Water-centered ecotourism planning: ecohydrological capacity and institutional barriers in a semiarid metropolis

Balancing ecotourism development with water resource sustainability is an urgent challenge for semiarid cities experiencing escalating water stress. Tehran, a rapidly expanding Middle Eastern metropolis, has faced acute water scarcity in recent years, making water-entered planning critical for sustainable tourism. This study combines ecological capability evaluation (ECE), GIS-based multi-criteria analysis, and institutional review to delineate suitable zones for ecotourism. Twenty-three indicators across physical, ecohydrological, and socio-economic dimensions were weighted using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and integrated through Weighted Linear Combination (WLC). Results showed a clear spatial polarization: northern highlands and river valleys, with higher precipitation and abundant surface water, were identified as the most suitable areas for both intensive and extensive ecotourism, while southern plains with chronic water scarcity and flood risk were classified as unsuitable. More than 60% of intensive ecotourism zones are located within 1 km of perennial rivers, underscoring the decisive role of surface water. Extensive ecotourism suitability was more strongly associated with upland regions combining groundwater accessibility and higher rainfall. This study shows that water is not merely a limiting resource but the strategic axis around which ecotourism planning in semiarid cities must be organized. The framework developed here provides a decision-support tool for Tehran and offers transferable guidance for semiarid metropolitan regions confronting water scarcity and uncoordinated land-use expansion.

1 Introduction

In recent decades, ecotourism has gained prominence as a strategic tool for advancing sustainable development goals, conserving natural resources, and empowering local communities (Suyadnya et al., 2025). As a nature-based form of tourism, its effectiveness hinges on the careful assessment of ecological land suitability to prevent environmental degradation and land-use conflicts (Akbari et al., 2024). Among the most critical factors in ecotourism site selection are ecohydrological indicators—such as surface and groundwater availability, hydrological connectivity, precipitation patterns, and flood susceptibility—which collectively regulate the water–ecosystem interactions that define landscape ecological capacity (Itani et al., 2022; Agybetova et al., 2023). These considerations are particularly relevant in rapidly urbanizing metropolitan areas like Tehran, where unchecked spatial expansion and degradation of peri-urban ecosystems have intensified land-use pressures. Ecohydrological assessments provide an integrated framework for evaluating how hydrological processes control ecosystem functioning, resilience, and suitability for low-impact tourism development, thereby supporting more sustainable spatial planning decisions (Malovanyy et al., 2025). Despite the recognized importance of hydrology in ecological assessments, existing development strategies in Tehran have often marginalized or inadequately addressed water-related criteria, leading to spatial mismatches between ecological potential and implemented land uses (Ziari and Mosleh, 2025). Understanding the quantitative relationships between hydrological processes and ecological carrying capacity is therefore essential to bridging this gap. Quantitatively, hydrological processes regulate Ecological Carrying Capacity (ECC) by controlling the spatial and temporal distribution of water available to support vegetation, wildlife, and human activities. Parameters such as rainfall–runoff balance, groundwater recharge, and soil-moisture retention directly influence ecosystem productivity (Parton et al., 2012; Casagrande et al., 2021), resilience (Peterson et al., 2012; Behboudian et al., 2023), and the ability to absorb tourism-related stress without degradation (Marlina et al., 2022). For example, excessive runoff and limited infiltration in steep or impervious areas reduce both water availability and soil stability (Paul et al., 2025; Tao et al., 2025), constraining their suitability for intensive ecotourism. Conversely, zones with moderate slopes, stable aquifers, and perennial river access maintain higher ecohydrological capacity, providing the foundation for sustainable recreational use. However, translating this biophysical potential into practical land-use outcomes requires coherent institutional frameworks and coordinated governance mechanisms capable of aligning ecological capacity with planning decisions.

In parallel with these ecological constraints, institutional and governance challenges pose significant barriers to ecotourism development across Tehran’s metropolitan boundary. Fragmented decision-making structures, overlapping mandates, regulatory contradictions, and the absence of integrated spatial governance have repeatedly hindered the advancement of ecotourism and other nature-based initiatives (Aminian et al., 2017; Lavajoo et al., 2023). Previous studies have highlighted these challenges individually: for instance, Rashidian et al. (2022) and Niknejad et al. (2015) demonstrated that neglecting water resources in spatial planning leads to ecological instability and unsustainable land transformation, while Alizadeh and Amanpour (2024) called for a paradigm shift toward strategic, participatory governance models in Iran’s land-use system. The Tehran Urban Planning and Research Center (TUPRC) (2025) has likewise emphasized the importance of jointly addressing ecological and institutional indicators in guiding ecocompatible land uses.

In response, a growing body of research has adopted Ecological Capability Evaluation (ECE) and GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) techniques—often integrated with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) or Fuzzy AHP (FAHP)—to assess spatial suitability for ecotourism and related land uses. These approaches have been successfully applied in protected areas (Salma et al., 2023; Bahrami et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2025), coastal regions (Arda et al., 2025; Kayum et al., 2025), and mountain landscapes (Wu et al., 2025; Huang et al., 2025). Many such studies have incorporated hydrological indicators—including precipitation, surface and groundwater availability, and flood risk—to enhance environmental realism in spatial modeling (Meng, 2021; Agybetova et al., 2023). However, most of these frameworks have focused on natural or rural contexts, whereas urban and peri-urban ecotourism systems—where competition for land and water is most acute—remain underexplored. Moreover, few studies have treated water resources as the central organizing factor of ecotourism suitability or examined the institutional and governance conditions required to operationalize water-sensitive planning. Although both concepts are central to environmental planning, ECC and Ecological Capability Evaluation (ECE) differ in focus and application. ECC refers to the maximum level of human activity or resource use that an ecosystem can sustain without causing long-term degradation, emphasizing the limits of environmental tolerance and resilience (Ebrahimi et al., 2019). In contrast, ECE is an applied spatial assessment that ranks and classifies land units according to their inherent ecological potential based on physical, hydrological, and bioclimatic indicators (Makhdoom, 2011). In this study, ECE serves as the analytical framework used to spatially represent the principles of ECC—that is, to translate ecological capacity thresholds into suitability classes for sustainable ecotourism development.

Despite recent methodological progress, a clear research gap remains: few studies have developed an integrated framework that combines spatially explicit ecohydrological evaluation with institutional diagnostics for ecotourism planning. Most prior research has treated these dimensions in isolation, thereby overlooking the need for a unified ecohydrological governance approach. Given the urgent need for sustainable land-use solutions along the urban edge of Tehran (Ghasemi, 2024), ecotourism offers a viable alternative that promotes environmental conservation while supporting local economic resilience. Realizing this potential depends on (1) accurate assessment of ECC, and (2) recognition of the institutional conditions necessary to translate that capacity into actionable planning.

To ensure conceptual clarity, the key operational terms used in this study are defined as follows. Ecotourism refers to nature-based tourism that promotes environmental conservation, community engagement, and minimal ecological disturbance (Baloch et al., 2023). Within this framework, intensive ecotourism encompasses activities requiring greater infrastructure and visitor concentration (e.g., skiing, swimming, or resort-based recreation), whereas extensive ecotourism involves low-impact, dispersed, and nature-immersive activities such as hiking, wildlife observation, or mountaineering (Akbari et al., 2024). The term ecohydrological capacity describes the combined potential of a landscape’s ecological and hydrological systems—such as water availability, flow regulation, and soil–vegetation interactions—to support tourism activities without degrading environmental quality or depleting resources (Wang et al., 2025). Finally, suitability, as used in the ECE framework, refers to the degree to which a spatial unit satisfies the physical, ecohydrological, and socio-economic criteria for sustainable ecotourism (Zhang et al., 2024).

Hydrological factors—including proximity to water bodies, rainfall distribution, groundwater reserves, and flood-prone zones—are central to evaluating land suitability for ecotourism (Šiljeg et al., 2019). Yet these factors remain underrepresented in existing land-use frameworks, particularly in Tehran’s outer zones, where spatial instability and ecological degradation are most severe (Eftakhari and Hajehforoshnia, 2024). Compounding this, institutional fragmentation, legal ambiguity, and weak coordination mechanisms have enabled land speculation, unauthorized development, and unregulated water use—all of which threaten the viability of sustainable ecotourism.

To address these challenges, this study aims to develop an integrated ecohydrological governance framework for sustainable ecotourism planning within the Tehran metropolitan region. By combining spatial analysis of key hydrological indicators with institutional diagnostics, the research seeks to: (1) identify and assess hydrological factors influencing ecological land suitability for ecotourism; (2) map spatial patterns of ecotourism suitability using physical, bioclimatic, and water-related criteria in a GIS-based MCE framework; (3) analyze the institutional and legal barriers impeding ecotourism development across Tehran’s administrative boundaries; and (4) propose a strategic planning model that integrates ecological suitability assessments with governance analysis to support water-sensitive and sustainable ecotourism. Accordingly, this study is guided by four research questions: (1) Where are the ecologically suitable zones for intensive and nature-based ecotourism within the Tehran metropolitan region when ecohydrological constraints are prioritized? (2) Which physical, bioclimatic, and water-related indicators exert the greatest influence on ecotourism suitability? (3) What institutional and regulatory barriers limit the implementation of ecotourism initiatives in ecologically suitable zones? and (4) How can ecological suitability assessments be integrated with institutional analyses to develop an adaptive governance framework for water-sensitive and sustainable ecotourism? Based on these objectives and research questions, the study hypothesizes that: (H1) ecotourism suitability will be highest in upland areas and riparian corridors with strong ecohydrological and scenic attributes; (H2) ecohydrological and bioclimatic indicators will have greater influence on suitability than purely physical factors; (H3) institutional fragmentation and overlapping mandates will pose significant barriers to implementation; and (H4) integrating ecological assessments with institutional diagnostics will yield an adaptive governance framework for sustainable, water-sensitive ecotourism planning. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the study area and methodological framework, including the ECE, GIS-based MCE, and AHP procedures, as well as the institutional and governance assessment. Section 3 presents the results of the ecohydrological suitability mapping and institutional diagnostics. Section 4 discusses the implications of these findings for sustainable water and land governance, and Section 5 concludes with key insights and future research directions.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

Tehran, the capital of Iran, covers an area of approximately 730 km², situated between 35°34′N–35°50′N latitude and 51°02′E–51°36′E longitude, with an east–west extent of about 50 km and a north–south width of about 30 km (Albarzi-Manesh, 2024). The broader administrative limit of Tehran, as defined by the Tehran Master Plan and national spatial divisions, extends to 5,918 km². The administrative boundary—referred to as the limit of the City of Tehran—covers approximately 5,918 km², whereas the analytical extent used for ecological suitability modeling is smaller (4,677 km²) due to the exclusion of non-developable areas such as steep slopes and water bodies. The metropolitan population exceeds 8.7 million within the city and over 13 million in the greater region (Statistical Center of Iran, 2021). Climatically, Tehran lies within a semi-arid steppe zone under the Köppen–Geiger classification (BSk), characterized by mean annual precipitation of 240–260 mm and a mean annual temperature of 17.1 °C (Moftakhar Juybari et al., 2025). Hydrologically, the area is fed by multiple perennial and ephemeral river valleys (including Kan, Darakeh, Darband, and Jajrud) originating from the southern Alborz Mountains. Groundwater reserves are hosted primarily in Quaternary alluvial aquifers, underlain by semi-consolidated Neogene formations (Tehran Regional Water Authority, 2020). Several protected areas fall within or adjacent to the metropolitan boundary, including Jajrud, Varjin, Khojir, Sorkheh Hesar, and portions of Lar and Kavir National Parks. The city’s ecological configuration includes northern mountainous foothills, eastern steep terrains, and southern plains extending toward Rey and Varamin counties. This heterogeneity influences land suitability, hydrological dynamics, and ecotourism potential across the region. From a spatial governance perspective, the limit of Tehran city comprises 27 cities, 237 villages, and 94 hamlets, integrating diverse ecological and socio-economic zones. Despite its designation, this boundary has not effectively functioned as a protective buffer, as unregulated expansion has led to the conversion of agricultural and open lands, degradation of ecological corridors, and increased strain on infrastructure and water resources (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Location and physical setting of the Tehran metropolitan region. Geographic location within Iran, topography and major river networks derived from the shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) 30 m digital elevation model (DEM), and urban extent and administrative boundaries showing built-up areas and main transport corridors.

2.2 Research methods

This study adopts an applied-developmental approach grounded in a quantitative–analytical paradigm, integrating both spatial and institutional data streams. The MCE technique was implemented within a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment to assess ecological and hydrological suitability, while qualitative methods were employed to investigate institutional and legal barriers. The research design operates across two complementary levels aligned with the study objectives: (1) Spatial analysis of physical, bioclimatic, and hydrological indicators using GIS-based tools to evaluate ecological suitability for ecotourism; and (2) Institutional–legal assessment of governance structures involved in metropolitan planning and ecotourism development, based on content analysis of strategic policy documents and semi-structured interviews with key institutional actors. Figure 2 depicts the overall workflow, from indicator definition and expert weighting to GIS-based integration and institutional review, culminating in water-sensitive policy recommendations. This hybrid methodological framework was developed to address the study’s core research questions, enabling an integrated evaluation of biophysical capacities and institutional constraints within the administrative boundary of Tehran.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Integrated conceptual and methodological framework for evaluating ecohydrological suitability and institutional constraints in sustainable ecotourism planning within the Tehran metropolitan area. The framework combines ecological capability evaluation (ECE), analytic hierarchy process (AHP) weighting, and weighted linear combination (WLC) in GIS with institutional analysis to generate final outputs and recommendations for water-sensitive governance.

2.3 Stages of research implementation

As shown in Figure 2, the research followed a structured, multi-phase methodology. First, an extensive literature review guided the identification of relevant ecological, hydrological, geological, and socio-economic indicators for ecotourism development. Indicator prioritization was then obtained via the AHP using a structured questionnaire completed by 15 national specialists affiliated with urban planning and environmental management organizations; questionnaire development and validation steps are detailed in Section 2.5, and the AHP weighting procedure in Section 2.6. Next, fuzzy-logic procedures were applied within a GIS environment to evaluate ecotourism development potential across the administrative boundary of Tehran; map standardization and the Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) aggregation scheme are described in Section 2.8. Based on the suitability outputs, spatial planning considered the distribution of hydrological resources, existing land uses, and ecological constraints. In parallel, institutional and legal challenges—particularly those related to water governance—were examined through qualitative analysis of policy documents and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders (Section 2.9). The spatial and institutional findings were then synthesized to propose a strategic governance framework for sustainable, water-sensitive ecotourism within Tehran’s metropolitan limits.

Spatial datasets were obtained from the National Cartographic Center, Department of Environment, Statistical Center of Iran (2021), and Tehran Regional Water Authority. Raster layers used in the analysis had spatial resolutions ranging from 30 to 90 meters. All spatial processing and map production were performed in ArcGIS 10.8 (ESRI, Redlands, CA, USA). In the AHP model, the consistency ratio (CR) < 0.1 for all pairwise comparison matrices, indicating acceptable reliability of expert judgments. Indicator weights were assigned based on evaluations from 15 specialists in environmental management and urban planning. Proprietary datasets were accessed under formal research agreements with the relevant institutions and are therefore not publicly available. Hydrological data—including precipitation, river flow, and groundwater levels—were obtained from meteorological and hydrometric stations managed by the Iranian Meteorological Organization and the Tehran Regional Water Authority for the period 2011–2021. Averaging was conducted on both annual and seasonal bases; missing data were handled using moving-average and linear-interpolation techniques to ensure continuity and consistency.

The questionnaire and interview components complied with institutional ethical standards. Ethical approval was obtained from the university’s research ethics committee, and informed written consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Respondents included university faculty members and specialists from governmental organizations involved in environmental management and urban planning. To ensure methodological rigor and data reliability, QA/QC steps included: (1) indicator validation via CVR/CVI with exclusion of sub-threshold items; (2) instrument reliability with Cronbach’s alpha = 0.841; (3) data normalization to a standardized 0–1 range for WLC; (4) AHP consistency checks (CR < 0.1); (5) GIS layer review for resolution/projection compatibility and overlay verification; and (6) final validation to remove spatial anomalies and ensure alignment with research objectives. A detailed summary of research phases and timelines is provided in the Supplementary Table S1.

2.4 Identifying appropriate indicators to evaluate the ecological suitability of ecotourism

A growing body of international and national research has focused on identifying appropriate indicators for evaluating the ecological suitability of ecotourism, with increasing emphasis on hydrological resources as a cornerstone of long-term sustainability. Several studies have examined natural factors including landscape features, elevation, slope, and accessibility (Bunruamkaew and Murayama, 2011; Chen, 2015; Akbari et al., 2024; Sobhani et al., 2024; Huang et al., 2025). In the Iranian context, researchers have highlighted the critical role of hydrological indicators—such as precipitation, surface runoff, and proximity to rivers—in conjunction with topographic and climatic variables to delineate suitable zones for ecotourism development (Makhdoom, 2011; Kheikhah-Zarkesh et al., 2011; Mobaraki et al., 2014). In all of these frameworks, the role of water resources remains central to ensuring ecological viability and planning resilience.

Building on this literature, the present study proposes an integrated set of indicators tailored to the context of metropolitan Tehran. These indicators were selected not only for their relevance to ecological and hydrological functioning but also for their planning utility in urban and peri-urban environments. For instance, Najafi et al. (2021) used composite indices to evaluate drinking water and agricultural sustainability in semi-arid urban systems. In Tehran, Khosravi et al. (2020) examined the impacts of urban expansion on the hydrological regime of the Evin-Darakeh River, employing rainfall and runoff metrics to assess water-related vulnerabilities in recreational zones.

During validation, four indicators—soil grain size, soil depth, well depth, and evapotranspiration—were excluded due to low CVR/CVI values. To limit redundancy, a Spearman correlation check was performed; pairs with r > 0.85 were reviewed for conceptual overlap, retaining the indicator with stronger ecological relevance or broader applicability and removing/merging its correlate. The final set of 23 indicators and their grouping are presented in Table 1, with metadata in Table 2; detailed justifications (rationale, expected influence, citations) are provided in Supplementary Table S2.

Table 1

Table 1. Research background indicators for assessing validity (Makhdoom, 2011).

Table 2

Table 2. Final set of 23 indicators for evaluating ecotourism suitability in the Tehran metropolitan region, including data sources, spatial resolution, units, and normalization status.

To operationalize these indicators, this study integrates ECE, AHP, and WLC. ECE provides the ecological foundation by quantifying land capability based on climate, vegetation, soil, and water resources. AHP incorporates expert knowledge to assign relative weights to indicators, reducing subjectivity and enhancing transparency. WLC aggregates the normalized, weighted indicators in GIS to produce spatially explicit suitability maps, enabling a transparent and reproducible assessment of ecotourism potential under ecohydrological constraints.

The study distinguishes two planning categories. Intensive ecotourism refers to areas with higher infrastructure potential, accessibility, and visitor capacity (e.g., closer to roads, treatment plants, rural settlements, and reliable water sources). Extensive ecotourism designates zones with minimal intervention, ecological sensitivity, and high natural integrity (e.g., denser vegetation, greater remoteness from urban areas, fragile ecosystems). Thresholds were set accordingly—shorter distances to infrastructure/water for intensive zones; higher elevation/vegetation and longer distances from built-up areas for extensive zones—so planners can differentiate infrastructure investment and conservation priorities by ecological and hydrological capacity.

The internal consistency of the questionnaire was confirmed by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.841, indicating high reliability. Sampling adequacy for factor analysis was validated using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test (0.71), confirming suitability for multivariate analysis. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant at the 0.01 level (p < 0.01), verifying data factorability. For each final AHP-derived weight, a 95% confidence interval was calculated using the standard deviation of expert responses, ensuring statistical robustness of the weighting outcomes.

2.5 Questionnaire validity and reliability

To ensure content validity, expert consultation sessions were held with professionals experienced in ecotourism planning and spatial development in the Tehran metropolitan region. A panel of 15 experts evaluated 27 proposed indicators using a three-level scale following Lawshe (1975) to compute the Content Validity Ratio (CVR) (Equation 1)

$\begin{array}{ll}\mathrm{CVR}=(N_{\mathrm{e}}-N/2)/(N/2)& (1)\end{array}$

where, N_e is the number rating the item “essential,” and N is the panel size. Simultaneously, the Content Validity Index (CVI) was computed per Waltz and Bausell (1981) (Equation 2)

$\begin{array}{ll}\mathrm{CVI}=n/N& (2)\end{array}$

where n is the number rating the item as 3 or 4 on a four-point Likert scale. The calculated CVR and CVI values for each indicator are presented in Supplementary Tables S3–S5. An indicator was deemed acceptable if CVR > 0.51 (for N = 15) and CVI > 0.79 (Waltz and Bausell, 1981). Indicators not meeting these thresholds were excluded from further analysis. Construct validity was assessed through a review of relevant literature (see Table 2 for one of the key references considered). Following CVR/CVI screening, four indicators were excluded; the finalized questionnaire comprised 23 indicators in three categories (Supplementary Tables S3–S5). Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (Cronbach, 1951), yielding 0.841. Experts (15 university professors, managers, and subject-matter specialists) rated indicators on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).

2.6 AHP method

Following indicator selection (Figure 3), a hierarchical structure was developed, and paired comparison matrices were created using Saaty’s numerical scale (Saaty, 1977). Expert matrices were aggregated using the geometric mean, and weights were computed in Expert Choice software. A total of 15 experts participated in the AHP weighting survey. Respondents were selected through a purposive sampling strategy, with additional participants identified via snowball referral to ensure disciplinary diversity. The expert panel included five university-affiliated specialists in hydrology, climatology, or geology; four experts in environmental and natural resource management; three urban and tourism planning professionals; and three executive-level decision-makers from organizations such as municipalities, the Department of Environment (DOE), and regional water authorities. The response rate was 100%, as all invited participants completed and returned the structured AHP questionnaires. Each expert’s pairwise comparison matrix was tested for logical consistency using the Consistency Ratio (CR), with an acceptable threshold of CR < 0.1 (Saaty, 1977). When a participant’s matrix exceeded this threshold, the respondent was asked to revise their judgments. In two cases where inconsistency persisted, the responses were excluded from the final aggregation. The final group matrix met the CR < 0.1 criterion, confirming internal consistency and ensuring reliable weight derivation. The full AHP questionnaire, including instructions, example matrices, and indicator lists, is provided in Appendix A. Table 3 presents an example of a pairwise comparison matrix for three indicators (Slope, Altitude, and Aspect) under the physical criterion.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Hierarchical framework of dimensions and indicators used for GIS-based mapping of optimal ecotourism sites, with emphasis on hydrology, within the limits of Tehran.

Table 3

Table 3. Example of a pairwise comparison matrix among three physical dimension (slope, altitude, and aspect) used in the analytic hierarchy process (AHP).

2.7 Ecological capability evaluation (ECE)

ECE was conducted across three dimensions—physical, ecohydrological, and socio-economic—each comprising specific criteria and indicators finalized after validity and reliability assessments. The final set included 23 indicators with AHP-derived weights. For extensive ecotourism, 11 spatial layers were weighted and summed; for intensive ecotourism, all 23 layers were weighted and superimposed. Final suitability maps were generated by integrating these weighted layers in GIS.

To further quantify the hydrological influence on ecotourism suitability, the spatial relationship between suitability zones and surface water networks was analyzed. The final suitability map was intersected with the perennial river layer, and buffer zones of 250 m, 500 m, and 1,000 m were generated around the river network using ArcGIS 10.8. The areal extent of intensive and extensive ecotourism zones within each buffer distance was then calculated using the Intersect and Zonal Statistics tools. Results indicated that approximately 61.4% of intensive ecotourism zones and 37.8% of extensive zones are located within 1 km of perennial rivers, highlighting the strong dependency of ecotourism suitability on surface water accessibility. This quantitative analysis directly supports the conclusion presented in the abstract regarding the decisive role of surface water in shaping ecotourism potential across the Tehran metropolitan region.

2.8 Weighted linear combination (WLC) technique

The WLC technique, one of the most widely used approaches in MCE, was applied to integrate the spatial indicators for ecotourism suitability mapping. In this method, each indicator is assigned a weight (W_j) reflecting its relative importance, and the standardized score of that indicator in each spatial unit (X_ij) is multiplied by its weight. The results are then summed across all n indicators to obtain a final suitability score (A_i) for each spatial unit, as expressed in Equation 3:

$\begin{array}{ll}{A}_i={\sum }_{j=1}^n{W}_j\times X_{\mathit{ij}}& (3)\end{array}$

Spatial units with higher A_i values represent areas more suitable for ecotourism development, according to the weighted contribution of the evaluated indicators.

Sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate the robustness of the ecotourism suitability model. Key indicators such as distance from flood-prone zones (0.3002), proximity to rural settlements (0.3883), number of sunny days (0.2941), and surface water availability (0.1159) were individually varied by ±10% to examine their influence on overall suitability scores. The results indicated that small changes in these high-weight indicators significantly altered the ranking and spatial distribution of suitable ecotourism zones, demonstrating model sensitivity to dominant factors. Conversely, indicators with lower weights—such as humidity (0.0159) and distance to treatment plants (0.0286)—showed negligible influence on final suitability outcomes. Overall, the model exhibited high sensitivity to top-weighted variables, underscoring the importance of precise weight calibration and expert validation in the AHP–WLC framework.

2.9 Institutional and policy analysis of ecotourism development

This component of the study examined the institutional and policy environment influencing ecotourism development within the limits of Tehran. The analysis began with the collection of relevant laws, plans, and institutional mandates, followed by content analysis of strategic and regulatory documents, including the Tehran Comprehensive Plan, metropolitan boundary regulations, and national laws on natural resources, environmental protection, and tourism. In parallel, semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve key experts from institutions such as the Municipality of Tehran, the Department of Environment, the Regional Water Authority, the Natural Resources Office, and local governorates to identify institutional misalignments, legal gaps, and implementation conflicts. The results of the ecological, spatial, and institutional analyses were synthesized to propose an ecosustainable, water-centric governance framework for ecotourism planning. This framework emphasizes integrated spatial planning, cross-sectoral coordination, and the alignment of institutional mandates to promote resilient, inclusive, and water-sensitive ecotourism pathways.

3 Results

3.1 Suitable indicators for identifying ecotourism development areas

To evaluate the ecological capability of ecotourism within the limits of Tehran, 23 key indicators were selected and analyzed, grouped into three main dimensions—physical, ecohydrological, and socio-economic—with their spatial distributions shown in Figures 4–6. The physical dimension (Figure 4) includes ten indicators. Slope (Figure 4a) shows that steeper gradients dominate the northern highlands, constraining accessibility but offering potential for certain adventure-based ecotourism activities. Aspect (Figure 4b) reveals a predominance of north- and northeast-facing slopes in the northern sectors, which generally maintain cooler microclimates favorable for summer recreation. Bedrock type (Figure 4d) highlights the widespread presence of alluvial and granitic formations in central and southern areas, which influence both soil development and hydrological behavior. Distance from fault lines (Figure 4f) indicates that several suitable zones are located away from high seismic risk areas, while precipitation distribution (Figure 4h) illustrates the north–south rainfall gradient, with the highest values in the Alborz foothills. The ecohydrological dimension (Figure 5) comprises eight indicators. For example, vegetation density (Figure 5a) shows concentrated high-density cover in the northern and northwestern sectors, corresponding to forested and semi-forested areas. Available surface water resources (Figure 5c) are primarily located in the north and along river corridors, providing essential inputs for water-sensitive tourism activities. Climate type (Figure 5g) differentiates cooler, wetter uplands from the warmer, drier lowlands, affecting seasonal suitability for tourism. Average air temperature (Figure 5h) further emphasizes this contrast, with higher values in the southern plains. The socio-economic dimension (Figure 6) includes five indicators. Distance from roads (Figure 6c) identifies areas with both strong accessibility advantages near major highways and more remote zones that may appeal to niche tourism markets. Distance from waste disposal sites (Figure 6d) highlights environmental exclusion zones that overlap with otherwise suitable ecological areas. Rural settlement distribution (Figure 6a) shows clusters in the southern and peripheral zones, which may serve as gateways for community-based tourism initiatives. This multi-dimensional framework, supported by the mapped indicators in Figures 4–6, facilitated the production of integrated spatial suitability maps for identifying the most appropriate areas for different ecotourism activities.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Spatial distribution of physical environmental indicators used in the ecological capability evaluation (ECE) for ecotourism in the Tehran metropolitan area, including: (a) slope, (b) aspect, (c) altitude, (d) bedrock geology, (e) soil texture, (f) distance from faults, (g) distance from floodplains, (h) precipitation, (i) relative humidity, and (j) number of sunny days.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Spatial distribution maps of ecohydrological-dimension indicators used in the ecological capability evaluation (ECE) for ecotourism within the Tehran metropolitan area: (a) vegetation density, (b) vegetation type, (c) available surface water resources, (d) available groundwater resources, (e) distance from surface water resources, (f) wind speed, (g) climate type, and (h) average air temperature.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Spatial distribution maps of socio-economic dimension indicators used in the ecological capability evaluation (ECE) for ecotourism within the Tehran metropolitan area: (a) rural areas, (b) distance from mines, (c) distance from roads, (d) distance from waste disposal sites, and (e) distance from wastewater treatment plants.

3.2 Ecological capability evaluation (ECE) for ecotourism development

To delineate suitable zones for ecotourism development, a fuzzy logic framework was applied. Indicator weights were first derived using the AHP, and each standardized spatial layer was multiplied by its respective weight. For extensive ecotourism activities—such as mountaineering, hunting, and fishing—11 relevant layers were weighted and integrated through a map overlay analysis: climate type, precipitation, wind speed, slope, relative humidity, bedrock type, average temperature, number of sunny days in the first half of the year, soil texture, distance from surface water resources, and availability of surface water resources. For intensive ecotourism activities—such as swimming, skiing, and hiking—all 23 indicators were include. The resulting spatial suitability maps (Figure 7) indicate that the total area appropriate for intensive ecotourism development is approximately 4,546 km², while the area suitable for extensive ecotourism reaches 4,213 km² (Table 4). Conversely, land classified as unsuitable for ecotourism comprises about 131 km² for intensive activities and 464 km² for extensive activities. The detailed area distribution across suitability classes is presented in Table 4, which shows that intensive ecotourism zones are almost evenly divided between “appropriate” (2,272 km²) and “relatively appropriate” (2,274 km²) categories, whereas extensive ecotourism areas are more heavily concentrated in the “appropriate” class (2,953 km²) compared to “relatively appropriate” (1,260 km²).

Figure 7

Figure 7. Spatial zoning maps for intensive (left) and extensive (right) ecotourism development within the limits of the Tehran metropolis, generated using a fuzzy logic–based Ecological Capability Evaluation (ECE). Suitability classes include “appropriate,” “relatively appropriate,” and “inappropriate,” with settlement areas (cities and villages) shown for reference.

Table 4

Table 4. Area distribution by suitability class for intensive and extensive ecotourism development within the limits of Tehran.

3.3 Final land use planning for the limits of Tehran

In alignment with the complementary spatial planning approach and the overarching objective of achieving sustainable ecotourism development within the limits of Tehran, particular emphasis was placed on the preservation of ecotourism zones and the protection of water resources. Figure 8 presents the integrated land use plan, identifying urban areas, rural settlements, water treatment facilities, waste disposal sites, protected zones, industrial belts, mines, transportation routes, and both surface and groundwater resources (including wells, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs). The map also highlights the suitable ecotourism zones identified through the ECE, classified as Class 1 land use areas for both intensive and extensive ecotourism development (Figure 8). This spatial integration ensures that ecotourism expansion is planned in harmony with environmental conservation, water management, and compatible land uses.

Figure 8

Figure 8. Spatial land use plan for the limits of the Tehran metropolis, integrating ecotourism suitability zones (Class 1 for intensive and extensive development) with key infrastructure, water resources, and protected areas to support sustainable and water-sensitive planning.

3.4 Institutional–legal challenges in the governance of ecotourism development within the limits of Tehran

The institutional and governance analysis for ecotourism development in the limits of Tehran directly addresses the fourth research question and complements the spatial evaluation. The first analytical step involved identifying the institutional actors engaged in planning, managing, and regulating activities within this ecologically sensitive and strategically significant metropolitan fringe. Based on official documents, upstream legislative frameworks, and expert interviews, several key institutions were found to exert direct or indirect influence on ecotourism development. These include the Tehran Municipality, Department of Environment, Tehran Regional Water Company, General Office of Natural Resources and Watershed Management, and the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts, among others. Despite their importance, these institutions frequently operate with overlapping mandates, ambiguous jurisdictions, and conflicting approaches to metropolitan governance and ecotourism development. This fragmentation undermines coordinated decision-making, particularly in areas where ecological preservation and water resource management intersect with tourism development. Table 5 summarizes the legal framework underpinning each institution’s authority, linking specific legislative articles to the relevant organizational mandates. Table 6 focuses on institutions with competencies related to both ecotourism and hydrological indicators—including surface and groundwater resources, precipitation, and proximity to water bodies—highlighting the specific legal provisions that guide their involvement.

Table 5

Table 5. Key laws, legal provisions, and institutional mandates relevant to governance within the limits of Tehran.

Table 6

Table 6. Organizations with mandates linking ecotourism development and hydrology in the limits of Tehran.

4 Discussion

This study used 23 indicators encompassing natural, environmental, social, and hydrological dimensions to assess the ecotourism potential within the limits of the Tehran metropolis. Among these, hydrological factors—such as access to surface water, proximity to rivers and streams, groundwater availability, average annual precipitation, flood hazard zones, and surface runoff risk—proved decisive in determining spatial suitability. Regions with sustainable water availability and favorable rainfall patterns consistently exhibited the highest ecotourism potential. In particular, proximity to surface water, especially within 1 km, emerged as a critical factor for classifying areas as “highly suitable.” In the northern mountainous zones, deep aquifers provide strategic groundwater reserves that sustain extensive ecotourism activities. The integration of hydrological indicators in evaluating ecological capacity aligns with previous studies by Zhang et al. (2018), Li et al. (2020), and Meng (2021), emphasizing that water-sensitive planning is fundamental to sustainable ecotourism development.

The ECE outcomes revealed a distinct contrast between the spatial extent of areas suitable for intensive and extensive ecotourism, largely reflecting the criteria and thresholds applied to each category. Intensive ecotourism, which involves higher visitor pressure and infrastructure demand, required a broader set of indicators and stricter environmental constraints. This differentiation is consistent with findings from other Iranian regions (Tabrizi and Zahedi Kalaki, 2018), where ecological models similarly distinguished between high- and low-intensity tourism zones. Across both categories, hydrological indicators remained the most influential, confirming that water security governs not only ecological sustainability but also long-term economic viability (Frone and Frone, 2013; Dhakad, 2025).

Intensive ecotourism zones were strongly associated with high surface-water availability—especially near rivers, lakes, and perennial streams—reflecting both ecological viability and recreational attractiveness. Conversely, extensive ecotourism areas were concentrated in highlands with strong groundwater reserves and favorable precipitation regimes, offering resilience to climatic variability and supporting long-term, low-impact tourism. From a spatial planning standpoint, these distinctions underscore the importance of water resources as a strategic lever for zoning and land-allocation modeling. For intensive tourism, safeguarding surface water bodies and regulating development density are essential to maintaining ecological integrity and visitor satisfaction. For extensive tourism, protecting recharge zones, preventing groundwater over-extraction, and conserving the natural character of mountainous landscapes should remain management priorities. Collectively, these insights highlight the necessity of water-sensitive spatial planning and integrated governance frameworks that link ecological capability assessments to land-use regulation and infrastructure decisions.

Another key physical factor was distance from flood-prone areas, which received high weighting in the ECE and strongly influenced suitability classifications. The overlap between areas identified as suitable for ecotourism and those with low flood risk emphasizes that hazard avoidance is a fundamental prerequisite for sustainable tourism planning (Southon and van der Merwe, 2018; Sadeghi and Haseli, 2025). This finding is particularly relevant in southern and southwestern Tehran, where limited water availability coincides with higher flood risk—rendering these zones unsuitable, consistent with the conclusions of Akbari et al. (2017). Expert assessments confirmed that the ecohydrological dimension—especially surface-water availability and annual precipitation—was the dominant factor shaping suitability rankings.

The proposed land-use plan integrates ecotourism suitability with existing spatial categories, including protected areas, industrial and mining zones, and waste management facilities, thereby reconciling ecological constraints with current land-use realities. The zoning framework distinguishes Class I intensive ecotourism zones, located near rivers, reservoirs, and vegetated corridors with high accessibility (e.g., the Jajroud River corridor and Latian Dam), from Class I extensive ecotourism zones in mountainous areas with reliable groundwater reserves and high precipitation (e.g., the northeastern highlands). Protected landscapes such as Khojir National Park and Sorkheh-Hesar Protected Area, along with designated ecotourism villages including Afjeh, Ahar, and Vardij, form strategic anchors in this framework (Sobhani et al., 2022). Embedding key hydrological assets—dams, rivers, springs, and aquifers—within the planning structure ensures that water management forms the backbone of tourism development. These results echo international evidence showing that integrated spatial planning can align environmental conservation with tourism-led economic growth (Maksin and Milijic, 2010; Klepej and Marot, 2024).

The land-use analysis also revealed substantial spatial overlap between protected areas, major hydrological resources, and tourism villages, demonstrating clear opportunities for network-based ecotourism development. Using high-resolution datasets (≤30 m), the resulting maps provide a robust basis for local decision-making and resource management. Seven hydrological indicators—rivers, groundwater availability, precipitation, water quality, and related water-dependent factors—emerged as the core determinants of both site suitability and sustainability, reinforcing the need to embed water-sensitive criteria into ecotourism planning and policy formulation.

From an institutional perspective, ecotourism development in Tehran depends on coordinated action among multiple stakeholders operating under distinct legal mandates. The Department of Environment (Article 6, Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act) oversees ecological capacity evaluation and protected zones; the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts (Article 100, Sixth Development Plan) promotes ecotourism and issues operational permits; and the Ministry of Energy and the Tehran Regional Water Company regulate surface and groundwater resources under the Water Allocation and Utilization Act. At the municipal scale, Tehran Municipality and local governments (Article 55, Municipal Law) manage land-use permitting, while the Tehran Provincial Planning and Management Organization (Article 38, Sixth Development Plan) prepares territorial plans. However, despite these well-defined mandates, governance remains fragmented. The absence of a unified water-resource information system, inconsistent enforcement, and weak coordination among institutions hinder the operationalization of ecotourism potential—particularly in hydrologically sensitive areas. Comparable studies in Zanjan and East Azerbaijan provinces using similar ecological evaluation frameworks reached similar conclusions, underscoring that institutional integration and water governance reforms are essential for long-term, water-sensitive tourism development.

Content analysis of higher-order policy documents—including Tehran’s Master Plan, the Land Use Conservation Law, and the Limit of City Guidelines—revealed several critical governance gaps: (1) lack of a formal legal definition for ecotourism; (2) conflicts between conservation mandates and tourism objectives; and (3) absence of inter-institutional coordination mechanisms. These challenges perpetuate fragmented decision-making and, in some cases, lead to unsustainable project implementation (Nurhasanah et al., 2023; Hall, 2006). The governance network includes multiple actors—environmental, tourism, water, and municipal authorities—whose mandates overlap and often conflict. Effective coordination among these entities is thus not merely supportive but foundational to sustainable ecotourism implementation in Tehran’s metropolitan fringe. This aligns with international experience: Lundén et al. (2025) identified institutional fragmentation as a key barrier to sustainable governance in Finland, while Mulyani et al. (2021) highlighted participatory, data-driven governance as critical for ecotourism success in environmentally sensitive landscapes.

The absence of institutional alignment not only weakens governance but also increases the likelihood of environmental degradation and project failure. The reliability of the present spatial model—validated through field data, satellite imagery, and consistency with prior research—demonstrates its robustness as a decision-support tool for ecotourism policy and planning. Nevertheless, the review of water-related laws exposed major legal gaps: the Water Allocation Act lacks provisions for ecotourism; groundwater protection regulations do not include tourism-specific land-use standards; and the Crisis Management Law omits site-selection criteria for flood-prone zones. Similarly, the Natural Resource Protection Law provides no framework for sustainable ecotourism in pristine environments. Institutional actors face distinct operational challenges—Tehran Municipality’s jurisdictional conflicts with environmental agencies, the Department of Environment’s limited enforcement capacity, and the Regional Water Company’s weak integration into tourism planning—all of which constrain coordinated action. Addressing these limitations requires legal harmonization and a cross-sectoral coordination mechanism that unites hydrological, environmental, and tourism objectives under a single planning framework.

Overall, the findings demonstrate that surface water availability is the most critical determinant of intensive ecotourism suitability, whereas groundwater resources and precipitation are key to extensive ecotourism potential. Zones where water resources, ecological integrity, and infrastructure accessibility intersect represent strategic opportunities for sustainable investment. Based on combined hydroclimatic and ecological criteria, approximately 4,546 km² were identified as suitable for intensive ecotourism and 4,213 km² for extensive ecotourism. Northwestern and southeastern Tehran exhibited high ecohydrological stability but are currently constrained by unsustainable land uses, indicating the need for targeted land-use revisions. Realizing these opportunities will depend on addressing structural governance barriers, establishing unified metropolitan-fringe management, and embedding water-sensitive principles into legal and policy frameworks. Strengthened institutional coordination and integrated planning are thus indispensable for transforming Tehran’s ecological potential into tangible, sustainable ecotourism outcomes.

5 Conclusion

This study shows that the limits of Tehran possess strong potential for sustainable ecotourism when ecological capability evaluation (ECE), high-resolution spatial analysis, and institutional review are applied in an integrated framework. Hydrological indicators—particularly surface and groundwater resources, precipitation, and flood risk—emerge as the most decisive factors for identifying suitable zones and ensuring long-term ecological sustainability. Embedding hydrology-based ECE into land-use planning can align ecotourism development with resource protection and reduce the risks associated with fragmented governance and uncontrolled urban expansion.

To operationalize this approach, a practical governance framework is proposed. Key elements include: (i) establishing a Tehran Ecotourism Governance Council to coordinate institutions and resolve regulatory conflicts, (ii) developing a Shared Spatial Information System that integrates hydrological, ecological, land-use, and infrastructure data, and (iii) enacting an Ecotourism Governance Bylaw with enforceable safeguards, zoning standards, and mechanisms for community participation. Such reforms would prevent unauthorized land-use changes, protect water-sensitive environments, and enhance both ecological resilience and local economic benefits. More broadly, this integrated model offers a transferable pathway for other semiarid and water-stressed metropolitan regions in Iran and beyond.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Research Ethics committees of Shahid Beheshti University. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s), and minor(s)’ legal guardian/next of kin, for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this research.

Author contributions

PK: Validation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Visualization, Software. HE: Investigation, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Data curation. SB: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. AD: Validation, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. MVM: Resources, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. SMMS: Validation, Conceptualization, Supervision, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing, Resources.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frwa.2025.1692586/full#supplementary-material

References

Agybetova, R., Zhakupov, A., Berdenov, Z., Abishov, N., Ylemessov, A., and Gizzatzhanova, A. (2023). Assessment of recreational suitability of Lake Alakol in the republic of Kazakhstan on hydrological indicators. Geo J. Tour. Geosites 46, 118–123. doi: 10.30892/gtg.46113-1007

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Akbari, M., Khodadad, M., Mousazadeh, H., and Roudgarsafari, V. (2017). Ecological capability evaluation of Tehran Province for ecotourism development using GIS. Tour. Space Q. 6, 117–132.

Google Scholar

Akbari, R., Pourmanafi, S., Soffianian, A. R., Galalizadeh, S., and Khodakarami, L. (2024). Enhancing ecotourism site suitability assessment using multi-criteria evaluation and NSGA-II. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 26, 28663–28698. doi: 10.1007/s10668-023-03835-4

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Albarzi-Manesh, M. (2024). Environmental and legal dimensions of Mining in Tehran’s mountain fringe: the Tochal greenstone mine case study : The Tehran Urban Planning and Research Center (Tehran, Iran: TUPRC).

Google Scholar

Alizadeh, H., and Amanpour, S. (2024). Town & Country Planning. 16, 19–35. doi: 10.22059/jtcp.2024.369184.670419

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Aminian, N., Naghavi, M. S., Jahaniyan, M., and Emami, S. M. (2017). Assessing the indicators of good governance in development of urban tourism:(case study: City of Tehran). J. Urban Econ. Manage. 5, 131–143.

Google Scholar

Arda, T., Bayrak, O. C., and Uzar, M. (2025). Analyzing coastal vulnerability using analytic hierarchy process and best–worst method: a case study of the Marmara gulf region. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 50, 1851–1869. doi: 10.1007/s13369-024-09128-w

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bahrami, M., Sarmadian, F., and Pazira, E. (2024). Integrating AHP (analytic hierarchy process) and GIS (geographic information system) for precision land use planning and ecological capacity assessment in Alborz Province, Iran. EQA Int. J. Environ. Qual. 64, 48–67. doi: 10.6092/issn.2281-4485/20020

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Baloch, Q. B., Shah, S. N., Iqbal, N., Sheeraz, M., Asadullah, M., Mahar, S., et al. (2023). Impact of tourism development upon environmental sustainability: a suggested framework for sustainable ecotourism. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 5917–5930. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-22496-w,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Behboudian, M., Anamaghi, S., Mahjouri, N., and Kerachian, R. (2023). Enhancing the resilience of ecosystem services under extreme events in socio-hydrological systems: a spatio-temporal analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 397:136437. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136437

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bunruamkaew, K., and Murayama, Y. (2011). Site suitability evaluation for ecotourism using GIS & AHP: A case study of Surat Thani province, Thailand. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 21, 269–278. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.07.024

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Canteiro, M., Córdova-Tapia, F., and Brazeiro, A. (2018). Tourism impact evaluation in protected areas: a tool to measure environmental effects. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 28, 220–227. doi: 10.1016/j.tmp.2018.09.007

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Casagrande, E., Recanati, F., Rulli, M. C., Bevacqua, D., and Melia, P. (2021). Water balance partitioning for ecosystem service assessment. A case study in the Amazon. Ecol. Indic. 121:107155. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107155

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Chen, H. S. (2015). The establishment and application of environment sustainability evaluation indicators for ecotourism environments. Sustainability 7, 4727–4746. doi: 10.3390/su7044727

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16, 297–334.

Google Scholar

Description of Specifications and Criteria for Construction, Operation and Grading of Ecotourism Resorts in Iran (2012). The Iranian Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts. Available online at: https://hchto.ir/fa/department/16 (Accessed November 27, 2021).

Google Scholar

Dhakad, S. (2025). Synergizing sustainability: integrating computational automation for water security and sustainable tourism. Comput. Autom. Water Secur. 2025, 411–426. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-33321-7.00013-5

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ebrahimi, M., Nejadsoleymani, H., and Mansouri Daneshvar, M. R. (2019). Land suitability map and ecological carrying capacity for the recognition of touristic zones in the Kalat region, Iran: a multi-criteria analysis based on AHP and GIS. Asia Pac. J. Reg. Sci. 3, 697–718. doi: 10.1007/s41685-019-00123-w

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Eftakhari, E., and Hajehforoshnia, S. (2024). Ecotourism and the role of human factors in environmental-ecological instability of rural areas (study area: Darband watershed around the Tehran metropolis). Sustain. Rural Dev. 8, 161–172. doi: 10.22034/jsrd.2024.441383.1179

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Equitable Water Distribution Law (1982). Colorado v. New Mexico, 459 U.S. 176. Available online at: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/459/176/.

Google Scholar

Frone, S. M., and Frone, D. F. (2013). Sustainable tourism and water supply and sanitation development in Romania. J. Tour. Hosp. Manage. 1, 140–153.

Google Scholar

Ghasemi, K. (2024). Enhancing urban livability: analyzing Tehran through equitable land use distribution. J. Urban. Manage. 13, 596–608. doi: 10.1016/j.jum.2024.06.005

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Gigović, L., Pamučar, D., Lukić, D., and Marković, S. (2016). GIS-Fuzzy DEMATEL MCDA model for the evaluation of the sites for ecotourism development: A case study of “Dunavski ključ” region, Serbia. Land Use Policy, 58, 348–365. doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.07.030

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hall, C. M. (2006). 17 Policy, Planning and Governance in Ecotourism. Ecotourism Book Series, 193. doi: 10.1079/9781845931346.0193

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Huang, S., Sheng, D., Wang, P., Xiao, J., Li, Q., and Liu, H. (2025). Assessment of ecotourism suitability in Qilian mountain national park. Sci. Rep. 15:19529. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-03400-1,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Itani, N., Harik, G., Alameddine, I., and El-Fadel, M. (2022). Managed aquifer recharge in karstic systems: site suitability mapping by coupling multi-criteria decision analysis with remote sensing and hydrologic modeling. J. Environ. Manag. 322:116162. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116162

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kayum, S., Shimatani, Y., and Minagawa, T. (2025). Assessment of coastal vulnerability along Bangladesh coast using analytical hierarchical process (AHP). Reg. Stud. Mar. Sci. 86:104211. doi: 10.1016/j.rsma.2025.104211

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kheikhah-Zarkesh, M., Almasi, N., and Taghizadeh, F. (2011). Ecotourism land capability evaluation using spatial multi-indicator method. Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 3, 693–700.

Google Scholar

Khosravi, M. J., Ghasemi, A., and Mohammadi, H. (2020). Impact of Tehran’s urban expansion on hydrology in Darakeh-Oveen watershed using SWAT. Geogr. Res. J. 33, 185–201. doi: 10.29252/geores.33.3.185,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Klepej, D., and Marot, N. (2024). Considering urban tourism in strategic spatial planning. Annals of Tourism Research Empirical Insights, 5:100136. doi: 10.1016/j.annale.2024.100136

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Lavajoo, M., Arghan, A., and Zand Moghadam, M. (2023). Exploring institutional strategies for attaining the objectives of the Tehran metropolitan plan. Q. J. Urban Reg. Dev. Plan. 8, 119–154. doi: 10.22054/urdp.2023.67110.1426

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Pers. Psychol. 28, 563–575. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, M., Zhao, Y., Sun, X., and Wang, L. (2020). Reservoir-induced hydrological changes in Taizi River. Water 12:2069.

Google Scholar

Lundén, A., Saarinen, J., and Hall, C. M. (2025). Institutional sustainability limits in tourism governance: Finland case. J. Ecotour. 24, 461–481. doi: 10.1080/14724049.2025.2458536,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Makhdoom, M. (2011). Guidelines for preparing and engineering Design of Park Management Plans for national and Forest parks : University Publishing Center.

Google Scholar

Maksin, M., and Milijic, S. (2010). Strategic planning for sustainable spatial and tourism development in Serbia. Spatium 23, 30–37. doi: 10.2298/SPAT1023030M

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Malovanyy, M., Boiaryn, M., Biedunkova, O., Voloshyn, V., and Netrobchuk, I. (2025). The impact of the ecological sustainability of landscapes on the formation of the hydro-ecological state in the upper part of the Prypiat River basin. Ecol. Quest. 36, 1–21. doi: 10.12775/EQ.2025.018

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Marlina, S., Astina, I. K., Utomo, D. H., and Kurniawati, E. (2022). Ecotourism management based on local wisdom for optimizing the function of cave water resources as a prevention of floods and droughts in Wakatobi regency, Indonesia. Geo J. Tourism Geosites 44, 1222–1232. doi: 10.30892/gtg.44406-938

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Meng, F. (2021). The impact of water resources and environmental improvement on the development of sustainable ecotourism. Desalin. Water Treat. 219, 40–50. doi: 10.5004/dwt.2021.26840

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mobaraki, O., Abdollahzadeh, M., and Kamelifar, Z. (2014). Site suitability evaluation for ecotourism using GIS and AHP: a case study of Isfahan townships. Manage. Sci. Lett. 4, 1893–1898. doi: 10.5267/j.msl.2014.6.038

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Moftakhar Juybari, M., Heshmatol Vaezin, S. M., Moeinaddini, M., Hirabayashi, S., Shirvany, A., Shahbazi, R., et al. (2025). Effectiveness of urban parks in reducing ambient PM₁₀ through deposition and dispersion: towards greener cities. Environ. Dev. Sustain. doi: 10.1007/s10668-025-06072-z

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mulyani, S., Ahsani, R. D. P., and Wijaya, D. N. (2021). Collaborative governance on ecotourism: Towards sustainable tourism development. Journal Borneo Administrator, 17, 319–334. doi: 10.24258/jba.v17i3.958

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Najafi, S., Roozbahani, A., Javadi, S., and Hashemi Shahdany, S. M. (2021). Evaluation of water resources in Zayandeh Rood Basin using integrated surface and groundwater footprint indices. J. Water Irrigat. Manage. 11, 15–30. doi: 10.22059/jwim.2021.313856.844

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Niknejad, M., Mahdavi, D. A., and Kalantari, S. (2015). Identification of suitable areas for ecotourism development by using analytic network process, case study: Khorram-Abad county. Geography and Territorial Spatial Arrangement, 5, 195–214. doi: 10.22111/gaij.2015.1921

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Nino, K., Mamo, Y., Mengesha, G., and Kibret, K. S. (2017). GIS based ecotourism potential assessment in Munessa Shashemene Concession Forest and its surrounding area, Ethiopia. Applied Geography, 82, 48–58. doi: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.02.010

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Nurhasanah, I. S., Hudalah, D., and Van den Broeck, P. (2023). Systematic Literature Review on Alternative Governance Arrangements for Resource Deficient Situations: Small Island. Island Studies Journal, 19, 1–23. doi: 10.24043/001c.85173

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Parton, W., Morgan, J., Smith, D., Del Grosso, S., Prihodko, L., LeCain, D., et al. (2012). Impact of precipitation dynamics on net ecosystem productivity. Glob. Change Biol. 18, 915–927. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02611.x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Paul, A., Islam, M. S., Jotisankasa, A., and Progga, S. T. (2025). Influence of rainfall infiltration and hydraulic conductivity on hillslope stability. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 43:300. doi: 10.1007/s10706-025-03269-x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Peterson, T. J., Western, A. W., and Argent, R. M. (2012). Analytical methods for ecosystem resilience: a hydrological investigation. Water Resour. Res. 48:2150. doi: 10.1029/2012WR012150

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rashidian, S., Hashjin, N. M., and Zali, N. (2022). Evaluation of the ecological capabilities of Kurdistan Province for the purpose of planning and development of ecotourism. Geographical Engineering of Territory, 6, 617–632.

Google Scholar

Saaty, T. L. (1977). A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structures. J. Math. Psychol. 15, 234–281.

Google Scholar

Sadeghi, H., and Haseli, M. (2025). Assessment the vulnerability of rural tourism destinations against flood risk in mountainous regions (case study: Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province). J. Environ. Res. Mountain. Reg. 1, 1–14. doi: 10.22034/ermr.2025.63294

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Salma,, Nikhil, S., Danumah, J. H., Prasad, M. K., Nazar, N., Saha, S., et al. (2023). Prediction capability of the MCDA-AHP model in wildfire risk zonation of a protected area in the southern Western Ghats. Environ. Sustain. 6, 59–72. doi: 10.1007/s42398-022-00259-0

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Šiljeg, A., Cavrić, B., Šiljeg, S., Marić, I., and Barada, M. (2019). Land suitability zoning for ecotourism planning and development of Dikgatlhong dam, Botswana. Geogr. Pannon. 23:633. doi: 10.5937/gp23-20633

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Sobhani, P., Esmaeilzadeh, H., Sadeghi, S. M. M., and Wolf, I. D. (2024). Land potential for ecotourism development and assessing landscape ecology in areas on protection of Iran. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 26, 8103–8137. doi: 10.1007/s10668-023-02978-8,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Sobhani, P., Esmaeilzadeh, H., Sadeghi, S. M. M., Wolf, I., and Deljouei, A. (2022). Prioritizing water resources for conservation in a land of water crisis: the case of protected areas of Iran. Water 14:4121. doi: 10.3390/w14244121

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Southon, M. P., and van der Merwe, C. D. (2018). Flooded with risks or opportunities: exploring flooding impacts on tourist accommodation. Afr. J. Hosp. Tour. Leis. 7, 1–16.

Google Scholar

Statistical Center of Iran (2021). Available online at: http://amar.org.ir (Accessed November 17, 2021).

Google Scholar

Suyadnya, I. W., Prianti, D. D., Kanto, S., and Putra, I. N. D. (2025). The local dynamics of global ecotourism trend in the old Balinese village, Indonesia. Cogent Arts Humanit. 12:2451516. doi: 10.1080/23311983.2025.2451516

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tabrizi, N., and Zahedi Kalaki, E. (2018). Evaluation of ecological capability and identification of suitable areas to develop sustainable ecotourism using MCE and WLC method case study: Gorgan. Geographic Space, 18, 207–224.

Google Scholar

Tang, X., Liu, F., Hu, X., and Feng, J. (2025). Assessment of ecological carrying capacity and spatiotemporal evolution analysis for arid areas based on the AHP-EW model: a case study of Urumqi, China. Land 14:1143. doi: 10.3390/land14061143

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tao, G., Guo, L., Xiao, H., Chen, Q., Nimbalkar, S., Feng, S., et al. (2025). Assessment of vegetation cover and rainfall infiltration effects on slope stability. Appl. Sci. 15:9831. doi: 10.3390/app15179831

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tehran Regional Water Authority (2020). Report of groundwater resources studies in Tehran Province. Tehran Regional Water Authority, 632 p.

Google Scholar

The Tehran Urban Planning and Research Center (TUPRC) (2025). Governance gaps in Tehran’s urban periphery. Tehran, Iran: TUSC Report.

Google Scholar

Waltz, C. F., and Bausell, B. R. (1981). Nursing research: Design statistics and computer analysis. Pennsylvania, United States: Davis F. A.

Google Scholar

Wang, H., Zhang, Y., Wang, Q., Yu, J., and Yuan, C. (2025). Spatial assessment of ecotourism development suitability incorporating carrying capacity in the Yellow River estuary National Park. Sustainability 17:8449. doi: 10.3390/su17188449

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Wu, J., Zhang, H., and Hu, Q. (2025). Evaluation method of ecological carrying capacity of vegetation landscape in nature reserves based on improved analytic hierarchy process. Int. J. Environ. Technol. Manag. 28, 341–354. doi: 10.1504/IJETM.2025.148984,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Yasin, K. H., and Woldemariam, G. W. (2023). GIS-based ecotourism potentiality mapping in the east Hararghe zone, Ethiopia. Heliyon 9:e18567. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18567,

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Q., Chen, Y., Liu, H., and Wang, J. (2018). Evaluation of ecological instream flow considering hydrological alterations in the Yellow River basin, China. Glob. Planet. Chang. 160, 61–74. doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.11.012

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, S., Zhang, Z., Yu, H., and Zhang, T. (2024). Assessment and empirical research on the suitability of eco-tourism development in nature reserves of China: a multi-type comparative perspective. Land 13:438. doi: 10.3390/land13040438

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ziari, K., and Mosleh, L. (2025). Enhancing environmental sustainability through the sustainable urban tourism: case study of northern Tehran, Iran. Geo J. Tour. Geosites 58, 492–500. doi: 10.30892/gtg.58146-1431

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Appendix

APPENDIX A AHP expert questionnaire for indicator weighting.

University of Tehran – Department of Environmental Planning.

Research Project: Integrated Ecohydrological and Institutional Framework for Sustainable Ecotourism Planning in the Tehran Metropolitan Region.

This questionnaire aims to collect expert judgments for determining the relative importance (weights) of indicators influencing ecotourism suitability. Your responses will remain confidential and will be used solely for academic research purposes. Please read the instructions carefully before completing each section.

Instructions for respondents.

For each pair of indicators, please indicate which one is more important for determining ecotourism suitability and to what extent. Use Saaty’s (1977) 1–9 scale:

• 1 = Equal importance.

• 3 = Moderate importance.

• 5 = Strong importance.

• 7 = Very strong importance.

• 9 = Extreme importance.

Intermediate values (2, 4, 6, 8) may also be used.

Section 1. Physical dimension.

Please compare the following physical indicators based on their importance for ecotourism suitability.

Section 2. Ecohydrological dimension.

Please compare the following ecohydrological indicators based on their importance for ecotourism suitability.

Section 3. Socio-economic dimension.

Please compare the following socio-economic indicators based on their importance for ecotourism suitability.

Thank you for your valuable contribution!

Signature: ___________________________ Date: ___________________________.