., Nazam, N., Rizvi, S. M. D., Ahmad, K., Baig, M. H., Lee, E. J., et al. (2019). Mechanistic insights into the antimicrobial actions of metallic nanoparticles and their implications for multidrug resistance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 20 (10), 2468. doi:10.3390/ijms20102468

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shao, J., Wang, B., Li, J., Jansen, J. A., Walboomers, X. F., and Yang, F. (2019). Antibacterial effect and wound healing ability of silver nanoparticles incorporation into chitosan-based nanofibrous membranes. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 98, 1053–1063. doi:10.1016/j.msec.2019.01.073

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sharma, V. K., Sayes, C. M., Guo, B., Pillai, S., Parsons, J. G., Wang, C., et al. (2019). Interactions between silver nanoparticles and other metal nanoparticles under environmentally relevant conditions: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 653, 1042–1051. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.411

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shehabeldine, A. M., Badr, B. M., Elkady, F. M., Watanabe, T., Abdel-Maksoud, M. A., Alamri, A. M., et al. (2025). Anti-virulence properties of curcumin/CuO-NPs and their role in accelerating wound healing in vivo. Medicina 61 (3), 515. doi:10.3390/medicina61030515

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shen, J., Zhu, Y., Yang, X., and Li, C. (2012). Graphene quantum dots: emergent nanolights for bioimaging, sensors, catalysis and photovoltaic devices. Chem. Commun. 48 (31), 3686–3699. doi:10.1039/c2cc00110a

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shen, C., Wang, J., Wu, X., Xu, J., Hu, J., and Reheman, A. (2023). Drug release behavior of poly(amino acid)s drug-loaded nanoparticles with pH-responsive behavior. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 87, 104827. doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104827

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shenasa, N., Hamed Ahmed, M., Abdul Kareem, R., Jaber Zrzor, A., Salah Mansoor, A., Athab, Z. H., et al. (2025). Review of carbonaceous nanoparticles for antibacterial uses in various dental infections. Nanotoxicology 19, 180–215. doi:10.1080/17435390.2025.2454277

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shkodenko, L., Kassirov, I., and Koshel, E. (2020). Metal oxide nanoparticles against bacterial biofilms: perspectives and limitations. Microorganisms 8 (10), 1545. doi:10.3390/microorganisms8101545

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shoudho, K. N., Uddin, S., Rumon, M. M. H., and Shakil, M. S. (2024). Influence of physicochemical properties of iron oxide nanoparticles on their antibacterial activity. ACS Omega 9 (31), 33303–33334. doi:10.1021/acsomega.4c02822

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shrivastava, S., Bera, T., Roy, A., Singh, G., Ramachandrarao, P., and Dash, D. (2007). Retracted: characterization of enhanced antibacterial effects of novel silver nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 18 (22), 225103. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/18/22/225103

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Siddiqi, K. S., Husen, A., and Rao, R. A. (2018). A review on biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biocidal properties. J. Nanobiotechnology 16, 14–28. doi:10.1186/s12951-018-0334-5

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Singh, N. B., and Agarwal, S. (2016). Nanocomposites: an overview. Emerg. Mater. Res. 5 (1), 5–43. doi:10.1680/jemmr.15.00025

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Singh, A., Singh, N. Á., Afzal, S., Singh, T., and Hussain, I. (2018). Zinc oxide nanoparticles: a review of their biological synthesis, antimicrobial activity, uptake, translocation and biotransformation in plants. J. Mater. Sci. 53 (1), 185–201. doi:10.1007/s10853-017-1544-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sinha, A., and Rupachandra, S. (2025). Preparation and characterization of papain loaded phosphatidyl choline-PLGA hybrid nanoparticles as novel drug delivery systems. J. Polym. Environ. 33 (1), 243–252. doi:10.1007/s10924-024-03374-7

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Składanowski, M., Golinska, P., Rudnicka, K., Dahm, H., and Rai, M. (2016). Evaluation of cytotoxicity, immune compatibility and antibacterial activity of biogenic silver nanoparticles. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 205, 603–613. doi:10.1007/s00430-016-0477-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sobh, R. A., Magar, H. S., Fahim, A. M., El-Masry, H. M., and Hashem, M. S. (2025). Fabrication and evaluation of polyacrylate nanocomposites embedded with metal oxides as enhanced multipurpose nanocarriers for long-term anti-inflammatory and amazing antimicrobial properties. Appl. Organomet. Chem. 39 (3), e7862. doi:10.1002/aoc.7862

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Song, J., Kang, H., Lee, C., Hwang, S. H., and Jang, J. (2012). Aqueous synthesis of silver nanoparticle embedded cationic polymer nanofibers and their antibacterial activity. ACS Appl. Mater. and Interfaces 4 (1), 460–465. doi:10.1021/am201563t

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sun, H., Wu, L., Wei, W., and Qu, X. (2013). Recent advances in graphene quantum dots for sensing. Mater. Today 16 (11), 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.mattod.2013.10.020

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Suvarna, V., Nair, A., Mallya, R., Khan, T., and Omri, A. (2022). Antimicrobial nanomaterials for food packaging. Antibiotics 11 (6), 729. doi:10.3390/antibiotics11060729

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Takahashi, C., Ogawa, N., Kawashima, Y., and Yamamoto, H. (2015). Observation of antibacterial effect of biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles on Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm using FE-SEM with an ionic liquid. Microscopy 64 (3), 169–180. doi:10.1093/jmicro/dfv010

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Tariq, H., and Bokhari, S. A. I. (2020). Surface-functionalised hybrid nanoparticles for targeted treatment of cancer. IET Nanobiotechnology 14 (7), 537–547. doi:10.1049/iet-nbt.2020.0073

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Thakral, F., Bhatia, G. K., Tuli, H. S., Sharma, A. K., and Sood, S. (2021). Zinc oxide nanoparticles: from biosynthesis, characterization, and optimization to synergistic antibacterial potential. Curr. Pharmacol. Rep. 7, 15–25. doi:10.1007/s40495-021-00248-7

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Thapa, M., and Choudhury, S. R. (2021). Green synthesized nanoparticles: physicochemical properties and mode of antimicrobial activities. Compr. Anal. Chem. 94, 49–79. doi:10.1016/bs.coac.2020.12.006

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Thi, T. U. D., Nguyen, T. T., Thi, Y. D., Thi, K. H. T., Phan, B. T., and Pham, K. N. (2020). Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using orange fruit peel extract for antibacterial activities. RSC Adv. 10 (40), 23899–23907. doi:10.1039/d0ra04926c

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Timoszyk, A., and Grochowalska, R. (2022). Mechanism and antibacterial activity of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) functionalized with natural compounds from plants. Pharmaceutics 14 (12), 2599. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14122599

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Tirkey, A., Ningthoujam, R., Chanu, B. L., Singh, Y. D., Heisnam, P., and Babu, P. J. (2022). “Polymeric nanoparticles and nanocomposites as antibacterial agents,” in Alternatives to antibiotics: recent trends and future prospects (Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore), 305–328.

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Vahdati, M., and Tohidi Moghadam, T. (2020). Synthesis and characterization of selenium nanoparticles-lysozyme nanohybrid system with synergistic antibacterial properties. Sci. Rep. 10 (1), 510. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-57333-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Vaishampayan, A., and Grohmann, E. (2021). Antimicrobials functioning through ROS-mediated mechanisms: current insights. Microorganisms 10 (1), 61. doi:10.3390/microorganisms10010061

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Veriato, T. S., Fontoura, I., Oliveira, L. D., Raniero, L. J., and Castilho, M. L. (2023). Nano-antibiotic based on silver nanoparticles functionalized to the vancomycin–cysteamine complex for treating Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. Pharmacol. Rep. 75 (4), 951–961. doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00491-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wahab, A., Muhammad, M., Ullah, S., Abdi, G., Shah, G. M., Zaman, W., et al. (2024). Agriculture and environmental management through nanotechnology: eco-friendly nanomaterial synthesis for soil-plant systems, food safety, and sustainability. Sci. Total Environ. 926, 171862. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171862

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wan, F., Draz, M. S., Gu, M., Yu, W., Ruan, Z., and Luo, Q. (2021a). Novel strategy to combat antibiotic resistance: a sight into the combination of CRISPR/Cas9 and nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics 13 (3), 352. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics13030352

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wan, F., Feng, X., Yin, J., and Gao, H. (2021b). Distinct H₂O₂-scavenging system in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis: KatG and AhpC act together to scavenge endogenous hydrogen peroxide. Front. Microbiol. 12, 626874. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.626874

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, C., Wei, X., Zhong, L., Chan, C. L., Li, H., and Sun, H. (2025). Metal-based approaches for the fight against antimicrobial resistance: mechanisms, opportunities, and challenges. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147 (15), 12361–12380. doi:10.1021/jacs.4c16035

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, L., Hu, C., and Shao, L. (2017). The antimicrobial activity of nanoparticles: present situation and prospects for the future. Int. J. Nanomedicine 12, 1227–1249. doi:10.2147/ijn.s121956

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, L., Li, S., Yin, J., Yang, J., Li, Q., Zheng, W., et al. (2020). The density of surface coating can contribute to different antibacterial activities of gold nanoparticles. Nano Lett. 20 (7), 5036–5042. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01196

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, L., Liu, L., and Zhou, X. (2021). Bacitracin-Ag nanoclusters as a novel antibacterial agent combats Shigella flexneri by disrupting cell membrane and inhibiting biofilm formation. Nanomaterials 11 (11), 2928. doi:10.3390/nano11112928

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, X., Xia, Z., Wang, H., Wang, D., Sun, T., Hossain, E., et al. (2023). Cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles for the fight against pathogenic bacteria, toxins, and inflammatory cytokines associated with sepsis. Theranostics 13 (10), 3224–3244. doi:10.7150/thno.81520

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, H., Li, G., and Fakhri, A. (2020). Fabrication and structural of the Ag₂S-MgO/graphene oxide nanocomposites with high photocatalysis and antimicrobial activities. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 207, 111882. doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.111882

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang P, P., Zeng, Y., Liu, J., Wang, L., Yang, M., and Zhou, J. (2025). Antimicrobial and anti-biofilm effects of dihydroartemisinin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Microb. Pathog. 199, 107208. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2024.107208

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, X., Xuan, S., Ding, K., Jin, P., Zheng, Y., and Wu, Z. (2024). Photothermal controlled antibacterial Ta₄C₃Tx-AgNPs/nanocellulose bioplastic food packaging. Food Chem. 448, 139126. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139126

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, Y. L., Lee, Y. H., Chou, C. L., Chang, Y. S., Liu, W. C., and Chiu, H. W. (2024). Oxidative stress and potential effects of metal nanoparticles: a review of biocompatibility and toxicity concerns. Environ. Pollut. 346, 123617. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123617

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Warangkar, S. C., Deshpande, M. R., Totewad, N. D., and Singh, A. A. (2022). Antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral nanocomposites: recent advances and mechanisms of action. Biocomposites-Recent Adv. doi:10.5772/intechopen.108994

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Werner, M., Auth, T., Beales, P. A., Fleury, J. B., Höök, F., Kress, H., et al. (2018). Nanomaterial interactions with biomembranes: bridging the gap between soft matter models and biological context. Biointerphases 13 (2), 028501. doi:10.1116/1.5022145

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wohlmuth, J., Tekielska, D., Hakalová, E., Čechová, J., Bytešníková, Z., Richtera, L., et al. (2024). Eliminating the pathogen Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae from carrot seeds using different types of nanoparticles. Agriculture 14 (3), 498. doi:10.3390/agriculture14030498

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wu, S., Rajeshkumar, S., Madasamy, M., and Mahendran, V. (2020). Green synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Cissus vitiginea and its antioxidant and antibacterial activity against urinary tract infection pathogens. Artif. Cells, Nanomedicine, Biotechnol. 48 (1), 1153–1158. doi:10.1080/21691401.2020.1817053

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wu, Z., Stangl, S., Hernandez-Schnelzer, A., Wang, F., Hasanzadeh Kafshgari, M., Bashiri Dezfouli, A., et al. (2023). Functionalized hybrid iron oxide–gold nanoparticles targeting membrane Hsp70 radiosensitize triple-negative breast cancer cells by ROS-mediated apoptosis. Cancers 15 (4), 1167. doi:10.3390/cancers15041167

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xie, M., Gao, M., Yun, Y., Malmsten, M., Rotello, V. M., Zboril, R., et al. (2023). Antibacterial nanomaterials: mechanisms, impacts on antimicrobial resistance and design principles. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 (17), e202217345. doi:10.1002/anie.202217345

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xu, Y., Wei, M. T., Ou-Yang, H. D., Walker, S. G., Wang, H. Z., Gordon, C. R., et al. (2016). Exposure to TiO₂ nanoparticles increases Staphylococcus aureus infection of HeLa cells. J. Nanobiotechnology 14, 34–16. doi:10.1186/s12951-016-0184-y

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xu, X. J., Cui, R., Liu, Y. Y., Liu, W. R., Wang, Z. L., Li, C. M., et al. (2025). Regulation of alkyl hydroperoxidase D by AhpdR in the antioxidant enzyme system of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biochem. Biophysical Res. Commun. 763, 151797. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2025.151797

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xuan, L., Ju, Z., Skonieczna, M., Zhou, P. K., and Huang, R. (2023). Nanoparticles-induced potential toxicity on human health: applications, toxicity mechanisms, and evaluation models. MedComm 4 (4), e327. doi:10.1002/mco2.327

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xue, Q., Wu, Z., Wang, W., Sun, K., Wang, C., Wang, C., et al. (2025). Magnesium oxide nanoparticle-enhanced bioactive 3D-printed denture resins: optimized antifungal performance and improved clinical applicability. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 726, 137992. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2025.137992

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yan, X., Zhou, M., Yu, S., Jin, Z., and Zhao, K. (2020). An overview of biodegradable nanomaterials and applications in vaccines. Vaccine 38 (5), 1096–1104. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.11.031

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, W., Shen, C., Ji, Q., An, H., Wang, J., Liu, Q., et al. (2009). Food storage material silver nanoparticles interfere with DNA replication fidelity and bind with DNA. Nanotechnology 20 (8), 085102. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/20/8/085102

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, C., Wang, Z., Gao, Y., Li, M., Li, Y., Dai, C., et al. (2022). EGCG-coated silver nanoparticles self-assemble with selenium nanowires for treatment of drug-resistant bacterial infections by generating ROS and disrupting biofilms. Nanotechnology 33 (41), 415101. doi:10.1088/1361-6528/ac7db0

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yao, Z., Zhang, S., Zhang, Z., Wan, Q., Sun, T., and Gao, G. (2025). Effect of ligand length on antibacterial activity of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles. ACS Mater. Lett. 7 (4), 1520–1525. doi:10.1021/acsmaterialslett.4c02608

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yaşayan, G., Alarcin, E., Avci-Adali, M., Ipek, T. C., Nejati, O., Özcan-Bülbül, E., et al. (2024). “Biocompatibility and toxicity challenges of nanomaterials,” in Functionalized nanomaterials for cancer research (Academic Press), 603–631.

Google Scholar

Yassin, A. E., Albekairy, A.M., Omer, M. E., Almutairi, A., Alotaibi, Y., Althuwaini, S., et al. (2023). Chitosan-coated azithromycin/ciprofloxacin-loaded polycaprolactone nanoparticles: a characterization and potency study. Nanotechnol. Sci. Appl. 16, 59–72. doi:10.2147/nsa.s438484

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yeh, Y. C., Huang, T. H., Yang, S. C., Chen, C. C., and Fang, J. Y. (2020). Nano-based drug delivery or targeting to eradicate bacteria for infection mitigation: a review of recent advances. Front. Chem. 8, 286. doi:10.3389/fchem.2020.00286

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yılmaz, G. E., Göktürk, I., Ovezova, M., Yılmaz, F., Kılıç, S., and Denizli, A. (2023). Antimicrobial nanomaterials: a review. Hygiene 3 (3), 269–290. doi:10.3390/hygiene3030020

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yin, J., Geng, Q., Xiao, X., Wang, S., Meng, L., Deng, N., et al. (2024). Mussel-inspired antibacterial sponge for highly efficient water purification and sterilization. J. Hazard. Mater. 461, 132598. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132598

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ying, S., Guan, Z., Ofoegbu, P. C., Clubb, P., Rico, C., He, F., et al. (2022). Green synthesis of nanoparticles: current developments and limitations. Environ. Technol. and Innovation 26, 102336. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2022.102336

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yu, S., Pan, J., Xu, M., Chen, Y., Li, P., and Hu, H. (2024). Antibacterial activity and mechanism of colistin-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for combating multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: a synergistic approach. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 282, 136757. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136757

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zare, I., Nasab, S. Z., Rahi, A., Ghaee, A., Koohkhezri, M., Farani, M. R., et al. (2025). Antimicrobial carbon materials-based quantum dots: from synthesis strategies to antibacterial properties for diagnostic and therapeutic applications in wound healing. Coord. Chem. Rev. 522, 216211. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2024.216211

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Q., and Yin, Y. (2013). Beyond spheres: murphy's silver nanorods and nanowires. Chem. Commun. 49 (3), 215–217. doi:10.1039/c2cc34733d

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Z., Zhang, J., Zhang, B., and Tang, J. (2013). Mussel-inspired functionalization of graphene for synthesizing ag-polydopamine-graphene nanosheets as antibacterial materials. Nanoscale 5 (1), 118–123. doi:10.1039/c2nr32092d

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Y., Shareena Dasari, T. P., Deng, H., and Yu, H. (2015). Antimicrobial activity of gold nanoparticles and ionic gold. J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part C 33 (3), 286–327. doi:10.1080/10590501.2015.1055161

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, J., Tang, W., Zhang, X., Song, Z., and Tong, T. (2023). An overview of stimuli-responsive intelligent antibacterial nanomaterials. Pharmaceutics 15 (8), 2113. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics15082113

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, X., Wu, X., Zhang, J., Xu, H., and Yu, X. (2024). Recent progress in graphitic carbon nitride-based materials for antibacterial applications: synthesis, mechanistic insights, and utilization. Microstructures 4 (2), N–A. doi:10.20517/microstructures.2023.77

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, J., Zhang, X., Yao, Z., Pan, J., Ye, J., Xia, P., et al. (2025). Gold nanoparticles functionalized with 5-Amino-2-Mercaptobenzimidazole: a promising antimicrobial strategy against carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria. Int. J. Nanomedicine 20, 2485–2504. doi:10.2147/ijn.s502139

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhao, R., Kong, W., Sun, M., Yang, Y., Liu, W., Lv, M., et al. (2018). Highly stable graphene-based nanocomposite (GO–PEI–Ag) with broad-spectrum, long-term antimicrobial activity and antibiofilm effects. ACS Appl. Mater. and Interfaces 10 (21), 17617–17629. doi:10.1021/acsami.8b03185

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zheng, S., Tu, Y., Li, B., Qu, G., Li, A., Peng, X., et al. (2025). Antimicrobial peptide biological activity, delivery systems and clinical translation status and challenges. J. Transl. Med. 23 (1), 292. doi:10.1186/s12967-025-06321-9

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhou, Y., Kong, Y., Kundu, S., Cirillo, J. D., and Liang, H. (2012). Antibacterial activities of gold and silver nanoparticles against Escherichia coli and Bacillus Calmette-Guérin. J. Nanobiotechnology 10, 1–9. doi:10.1186/1477-3155-10-19

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhu, S., Song, Y., Zhao, X., Shao, J., Zhang, J., and Yang, B. (2015). The photoluminescence mechanism in carbon dots (graphene quantum dots, carbon nanodots, and polymer dots): current state and future perspective. Nano Res. 8, 355–381. doi:10.1007/s12274-014-0644-3

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhu, X., Li, Y., and Gu, N. (2023). Application of artificial intelligence in the exploration and optimization of biomedical nanomaterials. Nano Biomed. and Eng. 15 (3), 342–353. doi:10.26599/nbe.2023.9290035

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zielińska, A., Carreiró, F., Oliveira, A. M., Neves, A., Pires, B., Venkatesh, D. N., et al. (2020). Polymeric nanoparticles: production, characterization, toxicology and ecotoxicology. Molecules 25 (16), 3731. doi:10.3390/molecules25163731

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zou, X., Zhang, L., Wang, Z., and Luo, Y. (2016). Mechanisms of the antimicrobial activities of graphene materials. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (7), 2064–2077. doi:10.1021/jacs.5b11411

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar