Wildfire erosion as a pathway for endocrine disrupting chemical contamination in watersheds: a scoping review

Synthetic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are pervasive micropollutants found in aquatic, terrestrial, and anthropogenic systems that cause irreversible damage to human and wildlife hormonal function. Although research is underway to monitor EDCs in water, the effect of wildfire erosion on EDC contamination in watersheds is underexplored. Wildfires modify soil and vegetation properties, often leading to increased erosion and sediment, especially following rainfall. Some synthetic EDCs that are known to persist in watersheds are heat-resistant and mobile, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), per- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Wildfires have the potential to transport and concentrate EDCs from terrestrial environments into aquatic systems via post-fire runoff. A scoping review was conducted in Elsevier Scopus to assess knowledge on wildfire-related mobilization of synthetic EDCs. Six target chemical groups were searched using broad wildfire-associated terms. From 164 screened records, 11 met inclusion criteria. The available studies spanned several EDC groups and focused largely on air (n = 8) and soil (n = 4) matrices, with some work involving biota. No research examined EDC transport in aquatic environments. Based on the evidence identified through this scoping review, we propose that wildfire-driven erosion may increase EDC transport into watersheds, posing a cumulative and significant threat to water quality. In response to these findings, we present a targeted post-wildfire EDC monitoring panel to support early detection and timely management actions. We also outline key research priorities to advance understanding of EDC behavior in post-fire landscapes. We aim to alert water quality monitoring professionals to this underrecognized hazard and to highlight the urgent need for focused research on its implications for both public and environmental health.

1 Endocrine disruptor pollution as a threat to watershed ecosystems and water quality

Globally, wildfire events and frequent fire-prone conditions are expected to increase by 29% by the end of the 21st century (Senande-Rivera et al., 2022). Toxic chemicals enter the air, land, and water during wildfires, either through the creation of new toxins or by releasing contaminants already present in the environment (Barros et al., 2022; Kieta et al., 2023). The rising frequency and intensity of wildfires amplify the risk of post-fire contamination, with water quality degradation emerging as a critical threat to both public health and ecological systems (Basso et al., 2022). Anthropogenic EDCs contaminate the geosphere, invading even the most remote ecosystems of the Mariana Trench and Arctic Circle (Cui et al., 2020; Muir et al., 2025). EDCs comprise a broad and chemically diverse group of substances differing significantly in structure, function, and environmental behavior, and are defined by their ability to disrupt hormonal function (La Merrill et al., 2020; Metcalfe et al., 2022a). Some EDCs have characteristics of mobility and persistency, making them capable of easy transport and resistance to breakdown, especially in aquatic systems (Chirsir et al., 2024). Anthropogenic EDCs contaminate ecosystems through vast sources including pesticides, agricultural activities, plasticizers, industrial chemicals, firefighting foam, and building supplies (Metcalfe et al., 2022a). Substantial evidence shows that EDCs, even at trace concentrations, interfere with reproduction and development across all major vertebrate groups and numerous invertebrate species (Marlatt et al., 2022).

Anthropogenic EDCs are a priority for investigation and monitoring by the European Union (EU) due to the evidence of bioaccumulation in humans and adverse health risks, including reproductive dysfunction, cancer, and cognitive deficiencies (European Commission, Trinomics B.V., Directorate-General for Environment, 2023). In the EU's Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation, substances with endocrine disrupting properties are substances of very high concern (European Parliament, 2006). In 2023 the EU updated the Classification, Labeling and Packaging (CLP) Regulation for chemical substances with new hazard classes, resulting in 4 hazard classes, the first two addressing endocrine disruptors to humans and endocrine disruptors to the environment (European Commission, 2023).

Despite regulatory efforts, millions of tons of persistent EDCs have been produced over the past century, many of which resist degradation and continue to accumulate in the environment (Evich et al., 2022; Lohmann et al., 2007). As of November 2024, over half (53%) of EU surface waters and 22% of groundwater failed to meet the Water Framework Directive (WFD) criteria for good chemical status, with EDCs contributing to the contamination (European Environment Agency, 2024). Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive understanding of all routes by which EDCs infiltrate aquatic environments to inform targeted and effective remediation strategies. While research into wildfire effects on water quality is advancing, the potential for wildfires to drive the transport and accumulation of anthropogenic EDCs in water systems is still understudied.

Within a watershed, multiple land uses may act as both reservoirs and active sources of EDCs (Gong et al., 2021; Metcalfe et al., 2022a). Soil and vegetation can function as natural sinks, capturing and retaining EDCs from atmospheric deposition, thereby mitigating widespread transport (Di Guardo et al., 2003; Salamova and Hites, 2013; Xu et al., 2024). In contrast, agricultural and developed areas serve as active EDC sources, releasing them into the environment through activities such as pesticide application, industrial processes, and routine modern living (Ismanto et al., 2022; Metcalfe et al., 2022a). We propose that wildfires interrupt the balance between these retaining and emitting zones, playing a critical role in determining the mobility and fate of EDCs within watershed systems (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Mobility and fate of EDCs within watershed systems impacted by wildfire. (A) EDC retaining and emitting zones with vegetation and soil serving as sinks and agriculture, industry, and urban zones as EDC sources. (B) Wildfire destruction of EDC retaining and emitting zones, initiating the remobilization of heat-resistant EDCs. (C) Runoff transports EDCs into aquatic systems, polluting surface water and groundwater.

Fires significantly alter watershed dynamics by releasing soluble forms of nutrients, transforming soil composition, and increasing erosion rates and surface runoff (Paul et al., 2022). These changes can lead to elevated particle transport and suspended sediment loads, introducing pollutants into waterways at concentrations that may exceed pre-fire levels by orders of magnitude (Robinne et al., 2020; Sherson et al., 2015). Post-fire pollutant concentrations have been documented to exceed aquatic life protection criteria, drinking water quality standards, and regulatory limits for finished drinking water (Paul et al., 2022). Precipitation events following wildfire act as a mobilizing force, transporting contaminants from fire-affected areas downstream into drainage basins, compounding harm to aquatic ecosystems and species (Paul et al., 2022; Rust et al., 2018).

Watershed management teams across urban, peri-urban, and rural zones have the significant challenge of addressing the risk of post-wildfire EDC contamination and implications for water quality protection. Urbanized zones are dominated by construction materials and synthetic substances, including EDCs (Metcalfe et al., 2022a). The combustion of transportation infrastructures, utilities, and household materials combined with stormwater runoff leads to potentially hazardous chemical pollution (Paul et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022). In the review by Paul et al. (2022), only a limited number of studies were identified that examined pollutants mobilized from wildfire-impacted urban areas. One study reported benzene concentrations 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than drinking water standards, likely resulting from the thermal degradation of plastic materials (Macler et al., 2020; Paul et al., 2022). Similarly, Wang et al. (2022) analyzed stormwater collected following the October 2017 Northern California wildfires and identified synthetic pollutants in wastewater attributable to wildfire activity. These findings emphasize the threat of post-wildfire chemical contamination to effective water quality management.

Given the omnipresent EDC contamination in the environment, and some EDCs demonstrating heat-resistant and highly mobile characteristics, it is likely that wildfires followed by rainfall are creating surge events that transport an increased volume of EDCs into aquatic systems (Figure 1). EDC pollution poses significant risks to drinking water safety, food security (including livestock water sources and aquaculture), wildlife and biodiversity health, recreational water use, and public health in surrounding communities.

2 Scoping review of EDC fate and transport following wildfires

This scoping review was conducted in Elsevier Scopus using an exploratory search strategy that employed broad keywords and synonyms to maximize inclusiveness of results (Table 1). No time restrictions were applied, and all document types and languages were included in the search query; all retrieved records were subsequently screened. The chemical groups listed in Table 1 were selected for this scoping review based on the following criteria: (1) a strong association between exposures and endocrine effects (Metcalfe et al., 2022b), (2) intentional manufacturing of the chemicals, (3) characteristics of high thermal stability, mobility, and persistency in the environment, (4) capability for analysis in environmental media. Chemicals that are unintentional products of industrial or human activities, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are outside of the scope of this article. For the purposes of this review, documents were defined as “relevant records” if they examined how wildfires influence the transport, redistribution, or fate of the pertinent chemical group (Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Summary of Elsevier Scopus search findings using the Title-Abstract-Keyword parameters.

Few publications examined the mechanisms of wildfire transport of human-synthesized EDCs, with most existing research focusing on air and soil matrices (Table 1). Of the 164 records screened, 11 publications addressed how wildfires influence the transport of the selected chemical group. Among these, 8 studies focused on the air matrix, 4 on soil, 2 on biota, and none investigated transport within the aquatic matrix. The majority of studies examined persistent organic pollutants (POP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), with a few addressing organochlorine pollutants (OCP), PBDE, and per- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). No studies were found that investigated bisphenols or used the term “endocrine disrupt^*” in their search fields.

Studies investigating air contamination consistently report that wildfires contribute to the mobilization of anthropogenic EDCs through biomass burning (Table 1). For example, a study in the Himalayan region found that OCPs previously stored in vegetation were released and remobilized by wildfire, with revolatilization as the primary mechanism of emission (Xu et al., 2024). A study in the Arctic concluded that wildfires increase POP emissions, with local wildfire sources contributing 55.8% and long-range wildfire transport accounting for 13.8% of the observed contamination (Gou et al., 2024).

In a Mediterranean forest investigation, researchers quantified polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in soil and sediment following a wildfire. They reported post-fire mobilization of PBDEs through sediment transport triggered by subsequent rainfall events, providing evidence of EDC mobility within a watershed under wildfire erosion conditions. The researchers found that PBDE and PFAS compounds were present in soil from both burned and control sites, demonstrating the ubiquitous contamination of PBDE and PFAS substances in the watershed. The team concluded that contaminant transport was varied and they predicted that the nature of the compounds influenced transport (Campo et al., 2017). A research team in North America analyzed soil samples from two communities affected by post-wildfire flooding and found elevated PFAS concentrations in areas impacted by flooding (Chukwuonye et al., 2024).

These studies shed light on the pathways through which wildfires can mobilize anthropogenic EDCs; however, substantial knowledge gaps remain. The combustion of woody biomass, although not addressed in the reviewed studies, is a likely source of EDC contamination following wildfire. Through long-range atmospheric transport (LRT), forests function as sinks for persistent EDCs, leading to bioaccumulation even in remote forested regions (Chen et al., 2020; Cindoruk et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2024). When these forests burn, contaminants may be reintroduced into the environment, contributing to the chemical composition of post-fire runoff and dissolved organic matter (DOM).

The chemical and molecular characterization of wildfire ash is critical to understanding the composition and sources of small organic molecules in DOM. A suite of benzene polycarboxylic acids (BPCA) and a pyridine carboxylic acid (PCA) were identified for the first time in both ash leachates and surface waters, demonstrating the compounds are not confined to the ash, but they can leach into aquatic systems (Ferrer et al., 2021). The study identified woody biomass as a key precursor for the formation of BPCA and polycarboxylic acids PCA. Subsequent work demonstrated that wildfire-derived organic compounds can be reliably quantified in surface waters using a high-resolution LC/Q-TOF-MS methodology, with total concentrations of approximately 200 μg/L (Ferrer and Thurman, 2023). By enabling the quantification and tracing of wildfire-derived organic matter, these approaches provide a framework for identifying pathways and potential concentrations of EDCs in aquatic systems.

Notably, we found no publications addressing the transport and accumulation of EDCs in aquatic systems, their biogeochemical cycling within ecosystems, and the comprehensive cross-media movement of these contaminants through air, soil, biota, ash, and water matrices.

3 Proposed EDC monitoring framework in the absence of regulations

Given the limited knowledge and investigation into how wildfires mobilize synthetic EDC contamination in post-fire environments, there is a critical need for action within the scientific and water quality communities. Monitoring regulations for many anthropogenic EDCs are inadequate in keeping up with contamination threats, and likely contribute to the knowledge gap. For example, in October 2022, the European Commission proposed quality standards for priority pollutants due to the significant risk they pose to or through the aquatic environment, based on a recommendation from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and with support from the European Commission Scientific Committee on Health, Environment and Emerging Risks (European Commission, 2023). The 74 proposed toxins to be regulated include the sum of 24 PFAS in surface water and groundwater, in addition to Bisphenol A (BPA), yet these quality standards have not been implemented. Currently, in the United States (US) there are no federally enforceable limits for PFAS in surface or groundwater. In 2024, the EPA published recommended values for aquatic life criteria, with guidance for states and tribes to adopt the criteria into enforceable local regulations, in addition to recommended water quality criteria for approximately 150 pollutants (US EPA, 2024).

Water monitoring specialists, in particular, have a key opportunity to advance discovery by incorporating targeted EDC panels into post-fire water sampling protocols. To support this effort, we offer an EDC monitoring panel that can be incorporated into existing frameworks (Table 2). This panel is informed by current analytical capabilities and focuses on EDCs with characteristics of high mobility, heat resistance, and environmental persistence—traits that make them especially concerning for aquatic ecosystems. The selection of analytes is guided by the availability of environmental quality standards and certified reference materials. The selected compounds are highly relevant to public health, offering a proactive approach to safeguarding both human and ecological well-being. In addition to following local protocols for reporting findings, research groups may consider sharing results with open-source collaboratives aiming to advance data transparency and knowledge.

Table 2

Table 2. EDC monitoring panel with EQS sources for implementation into existing frameworks.

4 Key areas to investigate synthetic endocrine disruptor threat to watersheds

As wildfires increasingly threaten densely populated regions and vulnerable ecosystems, there is a critical need to understand the extent and impact of contamination risks to humans, wildlife, and the environment. This scoping review highlights a critical research gap concerning the fate and transport of synthetic EDCs following wildfires, particularly within aquatic environments. As summarized by Paul et al. (2022), water quality responses are driven by hydrological processes and although there is potential for aerial deposition to occur, pollutants are most often moved by water. Addressing these knowledge gaps is essential for developing effective prevention strategies and enhancing post-fire watershed and water quality management. We propose five key areas to advance scholarship and inform decision makers:

• Evaluate and characterize cross-media transport mechanisms of EDCs between air, soil, ash, biota, and water, within the watershed.

• Advance field detection and monitoring, including bioassays, biosensors, bioindicators, rainwater, and ash analysis, integrated into existing water programs.

• Develop geospatial risk maps combining wildfire occurrence with EDC use in industrial, urban, and agricultural areas.

• Model EDC biogeochemical cycling, incorporating wildfire events and extreme weather as mobilization triggers.

• Evaluate and optimize containment and remediation strategies, from natural filters (wetlands) to innovative solutions such as phytoremediation and adsorbents.

5 Conclusion

There is an urgent need to investigate and monitor the occurrence and behavior of synthetic EDCs in aquatic systems within wildfire-impacted watersheds. The ecotoxicology community has advocated over the years that released chemicals do not abide by national borders (Groh et al., 2022), they have the potential to threaten vital planetary system processes (Persson et al., 2022), and current ecotoxicological risk assessments are flawed with survival endpoints that neglect fitness and sublethal effects (Straub et al., 2020). These collective messages demand a paradigm shift in the responsibility of humanity for stewarding the resources on Earth, both for the current population and future generations.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

HF: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MM: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was funded and supported by the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and the Portuguese Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC) through projects UIDB/50009/2025, UIDP/50009/2025 and LA/P/0083/2020.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to John Fitzhugh, Ann Spencer, Glenn Spencer, Dr. Robert Sluka, Dr. Ana Clara Santos, and Dr. Jorge Brito.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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