Harnessing indigenous knowledge for dairy development: participatory insights from Eastern Rajasthan’s Tribal Belt

Introduction: Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) plays a vital role in livestock management, offering low-cost, eco-friendly, and locally adaptable solutions for dairy farming. Despite their significance, these practices are often undocumented, underutilized, and face challenges of declining transmission across generations. Therefore, it is essential to systematically collect and record such indigenous practices and scientifically validate them to evaluate their relevance and applicability under current farming conditions. So, the research study was planned to document and validate the ITKs used by tribal dairy farmers and to identify the constraints faced by them in adoption of ITKs.

Methods: This research employed a mixed sampling methodology and the data collection was done by personal interviews with households. The data were analyzed using various statistical techniques including Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index computation and Garret Ranking technique.

Results: Out of the 44 documented ITKs, 37 were found rational and effective, particularly in broad areas of breeding, feeding (milk production) and health care such as inducing heat, treating repeat breeding, retained placenta, prolapse, diarrhea, bloat, wound healing, and enhancing milk yield. However, major constraints faced by tribal farmers in adoption of ITKs included lack of scientific validation, limited awareness among young farmers, absence of standardized dosage, and inadequate institutional support.

Discussion: The findings confirm that ITKs are socially acceptable, economically viable, and ecologically sustainable for dairy farming. Yet, their wider adoption requires scientific validation, proper documentation, and integration with modern veterinary practices. Addressing the identified constraints through policy support, farmer training, and participatory research can revitalize ITKs for sustainable livestock management.

1 Introduction

India possesses a long-standing heritage of traditional health management systems such as Ayurveda, Unani, and Homeopathy, which have been applied to livestock care since ancient times (Bhanotra and Gupta, 2023; Pushpangadan et al., 2016). These methods, passed orally from generation to generation, represent a holistic and sustainable approach to animal husbandry. The Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) associated with livestock rearing is as ancient as the domestication of animals itself (Siripurapu et al., 2024). Over the past few decades, there has been a growing awareness among policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners about the role of indigenous knowledge in fostering sustainable development (Montgomery, 2012). This importance was first formally recognized in the Brundtland Commission Report (Brundtland, 1987), Our Common Future, and later reaffirmed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (United Nations, 1992) in the Agenda 21 framework and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Both initiatives highlighted that sustainable management of natural resources can only be achieved by valuing local knowledge and integrating it with scientific approaches (Johnson, 1992). The renewed interest in indigenous systems is also linked to the global ecological crisis, which has exposed the limitations of over-reliance on modern technologies and the overexploitation of natural resources. ITKs represent centuries of cumulative wisdom, built through trial and error, keen observation, and adaptation to local ecological conditions. They serve as valuable resources for researchers, extension workers, and farmers in framing sustainable farming strategies and experimental designs. These practices are not only effective and affordable but are also less harmful to the environment compared to many modern interventions (Devi et al., 2014).

The term “indigenous” underscores that this knowledge originates from local communities, though it may also evolve through interaction with external actors and innovations. The term “technical” signifies the specialized and practical nature of such knowledge, often acquired through experience, observation, and skill (Sankaran, 2005). Consequently, individuals who engage deeply with traditional practices develop a more refined and detailed understanding than those with limited exposure. Importantly, sustainable development cannot be realized without incorporating the wisdom of local communities (Mondal et al., 2023; Reintjes et al., 1992). Thus, documentation, validation, and preservation of ITKs are crucial, not only for sustaining productivity and ecological balance but also for ensuring the continuity of these valuable traditions for future generations.

2 Indigenous Technical Knowledge

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), often referred to as “traditional knowledge, indigenous knowledge, or local knowledge”, represents the accumulated experiences, practices, and wisdom of specific regional or community groups. This knowledge system has evolved over time and is sustained through oral transmission across generations, reflecting the cultural heritage and lived experiences of these communities (Borah et al., 2023; Ajibade, 2008; Kumar, 2016). Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) comprises the collective wisdom and practices developed through generations of experiential learning in addressing diverse life challenges, often rooted in specific cultural contexts (Shanjeevika et al., 2019; Wang, 1988). They embody a repository of traditional insights, beliefs, and practices transmitted across generations to ensure the sustainable use, management, and conservation of natural resources, including soil, plants, and other living organisms (Devi et al., 2014).

The transmission of ITKs largely occurs through oral and cultural traditions such as folklore, myths, rituals, folk songs, proverbs, puppetry, and other indigenous forms of communication (Acharya and Shrivastava, 2008; Swathi and Babu, 2009; Gogoi et al., 2024). They represents local and tacit wisdom that is transmitted orally, through observation, imitation, and practical demonstration. It is experiential in nature, developed through repeated practice rather than formal theory, and evolves continuously over time (Warren, 1991). They serve as the foundation for decision-making in diverse areas such as agriculture, weather prediction, soil and water conservation, post-harvest handling, agroforestry, biodiversity preservation, livestock and fish management, food and nutrition, and even climate adaptation and disaster preparedness (Shenoy, 2012).

As a collective resource, they offer valuable insights into how communities have adapted to and interacted with their dynamic environments. It represents a cumulative knowledge system shaped by generations of lived experiences, creativity, and adaptive strategies to address natural, socio-economic, and cultural challenges (Morya et al., 2016; Dey and Sarkar, 2011). Emerging from years of experimentation with locally available resources, these are recognized as socially acceptable, cost-effective, and ecologically sustainable practices that minimize risks in livelihood systems (Majhi, 2008; Bhanotra and Gupta, 2016).

2.1 ITKs and tribal people of India

India’s diverse cultural traditions and varied agro-climatic conditions have led to the existence of a vast reservoir of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) across different regions of the country (Lenka and Satpathy, 2020). Sources of such knowledge include farmers, village elders, folklore, songs, poetry and ancient manuscripts, all of which help preserve ITKs embedded within rural societies (Satapathy et al., 2002). Tribal communities develop ITK based on their way of life, their day-to-day experiences, improving constantly through experimentation and transferring such knowledge to next generations often through customs, traditions, rituals, folklore, arts, and belief systems (Siripurapu et al., 2024; CBD, 2021). ITKs are often adapted according to the local culture and traditions, subsistence, economic needs, and environment. They are very dynamic and continuously changing and evolving in time.

The tried and tested ITK pertaining to agriculture and other allied sectors is often intricately interwoven with the socio-cultural fabric and traditional practices followed by them (ICAR, 2004; Prakash et al., 2009; Siripurapu and Iyengar, 2023). Tribal communities are the torch bearers of the ethno-veterinary knowledge (Nisha et al., 2025). However, these communities but often lack access to economic, political, and social resources, depend on their indigenous knowledge systems and practices for livelihood, especially given their poor socio-economic conditions and unique agro-ecological settings (Singh, 2021). Their close interaction with local biological resources and adaptation to diverse agro-climatic environments has enabled them to establish a harmonious and sustainable relationship with nature (Gogoi et al., 2021; Fernandaz et al., 2020).

Animal husbandry and crop cultivation is an integral part of the tribal life which help their livelihood (Kumar et al., 2016a). Over time, farmers have developed and adopted various traditional or indigenous methods for managing dairy animals, commonly referred to as ethno-veterinary practices. These practices encompass locally evolved animal healthcare systems based on native resources, experiences, and cultural beliefs (Akhoon et al., 2022; Ahmad et al., 2016). Since time immemorial, Indigenous communities have been applying ITKs and ethno-veterinary practices (Sultan et al., 2022; Balaji and Chakravarthy, 2010) to increase milk production, improve fertility, retention of placenta, prolapse, care for the young stock, animal health care (Mir et al., 2020), and preparation of traditional livestock-based products (Shubeena et al., 2018b; Devaki and Mathialagan, 2015; Padmakumar, 1998).

The importance of ITK in dairy farming is well recognized, its potential contribution to sustainable livestock management in comparison to modern veterinary methods requires deeper understanding. Modern veterinary care largely relies on chemical-based treatments, standardized protocols, and pharmaceutical interventions; however, these approaches are often expensive and may not be environmentally sustainable for smallholder or tribal farmers. Moreover, issues such as side effects, drug resistance, and growing concerns over their long-term efficacy have raised questions about their continued use (Devaki and Mathialagan, 2015). Giving a full time attention to conventional medicine and total negligence toward the traditional practices can prove disadvantageous to both the systems as the two complement each other. The modern scientific drugs though albeit provided the immediate gains and have numerous advantages over indigenous medicines but it in no way means that indigenous practices are altogether useless and unscientific (Shubeena et al., 2022).

ITKs provide eco-friendly, cost-effective, and locally adaptable solutions that align well with sustainable livestock practices. They are resource-efficient and socially acceptable, relying primarily on easily accessible local plant-based resources (Das and Tripathi, 2009; Kumar, 2016). Several examples demonstrate the successful incorporation of ITK into modern veterinary systems. For instance, the use of turmeric (Curcuma longa) for wound healing and neem (Azadirachta indica) for controlling ectoparasites have been validated scientifically and are now utilized in Ayurvedic and ethnoveterinary formulations (Ponnusamy et al., 2017; Saurav et al., 2023). These examples highlight the potential of traditional practices to complement modern methods and strengthen sustainable dairy development in tribal regions. Integrating ITKs with modern veterinary approaches can help build a balanced system that ensures animal welfare, environmental safety, and economic resilience among tribal dairy farmers (Meena et al., 2024; Shubeena et al., 2022).

2.2 Purpose and objectives of the study

Despite the widespread use of ITKs in rural areas, these practices have not received sufficient attention in terms of identification, preservation, documentation, and refinement to align them with present-day farming systems, which has, in turn, overshadowed the value of indigenous practices. Most of the indigenous practices are having the scientific reasons for their working and the same needs to be explored for authentication and its validation. Therefore, it is essential to systematically collect and record such indigenous practices and scientifically validate them to evaluate their relevance and applicability under current farming conditions.

In this light, the study was planned with the following objectives

● to document and validate the Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) used by tribal dairy farmers

● to identify the constraints faced by tribal dairy farmers in adoption of ITKs.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Study area

The research was carried out in the eastern region of Rajasthan, India (Figure 1). The purposeful reason for selection of Rajasthan State comprises of two factors viz. Tribal Population and Dairy farming status. Rajasthan, the largest state in India by area, ranks fourth in the country in terms of tribal population (Census, 2011). It is home to a wide variety of tribal communities, including Bhil, Meena, Santhal, Gond, Gadia, Lohar, Meghval, Rabari, and Gurasia, among others.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Maps depicting the selected districts of Rajasthan.

Animal husbandry in Rajasthan serves as a key economic sector, contributing around 10.21% to the state’s total GDP. Agriculture and dairy farming have traditionally remained closely interlinked and mutually supportive activities in the state. Rajasthan ranks second in milk production (34.73 million tonnes of milk), accounting for approximately 14.51% of total production, with per capita milk availability of 1171 g/day (BAHS, 2024). The state has a total bovine population of 27.60 million, which includes 13.90 million cattle and 13.70 million buffalo, ranking sixth and second in the country (Livestock Census, 2019). Milk accounts for about 28% of the state’s agricultural GDP and serves as a major source of livelihood for its population.

Out of total bovine milk production, 59.99 per cent accounts buffalo milk, 26.52 per cent by indigenous cows and the remaining 13.49 per cent was of cross breed cows (BAHS, 2024). Rajasthan is home to three indigenous cattle breeds Rathi, Tharparker, and Nagori known for their high endurance. Alongside these, large populations of Gir, Malvi, Kankrej, and Hariana cattle are also present in the state. While Rajasthan does not have a native buffalo breed, significant numbers of Murrah and Surti buffaloes are commonly reared in the region (Timba, 2023). Apart from these, Multidimensional poverty index of Rajasthan is 0.065 and ranks 15^th among the states (NITI Aayog, 2023). Rajasthan ranks 18^th in SDG India index with overall score of 67 (NITI Aayog, 2024). In Rajasthan, the livestock sector plays a major role in rural livelihood which further gain more importance because agriculture remain uncertain in the state due to dependency of arid and semi-arid zones on monsoon (Chand et al., 2021).

The State frequently experiences droughts and famines, leading to recurring crop failures since much of its agriculture depends on rainfall. Under such climatic conditions, the dairy sector offers farmers a reliable and sustainable source of income throughout the year.

3.2 Selection of sampled respondents

The present study employed an ex-post-facto research design as the manifestations might have already taken place prior to investigation and thus the variables cannot be inherently manipulable. A mixed sampling approach, combining purposive sampling and multistage random sampling, was utilized to select the respondents for the study. Purposively, three districts (Figure 2) were selected having high population of tribals (second highest coverage of districts with 26.50, 22.30 and 2.10 per cent of ST population) in eastern region of Rajasthan. Additionally, a multistage random sampling method was employed to select tribal farmers who had been engaged in dairy farming for at least five years and owned at least one milch animal at the time of the study. Farmers were randomly chosen to obtain the final sample for collecting the required data and information.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Sampling plan of the study.

At the first stage, one block from each of the three purposively selected districts (Figure 2) were chosen based on the highest tribal population density. At the second stage, two village clusters (each village along with its hamlets) were selected from each block. At the third stage, 60 respondents were chosen from each village, resulting in a total sample of 360 respondents for the study. The combined use of stratification and randomization ensured that the sample accurately reflected the broader target population in the study area.

3.3 Data collection

Primary data were gathered from the respondents using a carefully designed interview schedule through personal interviews, as well as via Google Forms to validate the rationality of the identified ITKs with the help of experts. Data collection began with personal interviews employing a pretested interview schedule, which was refined before being finalized for the survey. All schedules were completed, and the collected data were subsequently analyzed to obtain the required information.

3.4 Analytical framework

3.4.1 Validation of ITKs

Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is a crucial step to assess and measure the effectiveness of traditional practices. It helps in examining the rationale behind their use and in verifying the claims made by users or informants (Singh, 2021). Validation essentially determines how far these practices are scientific and rational (Kumar, 2016). In the present study, validation of ITKs was done in two-step process:

i. Rationalization of ITKs

ii. Validation by Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index Methodology (MPEM)

3.4.1.1 Rationalization of ITKs

The process of identification and separation of useful Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) from the pool of collected and documented practices is termed rationalization. The relevance of an ITK depends on the extent of its scientific rationality, which implies the degree to which the practice is logical, supported by scientific reasoning, and backed by long-term experiential evidence (Husain and Sundaramari, 2011; Singh, 2021). A total of 44 ITKs related to dairy farming management (covering breeding, milk production, and health care) were evaluated by 30 subject-matter experts/scientists with substantial expertise in dairy science and related disciplines. Their assessments were recorded on a four-point rating scale to determine the scientific rationality of each practice (Table 1). The experts judged the rationality of ITKs based on their professional knowledge and experience using the 4-point continuum scale (Venkatesan and Sundaramari, 2014).

Table 1

Table 1. Scoring method used to evaluate the rationality of ITKs.

Subsequently, a weighted mean score was computed for each ITK. Practices receiving a score of 2.5 or higher were considered rational, while those with a score below 2.5 were deemed irrational.

3.4.1.2 Validation by mean perceived effectiveness index methodology

In the present study, the perceived effectiveness of rationalized ITKs was assessed using the Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index (MPEI) methodology proposed by Sundaramari (2001), with minor modifications. The perceived effectiveness of an ITK was operationalized as the degree to which a tribal key informants recognized its potential in addressing different field-related challenges in dairy farming management. In other words, it reflects how dairy farmers perceived the capacity of such practices to resolve the problems they encounter while rearing indigenous cattle and buffalo (Kumar, 2016). It is the perception of the respondent about the attributes of the indigenous technology like efficacy (is the degree to which an ITK is considered to be effective in the solution of a particular production problem in dairy farming), accessibility (is the degree to which an ITK related material is easily available in the locality), cost-effectiveness (is the degree to which an ITK is cheap and affordable for tribal farmers), observability (is the degree to which the results are visible after application of an ITK), adaptability (is the degree to which an ITK is suitable and compatible to the bio-physical and socio-economic environment of tribal farmers for dairy management) and simplicity (is the degree to which an ITK is easy and simple in application). The Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index consisted of six attributes is given with their relevancy weightage (Table 2).

Table 2

Table 2. Attributes of ITKs and their relevancy weightage.

The relevancy ratio was defined as the proportion of the actual score obtained by a trait to the maximum possible score it could achieve. This ratio ranged from 0.20 to 1.00 and was used as the relevancy weight for each trait. Symbolically, if W1, W2, W3, W4, W5, and W6 represent the six weights on a 5-point continuum, and n1, n2, …, n6 denote the number of judges assigning the respective weights W1, W2, W3, …, W6, etc. The relevancy weightage “R” of the trait was then determined using the following formula:

$$\text{Relevancy Weightage }(\text{R})=\frac{n1R1+n2R2+n3R3+n4R4+n5R5+n6R6}{W\sum nt}$$

Where, W is the maximum of W1, W2, W3, W4, W5 and W6.

W = 6 in the present study

$$\text{i}.\text{e}.\text{ R}=\frac{\sum n1W1R}{W\sum nt}$$

The final list of six attributes was administered to 30 tribal farmers from the study area who were not part of the main sample. They were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of each selected rational indigenous practice against each attribute using a 3-point scale: Agree (3), Undecided (2), and Disagree (1). The Perceived Effectiveness Index (PEI) score of a particular ITK pertaining to dairy farming management was calculated using the formula.

$$\text{PEI Score}=\frac{W1R1+W2R2+W3R3+W4R4+W5R5+W6R6}{R1+R2+R3+R4+R5+R6}$$

where, R1, R2, R3…. R6 are the relevancy weights of six traits and W1, W2 …. W6 were the scores obtained for the traits for an ITK from a respondent. To obtain the Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index (MPEI) for a specific ITK, then the mean score of Perceived Effectiveness Index scores obtained to arrive at the acquired from all the respondents for that specific ITK was calculated.

$$\text{MPEI}=\frac{\text{PEI Score of Individual tribal Key informant for each ITK}}{\text{Total Sample Size}}$$

Based on MPEI score, all the ITKs were categorized into three categories. Those ITKs with the MPEI between 2.00 and 2.5 were deliberated as moderately effective ITKs, those having MPEI of above 2.5 were regarded as highly effective and less than 2.0 as less effective.

3.4.2 Constraints faced by the respondents in adoption of ITKs

The data regarding constraints faced by farmers were collected using a pre tested interview schedule. The farmers were asked to rank the constraints from 1-14. The responses were analyzed by using Garret ranking technique (Garrett and Woodworth, 1969).

Garret ranking technique: This method is used to rank the respondents’ preferences for various factors, with those having the highest mean values regarded as the most significant.

Steps:

1. Assigning ranks to the factors based on the responses from respondents

2. Converting ranks into percent positions with the help of formula

$$Percent position=\frac{(\text{Rij}-0.5)}{Nj}x 100$$

where, Rij = Rank given for the i^th variable by j^th respondents

Nj = Number of variable ranked by j^th respondents

3. Assigning scores to percent positions with the help of Garret table

4. Calculating mean scores of all the factors

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Category of ITKs

During the course of investigations, a total of 44 items of different ITKs on dairy farming were documented which were categorized into 3 broad areas of breeding, feeding (milk production) and health care as depicted in Table 3. Majority of the ITKs documented were on health care (47.72%), followed by breeding and reproduction (40.90%) and milk production (11.36%).

Table 3

Table 3. Categorization of the documented Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK).

4.2 Rationality and perceived effectiveness of the documented ITKs

Rationality analysis revealed that out of the 44 practices evaluated, 37 were rational and the remaining 7 were irrational (Table 3). The ITKs which scored weighted mean scores 2.5 and above were deliberated as rational and those scored less than 2.5 were deliberated as irrational. The rational ITKs are accepted for further validation. Six parameters namely, efficacy, accessibility, cost-effectiveness, observability, adaptability and simplicity were identified to assess the mean perceived effectiveness of the particularized ITKs. Perceived effectiveness of the ITKs is the degree of relative usefulness of the ITKs as perceived by the farmers and experts in resolving problems in dairy farming. The findings on the perceived effectiveness of various ITKs, as measured by the Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index (MPEI), provide critical insights into which indigenous practices are trusted and regularly utilized by farmers.

High MPEI values indicated ITKs that are perceived as reliable and effective, highlighting practices that can be prioritized for scientific validation and policy support. The effectiveness of ITKs for each category is described below:

4.2.1 Usage of ITKs for addressing various breeding and reproduction related problems

4.2.1.1 ITKs used for inducing heat in cattle

Timely identification of heat in dairy animals is crucial for profitable dairy farming, as missing a heat period often results in economic losses due to additional feeding costs and prolonged dry periods. It has been estimated through NDRI study that farmers lose approximately ₹4,000 for each missed heat cycle in dairy animals (Srivastava et al., 2013). Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) also contributes significantly to inducing heat in animals at the appropriate time. As shown in Table 4, all four ITKs related to heat induction were rated rational, each scoring above the 2.5 threshold. Specifically, ITK numbers 1, 2, and 5 recorded rationality scores of 3.65, 3.21, and 3.32, and were perceived as highly effective with scores of 2.95, 2.87, and 2.64, respectively. This effectiveness may be attributed to the widespread availability of Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum) and mustard (Brassica campestris) in the study area.

Table 4

Table 4. Documented and validated ITKs for inducing heat in animals.

Bajra is a rich source of protein and carbohydrates, while mustard contributes fat and bioactive compounds that enhance reproductive efficiency (Yadav et al., 2014; Nigam and Sharma, 2010; Nag, 2007). Since most farmers cultivate Bajra and mustard themselves, these practices were also found to be highly cost-effective. The use of germinated wheat can be explained by its high protein and vitamin E content, as sprouted seeds of cereals and legumes are well-documented to improve fertility due to their rich nutrient profile. Mustard cake, with its 30–35% protein content and balanced amino acid composition particularly methionine and lysine has also been reported to promote heat induction (Ponnusamy et al., 2017). Similarly, jaggery is traditionally given to animals to provide energy, body warmth, and to enhance feed palatability (Rani, 2023; Kumar et al., 2018a; Bhuyan, 2016; Yadav et al., 2014; Kumar and Bharati, 2013, Phondani et al., 2010). This reflects their ecological advantage in maintaining animal health without chemical residues and their economic benefit in reducing veterinary expenditure both critical for resource-constrained tribal farmers.

4.2.1.2 ITKs used for removal of retained placenta

Retention of placenta (RP) is a reproductive disorder in dairy animals where the fetal membranes are not expelled within 12–24 hours after calving (Chand et al., 2021). Also termed retained fetal membranes or retained cleansing, the condition arises when the fetal side of the placenta fails to detach from the maternal side of the uterus after parturition (Hanafi et al., 2001). Normally, membrane separation occurs soon after the calf is delivered, and premature detachment can even contribute to stillbirth. The condition is clinically defined when fetal membranes are not eliminated within 24 hours of calving (Lester et al., 1956). Factors such as dystocia, metabolic disorders like milk fever, and multiple births are considered the major causes of RP (Meena et al., 2024). The condition is typically recognized by degenerating, discolored, and foul-smelling membranes hanging from the vulva; however, in some cases, the membranes remain inside the uterus, with their presence indicated only by a putrid vaginal discharge.

Persual of Table 5 indicated that the first two ITK practices for managing retained placenta in dairy animals were found to be rational, with scores of 3.68 and 3.61, and were perceived as highly effective, scoring 2.77 and 2.96. The use of Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), and Rice (Oryza sativa) was considered effective primarily because these resources are locally available, inexpensive, and easy to prepare in rural areas. From a scientific perspective, paddy (Oryza sativa), widely cultivated in the region, is regarded as a “heating substance,” implying that its inherent properties may assist in breaking down the uterine lining, thereby facilitating placental expulsion (Lans et al., 2003). Similarly, sugarcane leaves, being rich in crude fiber, can enhance gut motility. This gastrointestinal activity may indirectly stimulate uterine contractions through shared visceral reflex pathways, ultimately aiding in the removal of retained fetal membranes.

Table 5

Table 5. Documented and validated ITKs for removal of retained placenta.

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) is believed to prevent excessive blood loss, and the tannins present in its root cortex possess strong astringent properties that may help in tightening the uterine muscles, thereby facilitating the expulsion of retained fetal membranes. This finding is consistent with earlier reports by Verma et al. (2025); Selogatwe et al. (2021); Yadav et al. (2014); Nigam and Sharma (2010), Satapathy (2010), and Kumar et al. (2018b). Similarly, Mango (Mangifera indica) has been reported to contain vitamins A, B, and C, along with tannins, gallic acid, fats, sugars, and gums, which together contribute to its laxative, diuretic, diaphoretic, astringent, and antiscorbutic properties, while also aiding in controlling bleeding and uterine prolapse (Ponnusamy et al., 2017). Review of documented ITKs further suggests that preparation of decoctions by boiling plant parts is a widely adopted practice across regions, preferred over directly feeding whole plants or plant parts, for managing retention of placenta in dairy animals.

4.2.1.3 ITKs used for treatment of repeat breeder

Repeat breeding is defined as a condition in which a clinically normal cow or heifer fails to conceive after three or more consecutive inseminations, and such animals are categorized as repeat breeders (Chand et al., 2021). This disorder is one of the most commonly reported reproductive issues under field conditions (Shubeena et al., 2018a). Analysis of Table 6 indicated that all three ITKs documented for the management of repeat breeding were adjudged rational, with scores of 2.58, 2.74, and 2.89, and were also perceived as effective, receiving scores of 2.12, 2.10, and 2.33, respectively. The use of barley, wheat flour, and mustard oil was found beneficial in alleviating repeat breeding problems, primarily because these resources are easily available in rural areas, inexpensive, and simple to use. From a scientific perspective, barley is a rich source of proteins, vitamins, and micronutrients, which may contribute to improved reproductive efficiency (Adhikary, 2015; Das and Tripathi, 2009). The present findings are consistent with earlier studies reported by Chand (2011); Chand et al. (2021); Kumar et al. (2018b), and Verma et al. (2025).

Table 6

Table 6. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of repeat breeder.

4.2.1.4 ITKs used for treatment of prolapse

Uterine prolapse refers to the expulsion of the uterus through the vulva, usually occurring soon after parturition, with the inner lining turned outward, whereas vaginal prolapse involves the protrusion of the vagina, sometimes along with the cervix, through the vulva (Chand et al., 2021). As observed in Table 7, farmers generally adopted similar treatment approaches for both uterine and vaginal prolapse. All four documented ITKs for prolapse management were rated as rational and effective. Traditional practices such as feeding combinations of desi ghee with black pepper, desi ghee with pumpkin or bottle gourd, and Vachellia nilotica flowers with cardamom are believed to aid in restoring uterine tone, alleviating inflammation, and supporting metabolic functions. Desi ghee provides a concentrated source of energy, while black pepper and cardamom enhance digestion and circulation.

Table 7

Table 7. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of prolapse.

Additionally, pumpkin and bottle gourd contribute to hydration and overall recovery. These observations align with earlier reports by Verma et al. (2025); Chand et al. (2021); Kumar et al. (2018b); Shubeena et al. (2018a), and Rao et al. (2014).

4.2.2 Usage of ITKs to increase in milk production

Maximizing milk production is essential for dairy farmers, as it ensures both economic stability and nutritional security. Supplying animals with a balanced diet aligned with their genetic potential can increase milk yield by 2–14% and enhance milk fat content by 0.2-0.15% (Singh et al., 2024). Findings from Table 8 highlight that indigenous feeding practices in dairy management have significant potential to improve milk output. Among them, the most effective ITK was the routine feeding of mustard oil cake (Brassica campestris), which recorded the highest Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index (MPEI) of 3.24 and was classified as rational and highly effective (R+HE). These results are consistent with Singh et al. (2020), who highlighted that mustard oil cake is a valuable source of digestible protein and essential fatty acids, contributing to improved milk yield in lactating cows.

Table 8

Table 8. Documented and validated ITKs for increasing milk production.

Similarly, the practice of feeding a mixture of soybean, cowpea, and wheat (50 g each), either with concentrate or as a boiled preparation (MPEI 2.65, R+HE) is scientifically justified since these legumes provide bypass protein that enhances both milk quantity and quality (Yadav and Meena, 2021). The use of fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum-graecum) with jaggery from calving to 30 days (MPEI 2.69, R+E) reflects traditional knowledge and is supported by Revathi et al. (2020), who observed significant improvements in milk yield and composition following fenugreek supplementation. Another practice, involving cooked Bengal gram, fenugreek, mustard seeds, and jaggery (MPEI 2.95), combines energy-rich and galactagogue ingredients, supplying critical nutrients for milk synthesis, which echoes the synergistic benefits reported by Das and Roy (2022). Additionally, alternating the feeding of desi ghee and mustard oil (MPEI 2.71) was perceived as effective, likely due to its role in improving energy balance and fat availability post-calving. The practice of feeding soybean, gur, and wheat to boost milk yield has also been documented by Rani (2023) and Subrahmanyeswari and Chander (2013).

4.2.3 Usage of ITKs for addressing various health related problems

4.2.3.1 ITKs used for treatment of diarrhea

Diarrhea is one of the most frequently occurring ailments in dairy animals, leading to severe fluid loss, dehydration, and depletion of essential body salts. Its causes are varied and include bacterial or viral infections, intestinal parasites, toxic plants, harmful chemicals, poor diet, overfeeding on milk or lush grass, food allergies, and even stress. The condition is particularly severe in calves, where it can prove fatal if timely intervention is not provided. To manage this problem, farmers often rely on household-based Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) practices. As shown in Table 9, out of the three documented ITKs, two (1 and 2) were identified as rational and effective. Feeding a mixture of besan (chickpea flour) with chaas (buttermilk) not only adds bulk but also supplies probiotics, thereby promoting gut motility and supporting beneficial microflora to improve gastrointestinal health (Karim and Mahmood, 2022). Similarly, bael fruit contains bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, and triterpenes that are known for their anti-diarrheal properties help to reduce irritation and swelling in the digestive tract, which is beneficial for diarrhea and dysentery (Ponnusamy et al., 2017). Owing to their easy availability, simple preparation, and minimal side effects, these practices were perceived by farmers as effective solutions for diarrhea management (Meena et al., 2024).

Table 9

Table 9. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of diarrhea.

4.2.3.2 ITKs used for treatment of bloat

Bloat, or tympanitis, is a critical digestive disorder in ruminants, particularly dairy and beef cattle, characterized by excessive ruminal distension. In severe cases, the inflated rumen exerts pressure on the lungs and heart, leading to impaired respiration and, in extreme instances, cardiac failure (Peter and Levy, 2011). The findings in Table 10 indicated that both documented ITKs for managing bloat were rated as rational, with scores of 2.61 and 2.59, and perceived as effective (2.20) to highly effective (2.74). Farmers regarded these practices as highly effective mainly due to their low cost, ease of administration, and the ready availability of ingredients. From a scientific standpoint, Hing (Ferula assafoetida) possesses antioxidant, carminative, vermifuge, and antiviral properties, while mustard aids in inducing mild purgation, providing warmth, and restoring vitality in affected animals. Comparable outcomes have also been documented by Saurav et al. (2023); Kumar et al. (2018a); Khateeb et al. (2015); Rekha (1998), and Mishra et al. (1996).

Table 10

Table 10. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of bloat.

4.2.3.3 ITKs used for treatment of foot and mouth disease

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection affecting cloven-hoofed domestic livestock and wild ungulates, with significant economic implications (Biswal et al., 2012; Ding et al., 2013). The causative agent is the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) (Racaniello, 2001). Traditionally, farmers have attempted to manage the disease using natural remedies such as washing lesions with soda ash solution, or by applying honey and finger millet flour to the affected areas (Gakuya et al., 2011; Ranjan et al., 2016). However, it is important to note that no specific curative treatment exists for FMD (Ranjan et al., 2016). It is evident from Table 11 that the Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) practices employed for managing Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in dairy animals demonstrated moderate to high levels of perceived effectiveness and scientific rationality, consistent with the pharmacological attributes of the materials used.

Table 11

Table 11. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of foot and mouth disease.

The use of potassium permanganate (5–6 g in water) for cleaning infected areas showed the highest rationality score (3.41) and MPEI (2.85), and was categorized as rational and highly effective (R+HE). This is scientifically plausible since potassium permanganate is a recognized antiseptic and oxidizing agent with broad antimicrobial activity, widely recommended for topical disinfection in livestock (FAO, 2002). Similarly, application of boiled neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves to lesions (rationality score 2.71; MPEI 2.30, R+E) is validated by its documented antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties in veterinary medicine (Saurav et al., 2023; Barman et al., 2019; Biswas et al., 2002). The practice of applying hot mustard oil (Brassica campestris) on lesions (score 2.54, MPEI 2.25, R+E) also reflects traditional wisdom, likely due to its counter-irritant and antimicrobial activity attributed to allyl isothiocyanate.

4.2.3.4 ITKs used for treatment of mastitis

Mastitis is a major disease that leads to substantial economic losses and deteriorates milk quality (Ponnusamy et al., 2017; Saurav et al., 2023), yet only a few ITKs have been recorded for its treatment. Mastitis is called “thanela” in the local language in the study area.

Persual from Table 12 shows that all the three ITKs under mastitis treatment are found rational and effective. Cold water or Ice is applied to the udder in the very early stages of mastitis. It received a rationality score of 2.52 and MPEI of 2.26 (R+E), supported by studies underlying scientific basis lies in the anti-inflammatory action of cold therapy, which reduces local swelling, pain, and vascular congestion, thereby providing relief to the animal. However, it does not treat the infection itself. It should only be used as a supportive measure, along with proper veterinary treatment.

Table 12

Table 12. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of mastitis.

The moderate perceived effectiveness of Ajwain (Rationality score 2.68 and MPEI 2.41) may be attributed to the antimicrobial properties of thymol, the major active constituent of ajwain, which exhibits inhibitory action against mastitis-causing pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus (Kumar et al., 2018b). Turmeric contains curcumin, a well-documented anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial compound, while alum possesses strong astringent and antiseptic properties. Black pepper enhances bioavailability of curcumin and may add synergistic antimicrobial activity. This unique combination was perceived as highly effective by farmers (Rationality score 2.86 and MPEI 2.72), which resonates with scientific evidence supporting herbal formulations as alternative therapies for mastitis management (Ponnusamy et al., 2017; Subrahmanyeswari and Chander, 2013; Rani, 2014; Saurav et al., 2023).

To minimize farmers’ economic losses, prevention is more effective than cure; therefore, emphasis should be placed on preventing mastitis through the adoption of proper hygienic practices in dairy farms.

4.2.3.5 ITKs used for treatment of ecto and endo parasites

Among different ectoparasites affecting dairy animals mosquitoes, flies, triatomines, fleas, bees, and ticks are serious health complications which are frequently reported. To manage these pests, farmers traditionally rely on locally available methods, including the application of kerosene and petrol, which are commonly used as tickicides (Ponnusamy et al., 2017). Evidence from Table 13 highlights the effectiveness of neem (Azadirachta indica) in controlling both ecto and endoparasites (Saurav et al., 2023). This efficacy is attributed to the presence of azadirachtin and other bioactive compounds in neem, which act through multiple mechanisms such as antifeedant activity, growth inhibition, reproductive suppression, oviposition deterrence, reduced biological fitness, and disruption of pathogen transmission by vectors (Meena et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2018a; Ponnusamy et al., 2017; Bhowmik et al., 2010; Tipu et al., 2006).

Table 13

Table 13. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of ecto and endo parasites.

Likewise, tobacco is employed for parasite control owing to its high nicotine and alkaloid content, which function as natural insecticides and anthelmintics. Nicotine exerts strong neurotoxic effects on a wide range of pests, including insects, ticks, mites, and lice (Anshu et al., 2020; Das et al., 2015; Moharana, 2014; Choudhary et al., 2004).

4.2.3.6 ITKs used for treatment of swollen udder

Among the ITKs recorded and validated for managing swollen udders in dairy animals (Table 14), only one practice was identified as both rational and effective. Washing the udder with hing (Ferula assafoetida) was found beneficial in reducing pain and swelling, as the plant contains bioactive compounds such as ferulic acid, umbelliferone, and sesquiterpene coumarins, which possess anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties (Kumar et al., 2018b; Bagheri et al., 2016; Phondani et al., 2010). This practice is believed to improve blood circulation and minimize localized inflammation, thereby aiding the healing of swollen tissues. Nonetheless, it should be regarded as a complementary ethno-veterinary practice rather than a substitute for professional veterinary care in severe cases.

Table 14

Table 14. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of swollen udder.

4.2.3.7 ITKs used for treatment of wound

It is evident form Table 15 that that the application of turmeric (Curcuma longa) mixed with mustard oil (Brassica nigra) for wound healing in dairy animals is a rational and highly effective ITK practice, with a rationality score of 3.62 and an MPEI of 2.66. Turmeric is widely recognized for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and wound-healing activities, primarily attributed to the presence of curcumin (Kumar et al., 2018b; Ponnusamy et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2020). Mustard oil, traditionally used in ethnoveterinary medicine as a carrier oil, contributes antimicrobial, rubefacient, and circulation-enhancing properties that improve blood flow to the wound, supporting nutrient delivery and tissue repair (Saurav et al., 2023; Chand et al., 2021). Additionally, mustard oil acts as a solvent medium for curcumin, enhancing its topical absorption and bioavailability. Together, the turmeric–mustard oil combination demonstrates synergistic benefits: turmeric accelerates infection control and tissue regeneration, while mustard oil aids in penetration and creates a protective barrier against external contaminants.

Table 15

Table 15. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of wound.

4.2.3.8 ITKs used for treatment of urogenital tract problem

Analysis of Table 16 reveal that feeding babul (Vachellia nilotica) leaves mixed with chaas (buttermilk) is perceived as both rational and effective for managing urogenital tract problems in dairy animals, including urinary infections, reproductive tract disorders, and vaginal discharges, with a rationality score of 2.68 and an MPEI of 2.33. Scientifically, V. nilotica leaves are rich in tannins, flavonoids, and polyphenols that exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties, thereby helping to reduce infections in the urinary and genital systems (Kushwaha et al., 2012; Lata et al., 2025; Saurav et al., 2023). Buttermilk, on the other hand, contains lactic acid bacteria that restore microbial balance, enhance gut health, and provide a mild cleansing action on the digestive and urinary tracts, while also boosting immunity (Karim and Mahmood, 2022; Kumar et al., 2018b).

Table 16

Table 16. Documented and validated ITKs for treatment of urogenital tract problem.

The synergistic use of V. nilotica as an antimicrobial and chaas as a probiotic and cooling agent offers relief from urogenital irritation and infections. Nonetheless, due to the lack of dosage standardization and limited controlled studies, this practice should be regarded as a supportive measure, with veterinary advice sought in severe cases. The findings reveal that tribal dairy farmers across selected districts of Eastern Rajasthan possess a rich repository of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) related to animal health, breeding, and husbandry practices. Farmers’ reliance on these ITKs is largely shaped by their perceived effectiveness, ease of preparation, and cultural acceptance, with frequent usage observed for reproductive and digestive disorders. This demonstrates strong confidence in their practical utility and accessibility, particularly in areas where formal veterinary services are distant, costly, or limited.

Comparative studies from Jharkhand (Kumar et al., 2016b), Rajasthan (Meena et al., 2023), and Gujarat (Patel et al., 2016) similarly highlight reliance on plant-based formulations for reproductive and metabolic disorders, emphasizing low cost, local availability, and field-proven efficacy. The Mean Perceived Effectiveness Index (MPEI) further identifies ITKs that are trusted and regularly utilized by farmers, providing a basis to prioritize specific practices for scientific validation and policy support. These insights can inform the development of community-based veterinary strategies, including participatory livestock health programs, training modules for farmers and traditional healers, and promotion of sustainable cultivation of medicinal plants. Integrating validated ITKs into local veterinary protocols not only strengthens livestock health management and reduces dependence on costly pharmaceuticals but also preserves culturally rooted knowledge systems, ensuring sustainable dairy development in tribal regions.

4.3 Constraints faced by the respondents in adoption of ITKs

The Garrett ranking analysis revealed that the preference for fast-acting modern drugs emerged as the most critical constraint (Mean Score = 51.46, Rank I) in the adoption of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) by dairy farmers (Table 17). This finding reflects the tendency of farmers to prioritize quick relief for livestock ailments, especially in situations where animal productivity and livelihood security are at stake. The farmers often prefer allopathic veterinary medicines due to their rapid effectiveness compared to traditional remedies. The influence of modern veterinary practices was ranked second (Mean Score = 51.14, Rank II). Increasing penetration of commercial veterinary services, pharmaceutical promotion, and trust in scientifically validated practices contribute to a gradual decline in ITK use (Pooja et al., 2025). The growing accessibility of modern veterinary care significantly reduced farmers’ reliance on ethno-veterinary practices.

Table 17

Table 17. Constraints faced by dairy farmers in adoption of ITKs.

Since nowadays majority of farmers rear the cross bred animals on whom the ITKs are not giving very promising results and the high cost of these animals prevents the farmers from taking any risk in this regard (Shubeena et al., 2018b). Farmers experienced challenges in using ITKs due to a lack of raw materials, treatments based on trial and error, and a loss of faith in indigenous therapies, among other things. The third major constraint was the longer time required for visible results of ITKs (Mean Score = 50.96, Rank III). ITKs often require a longer duration to treat ailments, whereas the current demand is for practices that deliver quick results. ITKs are often time-consuming and their effects are usually delayed (Shubeena et al., 2018b; Pooja et al., 2025; Kumar, 2016). Farmers, especially in dairy production systems, view delayed responses as risky because untreated ailments may cause production losses.

Therefore, ITKs may be of limited use in emergency situations, as many of the herbs or plants required for treatment are not easily accessible. This is consistent with the findings of Yadav et al. (2014) and Seeralan (2004), who reported that ITKs take considerable time to cure animal diseases, which in turn discourages their adoption. Unavailability of medicinal herbs year-round was ranked fourth (Mean Score = 50.43, Rank IV). Seasonal and regional variations in the availability of herbs often force farmers to abandon ITKs even if they are otherwise willing to adopt them (Shubeena et al., 2022). As most of the medicinal plants availability is seasonal in nature, they are not available round the year. Balakrishnan (2009) found that non-availability of raw materials was a major bottleneck for sustaining ITK practices in livestock care.

Other constraints that were ranked moderately important included absence of documented records for ITKs (Rank V), incomplete knowledge about ITK practices (Rank VI), difficulty in standardizing doses and practices (Rank VII) and Limited access to ITK ingredients in local markets (Rank VIII). These findings highlight the lack of codified information, dosage guidelines, and extension support, which make farmers uncertain about ITK efficacy (Shubeena et al., 2022). The effectiveness of ITKs diminishes when these practices are applied incorrectly, leading to a loss of validity (Kumar et al., 2017; Seeralan, 2004). Most respondents lacked complete knowledge about the proper use of ITKs, with only a few being fully aware of their applications. Similar observations were made by Rahman (2012) and Seeralan (2004), who noted inadequate knowledge regarding indigenous cattle management practices.

Furthermore, medicinal plants or ingredients are often not easily available in local markets, and people frequently face difficulty in correctly identifying the appropriate plants or ingredients for treating cattle. Devi et al. (2014) also highlighted that the inability to identify the right medicinal plants or ingredients was perceived as a major constraint by most respondents. Lower-ranked but still significant issues included uncertainty in treatment outcomes (Rank IX), decline in traditional healers (Rank X), and weak transfer of traditional knowledge to youth (Rank XI).

The use of ITKs often suffers from vagueness in treatment due to the absence of proper documentation. There is no standardized protocol regarding ingredient quantities, timing of administration, or post-treatment care. Consequently, no fixed guidelines exist for the proportion or dosage of plants and their products to be used for dairy animals. Seeralan (2004) also emphasized this lack of standardization in cattle treatments. Another major limitation is the unavailability of traditional local healers at the village level, which restricts the use of ITKs. Hassan et al. (2014) and Balakrishnan (2009) further reported that many herbs and traditional healers are becoming extinct. Younger farmers show little interest in adopting ITKs, as they prefer modern methods that offer quick results. Similar observations were made by Pooja et al. (2025); Yadav et al. (2014); Dwivedi et al. (2019), and Ponnusamy et al. (2009), who noted that numerous ITKs are disappearing due to lack of practice among the younger generation.

These suggest that the intergenerational knowledge gap and erosion of local expertise threaten the survival of ITKs. Finally, veterinary professionals rarely promoting ITKs (Rank XII), inadequate extension support (Rank XIII), and the perception that ITKs are not effective in all situations (Rank XIV) were found to be the least important constraints. However, these cannot be ignored, as the institutional neglect of ITKs reduces opportunities for validation, refinement, and wider dissemination. The majority of extension agencies showed little faith in ITKs because they thought that these practices may not have any scientific reasons or lack of complete understanding about the ITKs. Devi et al. (2014) and Ponnusamy et al. (2009) similarly observed that the lack of extension support for adopting ITKs was a major constraint reported by respondents in their study areas.

Moreover, ITKs may require complementary support from other alternatives and, therefore, cannot be considered suitable as standalone solutions in every situation. Kumar et al. (2017) and Seeralan (2004) reported that ITK is not a complete panacea for maintaining animals and without formal recognition and integration into extension systems, ITKs will continue to be sidelined despite their potential ecological and economic benefits. Overall, the results suggested that while farmers still recognized the value of ITKs, their adoption is restricted due to issues of efficacy, availability, knowledge transfer, and institutional support.

To address the constraints identified in the adoption of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs), a multifaceted strategy is required that blends traditional wisdom with modern extension approaches. Bridging the generational knowledge gap can be achieved through the systematic documentation, validation, and inclusion of ITKs in formal agricultural and veterinary education curricula. Encouraging farmer-to-farmer learning platforms, community knowledge fairs, and participatory extension models can facilitate intergenerational transfer of traditional wisdom. The creation of digital repositories and mobile-based knowledge-sharing platforms can also make ITK-related information more accessible, particularly to tech-savvy youth. To ensure year-round availability of ITK ingredients, community herbal gardens and on-farm cultivation of key medicinal plants can be promoted through self-help groups, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs).

Additionally, policy-level support through recognition of ITK practitioners, certification of validated practices, and integration of ITKs into livestock health programs could enhance their credibility and adoption. Specific interventions to increase ITK acceptance among younger farmers include awareness campaigns emphasizing the ecological and economic benefits of ITKs, demonstration of scientifically validated indigenous practices alongside modern treatments, and incentives for farmers who successfully integrate ITKs into livestock care. By combining traditional knowledge systems with evidence-based extension and institutional support, ITKs can be revitalized as complementary tools for sustainable livestock management. Bridging the gaps through documentation, validation, and integration of ITKs into formal veterinary extension could help preserve and promote these traditional practices alongside modern veterinary medicine.

5 Conclusion

The documentation and validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) in dairying holds significant potential for both the scientific community and farmers, enabling their optimal utilization for livestock health management. Despite their significance, these practices are often undocumented, underutilized, and face challenges of declining transmission across generations. Therefore, it is essential to systematically collect and record such indigenous practices and scientifically validate them to evaluate their relevance and applicability under current farming conditions. A total of 44 ITKs related to breeding, milk production, and health care were recorded, reflecting the strong dependence of tribal farmers on traditional knowledge systems for livestock management. Scientific validation revealed that 37 practices were rational and found effective, particularly in addressing crucial issues such as heat induction, repeat breeding, retained placenta, prolapse, diarrhea, bloat, wound healing, and improving milk yield.

The predominance of healthcare-related ITKs highlights their continued relevance and accessibility in situations where modern veterinary services are either costly or unavailable. Even with proven effectiveness, the major constraints faced by tribal farmers in adoption of ITKs included lack of scientific validation, limited awareness among young farmers, absence of standardized dosage, and inadequate institutional support. Therefore, strengthening the documentation, validation, and dissemination of rational ITKs is essential for integrating them into contemporary livestock extension services. Promoting such knowledge through formal channels can enhance sustainable dairy farming, reduce dependency on chemical-based interventions, and support livelihood resilience among tribal communities.

6 Recommendation

To promote the integration of ITKs into formal veterinary systems, governmental and non-governmental organizations should play a proactive role by providing policy support, funding, and institutional backing for research, documentation, and scientific validation of traditional practices. Extension agencies and KVKs can facilitate farmer training, awareness programs, and participatory demonstrations that highlight the benefits of ITKs alongside modern treatments. Encouraging community-based cultivation of medicinal plants, recognition of traditional healers, and creation of digital repositories can enhance accessibility and intergenerational knowledge transfer. Furthermore, incorporating validated ITKs into veterinary education and livestock health programs will ensure their systematic adoption, bridging the gap between traditional wisdom and modern science, and providing sustainable solutions for livestock health management.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for this study because it did not involve any invasive experiments, clinical trials, or harmful interventions on animals or humans. The research was based solely on the collection of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) and farmers’ perceptions through interviews, participatory discussions, and surveys. Prior informed consent was obtained from all respondents before data collection, and their anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained. Since the study was observational and non-invasive, focusing only on documenting traditional practices and farmers’ experiences, no ethical clearance was deemed necessary under institutional or national guidelines. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

BG: Methodology, Formal Analysis, Conceptualization, Visualization, Data curation, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Validation, Writing – original draft, Software, Investigation, Writing – review & editing, Resources. BM: Software, Project administration, Supervision, Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Resources, Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Validation, Data curation, Methodology. GS: Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation. SG: Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Methodology. GB: Visualization, Resources, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Validation. NK: Visualization, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Methodology. GM: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Methodology. YS: Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Formal Analysis, Data curation. MT: Data curation, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Supervision.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Acknowledgments

The authors whole heartedly thankful to the respondents for their valuable time and meaningful contributions to this study and the Division of Dairy Extension, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India, for its academic support and encouragement throughout the research process.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

Acharya D. and Shrivastava A. (2008). Indigenous herbal medicines: Tribal formulations and traditional herbal practices (Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers Distributor).

Google Scholar

Adhikary S. P. (2015). Exploration of traditional knowledge for treatment of skin, mouth and foot diseases of domestic animals in remote area of Ganjam district, Odisha, India. Int. J. Curr. Res. Acad. Rev. 3, 242–247.

Google Scholar

Ahmad S., Gangoo S. A., Sultan S. M., and Dar M. D. (2016). Ethnoveterinary practices and use of herbal medicine by pastoralists of Himalaya: A review. Ann. Biol. 32, 260–268.

Google Scholar

Ajibade L. T. (2008). Knowing the unknown through the known: The case for indigenous knowledge in sustainable development. Afr. Res. Rev. 2, 218–233. doi: 10.4314/afrrev.v2i2.41051

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Akhoon Z. A., Sofi K. A., Shaheen M., Mubarak T., and Hussain S. A. (2022). Indigenous technical knowledge used in animal medicine in the valley of Kashmir. Int. J. Trop. Agric. 40, 91–96.

Google Scholar

Anshu S., Pratibha J., and Kolte S. W. (2020). Efficacy of Nicotiana tabacum as a biocontrol agent against cattle ticks. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud. 8, 220–222.

Google Scholar

Bagheri S. M., Hedesh S. T., Mirjalili A., and Dashti-R M. H. (2016). Evaluation of anti-inflammatory and some possible mechanisms of antinociceptive effect of Ferula assa foetida oleo gum resin. J. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 21, 271–276. doi: 10.1177/2156587215605903

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

BAHS (2024). Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, Ministry of Fisheries Animal Husbandary and Dairying (New Delhi, India: Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India).

Google Scholar

Balaji S. N. and Chakravarthy P. C. (2010). Ethnoveterinary practices in India -A review. Vet. World 3, 549–551.

Google Scholar

Balakrishnan V. (2009). Ethan veterinary studies among farmers in Dindigul district Tamil Nadu, India. Glob. J. Pharmacol. 3, 15–23.

Google Scholar

Bhanotra A. and Gupta J. (2023). Documentation of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) prevailing among dairy farmers in Kathua district of Jammu and Kashmir. Int. J. Farm Sci. 13, 26–33. doi: 10.5958/2250-0499.2023.00077.0

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Barman P., Ahmed N., and Chakraborty D. (2019). Neem -A Cynosure of Modern Medicine: A Review. Int. J. Livest. Res. 9, 1ߝ7. doi: 10.5455/ijlr.20180807044809

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bhanotra A. and Gupta J. (2016). Mapping of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) on animal healthcare and validation of ITKs used for treatment of pneumonia in dairy animals. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 15, 297–303.

Google Scholar

Bhowmik D., Chiranjib, Yadav J., Tripathi K. K., and Kumar K. P. S. (2010). Herbal remedies of Azadirachta indica and its medicinal application. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2, 62–72.

Google Scholar

Bhuyan M. (2016). Perceived effectiveness of indigenous technical knowledge in dairying. J. Ext. Educ. 28, 5703. doi: 10.26725/JEE.2016.3.28.5703-5708

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Biswal J. K., Sanyal A., Rodriguez L. L., Subramaniam S., Arzt J., Sharma G. K., et al. (2012). Foot-and-mouth disease: Global status and Indian perspective. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 82, 109–131.

Google Scholar

Biswas K., Chattopadhyay I., Banerjee R. K., and Bandyopadhyay U. (2002). Biological activities and medicinal properties of neem (Azadirachta indica). Curr. Sci. 82, 1336–1345.

Google Scholar

Borah N., Bey B. S., and Deka N. (2023). Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) used in agriculture by selected ethnic communities of Assam. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 22, 264–272. doi: 10.56042/ijtk.v22i2.46568

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Brundtland G. H. (1987). Our common future world commission on environment and development. (Oxford University Press).

Google Scholar

CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity). (2021). Traditional knowledge, innovations and practices: Article 8(J) introduction. (Montreal, Canada: CBD Secretariat, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

Google Scholar

Census (2011). Primary Census Abstracts, Registrar General of India. (New Delhi, India: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India).

Google Scholar

Chand S. (2011). Analysis of reproductive disorders in dairy animals in Alwar District of Rajasthan. (MSc Thesis). (Karnal, India: ICAR-NDRI Deemed University).

Google Scholar

Chand S., Meena B. S., Yadav S. P., Yadav M. L., Baindha A., and Sharma N. K. (2021). Ethno-veterinary practices followed by farmers for treatment of reproductive disorders in dairy animals. Int. J. Livest. Sci. 11, 65–70. doi: 10.5455/ijlr.20210224103006

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Choudhary R. K., Vasanthi C., Latha B. R., and John L. J. (2004). In vitro effect of Nicotiana tabacum aqueous extract on Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides ticks. Ind. J. Anim. Sci. 74, 730–731.

Google Scholar

Das K., Akanda M. R., Rahman M. M., Islam M. S., and Hossain M. A. (2015). Effects of tobacco, neem, and ivermectin against ectoparasites: A comparative study in black bengal goats. Inter J. Vet. Sci. 4, 194–198.

Google Scholar

Das B. and Roy A. (2022). Nutritional synergy of traditional feed mixes for dairy cattle. J. Community Mobil. Sustain. Dev. 17, 112–116.

Google Scholar

Das S. K. and Tripathi H. (2009). Ethno veterinary practices and socio-cultural values associated with animal husbandry in rural Sunderbans, West Bengal. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 8, 201–205.

Google Scholar

Devaki K. and Mathialagan P. (2015). Animal husbandry traditional knowledge in Kancheepuram district. Int. J. Sci. Environ. Technol. 4, 1289–1295.

Google Scholar

Devi R., Saha B., Pandit A., and Kashyap D. (2014). Assessment of applicability of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) in aquaculture as perceived by fish farmers in Assam. Indian J. Fish. 61, 104–110.

Google Scholar

Dey P. and Sarkar A. K. (2011). Revisiting indigenous farming knowledge of Jharkhand (India) for conservation of natural resources and combating climate change. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 10, 71–79.

Google Scholar

Ding Y. Z., Chen H. T., Zhang J., Zhou J. H., Ma L. N., Zhang L., et al. (2013). An overview of control strategy and diagnostic technology for foot-and-mouth disease in China. Virol. J. 10, 78. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-10-78

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Dwivedi M. K., Shyam B. S., Lal M., Singh P. K., Sharma N. K., and Shukla R. (2019). Geospatial mapping of antimalarial plants used by the ethnic groups of Anuppur district (Madhya Pradesh, India). Indian J. Tradit Know. 18, 261–271.

Google Scholar

FAO (2002). Foot-and-mouth disease: Guidelines for diagnosis and control (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Google Scholar

Fernandaz C. C., Parthiban K. T., Sudhagar R. J., and I. Sekar I. (2020). Perception of tribal communities on indigenous technical knowledge (ITKs). Ind. J. Pure App. Biosci. 8, 429–437. doi: 10.18782/2582-2845.8067

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Gakuya D. W., Mulei C. M., and Wekesa S. B. (2011). Use of ethnoveterinary remedies in the management of foot-and-mouth disease lesions in a dairy herd. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 8, 165–169. doi: 10.4314/ajtcam.v8i2.63204

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Garrett E. H. and Woodworth R. S. (1969). Statistics in psychology and education (Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons).

Google Scholar

Gogoi B. P., Ansari M. N., Kumar B., Sirilakshmi Y., Ashwini T., and Saikia D. (2024). An investigation of agriculture knowledge sharing through indigenous communication systems: insights from ethnic communities. Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Sociol. 42, 172–180. doi: 10.9734/ajaees/2024/v42i122644

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Gogoi B. P., Ansari M. N., and Singh A. K. (2021). Extent of Use and Popularity of Traditional Folk Media for Agriculture among different Ethnic Groups of Assam. Indian J. Ext. Educ. 57, 165–168. doi: 10.5958/2454-552X.2021.00138.9

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hanafi E. M., Ahmed W. M., El-Khadrawy H. H., and Zabaal M. M. (2001). An overview on placental retention in farm animals. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 7, 643–651.

Google Scholar

Hassan H., Murad W., Tariq A., and Ahmad A. (2014). Ethnoveterinary study of medicinal plants in Malakand Valley, District Dir (Lower), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Iri. Vet. J. 67, 1–6. doi: 10.1186/2046-0481-67-6

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Husain A. S. and Sundaramari M. (2011). Scientific rationality and evaluative perception on indigenous plant protection practices on coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). J. Plant Crops. 39, 290–298.

Google Scholar

ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) (2004). Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Agriculture. (New Delhi, India: Mission Unit, Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR). Available online at: https://shorturl.at/htDQ4.

Google Scholar

Johnson M. L. (1992). Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge (Ottawa: Dene Cultural Institute. IDRC).

Google Scholar

Karim G. M. and Mahmood A. B. (2022). Utilization of feeding regime and cows’ buttermilk to improve growth performance and carcass yield of karadi male lambs. Uttar Pradesh J. Zool. 43, 52–61. doi: 10.56557/UPJOZ/2022/v43i203197

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Khateeb A. M., Khandi S. A., Kumar P., Bhadwal M. S., and Jeelani R. (2015). Ethno-veterinary practices used for the treatment of animal diseases in Doda district, Jammu & Kashmir. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 14, 306–312.

Google Scholar

Kumar S. (2016). Indigenous Technical Knowledge Associated with Select Cattle Breeds of Rajasthan: An Exploratory Study, (M.Sc Thesis). (Bangalore, India: ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Southern Regional Station).

Google Scholar

Kumar R. and Bharati K. A. (2013). Folk veterinary medicines in the Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh, India. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 12, 40–46.

Google Scholar

Kumar M., Gupta J., and Radhakrishnan A. (2016a). Sustainability of dairy based livelihoods of the tribes in Ranchi and Dhanbad districts of Jharkhand. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 69, 220–225. doi: 10.5146/ijds.v69i2.50685

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumar M., Gupta J., and Meena H. R. (2016b). Sustainable livelihood contributions of livestock to the tribal communities of Jharkhand, India. Intl. J. Agric. Sci. 6, 103–107.

Google Scholar

Kumar S., Subash S., Baindha A., and Jangir R. (2018a). An inventory of ethno-veterinary medicine (EVM) for treatment of indigenous cattle in western Rajasthan, India. J. Community Mobil. Sustain. Dev. 13, 403–409.

Google Scholar

Kumar S., Subash S., Jangir R., Devi M. C. A., Jeyakumar S., Dixit P. K., et al. (2018b). Scientific rationality, perceived effectiveness and adoption of traditional knowledge practices associated with Sahiwal cattle breed of Rajasthan. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 88, 488–492. doi: 10.56093/ijans.v88i4.78892

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumar S., Subash S., Jangir R., and Prasad D. (2017). Constraints faced by farmers in adoption of indigenous technical knowledge associated with indigenous cattle dairy farming in Rajasthan. J. Community Mobil. Sustain. Dev. 12, 249–252.

Google Scholar

Kushwaha R., Rai S. N., and Singh A. K. (2012). Effect of feeding Acacia nilotica pods on body weight, milk yield and milk composition in lactating goats. Indian J. Anim. Res. 46, 366–370.

Google Scholar

Lans C., Brown G., Borde G., and Offiah V. N. (2003). Knowledge of traditional medicines and veterinary practices used for reproductive health problems. J. Ethnobiol. 23, 187–208.

Google Scholar

Lata M., Rai S. N., and Mondal B. C. (2025). Effects of feeding of babul pod (Acacia nilotica) powder and tannin extract powder on growth performance, nutrient utilization, haemato-biochemical profile, anti-oxidative status and immune status in male albino rats. J. Sci. Res. Rep. 31, 1278–1291. doi: 10.9734/jsrr/2025/v31i73340

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Lenka S. and Satpathy A. (2020). A study on indigenous technical knowledge of tribal farmers in agriculture and livestock sectors of Koraput District. Indian J. Ext. Educ. 56, 66–69.

Google Scholar

Lester W. M., Bartholomew R. A., Colvin E. D., Grimes W. H., Fish J. S., and Galloway W. H. (1956). The role of retained placental fragments in immediate and delayed postpartum hemorrhage. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 72, 1214–1226. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(56)90781-5

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Livestock census (2019). Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying. (New Delhi, India: Government of India).

Google Scholar

Majhi S. K. (2008). Indigenous technical knowledge for control of insect pest and livestock disorders. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 7, 463–465.

Google Scholar

Tipu M. A., Akhtar M. S., Anjum M. I., and Raja M. L. (2006). New dimension of medicinal plants as animal feed. Pak. Vet. J. 26, 144–148.

Google Scholar

Meena D. C., Meena B. S., Garai S., and Sankhala G. (2023). Participatory evaluation of ethno-veterinary livestock health practices by farmers from surrounding villages in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, India. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 76, 455–463. doi: 10.33785/IJDS.2023.v76i04.014

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Meena D. C., Meena B. S., Garai S., and Sankhala G. (2024). Participatory validation of the ethno-veterinary practices followed by the livestock farmers in the vicinity of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, India. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 23, 1085–1093. doi: 10.56042/ijtk.v23i11.15019

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mir I., Rautela A., and Nimbalkar V. (2020). Use of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) in India for livestock management practices: A review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 9, 2319. doi: 10.20546/ijcmas.2020.906.407

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mishra S., Jha V., and Shaktinath J. (1996). “Plants in ethno veterinary practices in Darbhanga (North Bihar),” in Ethnobiology in Human Welfare. Ed. Jain S. K. (Deep Publications, New Delhi), 189–193.

Google Scholar

Moharana T. (2014). In vitro evaluation of acaricidal properties of Cymbopogon citrates and Nicotiana tabacum against Rhipicephalus spp. collected from cattle and pet dogs (M.Sc. Thesis). (Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India: Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology).

Google Scholar

Mondal A. H., Dana S. S., and Roy M. (2023). Perceived effectiveness of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) among fish farmers of FFPO members: A study from Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal. Int. J. Res. Anal. Rev. 10, 338–352. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4838231

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Montgomery D. R. (2012). Dirt: The erosion of civilizations (with a new preface). (California, United States: University of California Press).

Google Scholar

Morya G. P., Kumar R., and Yogesh (2016). Revival of ITK for sustainable agriculture under eastern Uttar Pradesh (India). Int. J. Theor. Appl. Sci. 8, 40–44.

Google Scholar

Nag A. (2007). Indigenous animal healthcare practices from Udaipur district, Rajasthan. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 6, 583–588.

Google Scholar

Nigam G. and Sharma N. K. (2010). Ethno veterinary plants of Jhansi district, Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 9, 664–667.

Google Scholar

Nisha A., Rajkumar V. N., and Mansingh P. J. (2025). Ethno Veterinary Practices Followed by Attappadi Tribal Farmers of Kerala. Agri. Sci. Dig. 45, 165–172. doi: 10.18805/ag.D-6036

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

NITI Aayog (2023). National multidimensional poverty index. A progress review. A Progress Review, 1–410.

Google Scholar

NITI Aayog (2024). Sustainable Development Goals India Index. Towards Viksit Bharat. Sustainable progress, Inclusive growth. 1–356.

Google Scholar

Padmakumar V. (1998). Farmers’ reliance on ethnoveterinary practices to cope with common cattle ailments Vol. 6 (Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor), 20.

Google Scholar

Patel S. J., Patel A. S., Patel J. H., Patel N. R., and Parmar V. N. (2016. Indigenous technical knowledge regarding animal husbandry practices. Adva. in Life Sci. 5, 1610–1617.

Google Scholar

Peter J. M. and Levy R. A. (2011). “Non-infectious diseases: bloat,” in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, 2nd edn. Eds. Fuquay J. W., Fox P. F., and McSweeney P. L. H. (Academic Press, San Diego), 492–498.

Google Scholar

Phondani P. C., Maikhuri R. K., and Kala C. P. (2010). Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants among traditional herbal healers in Alaknanda catchment of Uttarakhand, India. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 7, 195–206. doi: 10.4314/ajtcam.v7i3.54775

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ponnusamy K., Gupta J., and Nagarajan R. (2009). Indigenous technical knowledge in dairy enterprise in coastal Tamil Nadu, India. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 8, 206–211.

Google Scholar

Ponnusamy K., Kale R. B., Ravi K. N., Devi M. C., and Sharma P. (2017). Cross-regional analysis on usage of indigenous technical knowledge in dairy farming. Indian J. Anim. Res. 51, 549–556. doi: 10.18805/ijar.8599

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Pooja B. M., Anandaraja N., Fernandaz C. C., Balasubramaniam P., and Selvi R. G. (2025). Archiving Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) based ethnomedicinal practices among tribal communities in the Nilgiris: A perception analysis. Plant Sci. Today 12, 1–7. doi: 10.14719/pst.5088

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Prakash N., Roy S. S., and Ngachan V. (2009). Role of ITK in conservation agriculture: Blending indigenous and scientific knowledge (Meghalaya: ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region). Available online at: https://kiran.nic.in/pdf/publications/ITK.pdf.

Google Scholar

Pushpangadan P., Ijinu T. P., Bincy A. J., Anzar S., Aswany T., Chitra M. A., et al. (2016). Traditional medicine in livestock management. J. Trad. Folk Pract. 4, 43–49. doi: 10.25173/jtfp.39

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Racaniello V. R. (2001). “Picornaviridae: The viruses and their replication,” in Fields Virology, 3rd edn. Eds. Knipe D. M. and Howley P. M. (Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia), 658–722.

Google Scholar

Rahman M. (2012). Practice of indigenous technical knowledge system by farmers in maintaining ecosystem in Bangladesh. J. Agric. Sci. 57, 155–168. doi: 10.2298/JAS1203155R

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rani K. (2014). Dairying amongst pastoral communities of Jammu and Kashmir. Doctor of Philosophy, ICAR-National Diary Research Institute, Karnal, India. Thesis.

Google Scholar

Rani K. (2023). Indigenous technical knowledge used in dairying by pastoralists of Jammu and Kashmir. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 76, 250–259. doi: 10.33785/IJDS.2023.v76i04.012

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ranjan R., Biswal J. K., Sharma A. K., Kumar M., and Pattnaik B. (2016). Management of foot and mouth disease in a dairy farm by ethnoveterinary practice. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 86, 256–259. doi: 10.56093/ijans.v86i3.56577

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rao M. L. S., Ramakrishna N., and Saidulu C. (2014). Ethno-veterinary herbal remedies of Gujjars and other folklore communities of Alwar District, Rajasthan, India. Int. J. Ayurveda Pharm. Res. 2, 40–45.

Google Scholar

Reintjes C., Haverkort B., and Bayer A. W. (1992). Farming for the future: An introduction to low-external-input and sustainable agriculture (London: Macmillan and ILEIA).

Google Scholar

Rekha S. (1998). Ethno veterinary medicine for ruminants (Pune: BAIF Development Research Foundation).

Google Scholar

Revathi A., Rani R., Kumar S., and Sharma R. (2020). Effect of fenugreek seed supplementation on milk yield and its composition of crossbred dairy cattle. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 9, 768–774. doi: 10.20546/ijcmas.2020.909.085

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Sankaran P. N. (2005). “Indigenous Knowledge: Resource for sustainable development,” in Employment News, Weekly, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi, vol. 30, 1–48.

Google Scholar

Satapathy K. B. (2010). Ethno veterinary practices in Jajpur district of Orissa. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 9, 338–343.

Google Scholar

Satapathy C., Veeraswami S., and Satapathy B. (2002). Indigenous Technical Knowledge; method of Documentation and Rationalization. Souvenir on International Seminar Traditional Knowledge Health and Environment, 12–15.

Google Scholar

Saurav S. K., Chakravarty R., Chandran V., and Meena B. S. (2023). Utilization pattern and validation of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) prevailing among the dairy farmers of northern Bihar. Indian Res. J. Ext. Educ. 23, 31–38. doi: 10.54986/irjee/2023/jul_sep/31-38

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Seeralan S. (2004). Documentation and validation of indigenous technical knowledge of animal husbandry in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu. ICAR-NDRI, Karnal. MSc thesis.

Google Scholar

Selogatwe K. M., Asong J. A., Struwig M., Ndou R. V., and Aremu A. O. (2021). A review of ethnoveterinary knowledge, biological activities and secondary metabolites of medicinal woody plants used for managing animal health in South Africa. Vet. Sci. 8, 228. doi: 10.3390/vetsci8100228

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Shanjeevika V., Selvarani G., and Mahandra K. (2019). Documentation and rationalization of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) practices in Varagu (Paspalum scrobiculatum). Int. J. Agric. Sci. 11, 8768–8769.

Google Scholar

Shenoy N. S. (2012). “ITK and its relevance for sustainability,” in FoCARS Foundation Course for Agricultural Research Service Digital Repository of Course Materials. Eds. Kareemulla K. and Ravichandran S. (NAARM, Hyderabad), 1–14.

Google Scholar

Shubeena S., Hai A., Hamdani S., and Akand A. (2018a). Indigenous technical knowledge (ITKs) used by farmers of Central Kashmir to increase production and reproduction in livestock. Int. J. Livest. Res. 8, 1–8. doi: 10.5455/ijlr.20171004030110

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Shubeena S., Hai A., Hamdani S. A., Akand A. H., Shafiq S., Bulbul K. H., et al. (2018b). Awareness and adoption of indigenous technical knowledge in management of surgical conditions in livestock. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud. 6, 1205–1208.

Google Scholar

Shubeena S., Hai A., Hamdani S. A., Akand A. H., Thahaby N., Rasool S., et al. (2022). Role of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) in growth and production of livestock sector. J. Biomed. Res. Environ. Sci. 3, 14–17. doi: 10.37871/jbres1394

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Singh S. (2021). Scientisation of indigenous technical knowledge of tribal farmers in Ranchi district of Jharkhand (Uttarakhand: GBPUAT). Doctoral dissertation.

Google Scholar

Singh N., Gupta R., Awasthi A., and Kumar V. (2024). Feeding balanced ration for improving dairy cattle productivity: A review. J. Biol. Nat. 16, 26–31. doi: 10.56557/JOBAN/2024/v16i18625

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Singh P., Sharma R., Verma A., and Meena R. (2020). Effect of mustard oil cake supplementation on milk yield in dairy cattle. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 37, 45–48.

Google Scholar

Siripurapu K. K. and Iyengar S. (2023). Biocultural diversity and culture animals in mobile pastoralism: Cattle-culture of pastoralists of Telangana state, India. Pastures Pastoralism 1, 25–37. doi: 10.33002/pp0103

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Siripurapu K. K., Moola F., Sharma S., Sainger A., and Kotamraju K. R. (2024). Validation of the Indigenous Technical Knowledge of cattle pastoralists of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, India. Pastures Pastoralism 2, 49–81. doi: 10.33002/pp0204

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Srivastava A. K., Kumarsean A., Mohanthy T. K., and Shivaprasad (2013). Status paper on buffalo estrus biology (Karnal: ICAR-NDRI).

Google Scholar

Subrahmanyeswari B. and Chander M. (2013). Integrating indigenous knowledge of farmers for sustainable organic farming: An assessment in Uttarakhand state of India. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 12, 259–264.

Google Scholar

Sultan A., Masoodi T. H., Syed Q. U. A. B., Rafeeq J., and Adil M. (2022). Ethno-veterinary uses of medicinal plants in district Bandipora of Jammu & Kashmir Union Territory. Emer. Life Sci. Res. 8, 89–94. doi: 10.31783/elsr.2022.818994

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Sundaramari M. (2001). Adoption and perceived effectiveness of indigenous agricultural practices in different farming systems. Doctor of Philosophy, Gandhigram Rural Institute, Gandhigram, India. Thesis.

Google Scholar

Swathi L. and Babu P. S. (2009). Indigenous technical knowledge and ancient proverbs of the coastal fisherfolk of Kerala and their implications. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 8, 296–297.

Google Scholar

Timba M. (2009). Dairy farming practices vis-à-vis quality of life of tribal farmers in Rajasthan. (MSc thesis). (Karnal: ICAR-NDRI).

Google Scholar

United Nations. (1992). Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro . (New York: United Nations).

Google Scholar

Venkatesan P. and Sundaramari M. (2014). Scientific rationality, adoption and perceived effectiveness of traditional agricultural practices of cassava in Kolli Hills, India. J. Root Crops 40, 58–65.

Google Scholar

Verma H. C., Singh K. D., Verma M. K., Kumar S., Kumar A., and Kumar R. (2025). Indigenous traditional knowledge used for reproductive disorders and constraints faced by small dairy farmers. Indian J. Anim. Reprod. 46, 33–38. doi: 10.48165/ijar.2025.46.02.5

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang G. (1988). Indigenous communication system in research and development. J. Ext. Syst. 4, 75–86.

Google Scholar

Warren D. M. (1991). Using indigenous knowledge in agricultural development (Washington, DC: The World Bank: World Bank Discussion Paper 127).

Google Scholar

Yadav S. S., Bhukal R. K., Bhandoria M. S., Ganie S. A., Gulia S. K., and Raghav T. B. S. (2014). Ethno veterinary medicinal plants of Tosham block of district Bhiwani (Haryana), India. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 4, 40–48. doi: 10.7324/JAPS.2014.40606

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Yadav S. and Meena M. S. (2021). Role of leguminous grains as protein supplements in dairy ration. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 74, 420–425.

Google Scholar