Farmer perceptions on goat kids pre-weaning mortality in KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa

Community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) are promoted as an ideal model for farmer-focused research and as an improvement strategy of indigenous goats in various developing countries. The Agricultural Research Council - Biotechnology Platform (ARC-BTP), in collaboration with the Kaonafatso ya Dikgomo (KyD) recording scheme, initiated two CBBP sites to improve animal recording and goat production in these regions. The aim of this effort was to identify community-level interventions on kid mortality, which is one of the key limitations for market competitiveness in numbers and quality of the animals produced in these communities. Individual interviews were conducted on 195 goat farmers from Anders Mission, Giff, Mxhaxho, Mantlaneni and Ncera villages in the Eastern Cape province (n = 150), and Ophande, Ezinkunini, Machibini and Majozini villages in the KwaZulu-Natal province (n = 45), covering neighboring villages in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude Districts, respectively. The study used semi-structured questionnaires to determine the farmers’ perceptions on the causes of mortality, drawing from focus group discussions and questionnaire surveys. Majority of the participants were males (68%) aged between 30 to 82 years. Of these goat farmers, 42.1% had primary formal school, but all could read and write. Majority (56.4%) relied on old age pension as source of income, followed by livestock sales (24.1%). The average number of years in farming was 15.48 ± 14.58, and other animal species kept included chickens, cattle, sheep, pigs and dogs. The animals were extensively managed on communal land. The average goat herd sizes were 17.71 ± 11.52 in Buffalo City and 13.06 ± 11.52 in uMkhanyakude, with 22% made up of kids across the regions, respectively. Diarrhea, heartwater and starvation were the strongest (p<0.001) farmer-identified predictors of pre-weaning kid mortality with incidence rate ratios of 1.93, 1.58 and 2.52, respectively. These causes may stem from the low-input extensive production systems u. Intervention programs such as CBBPs, which integrate farmer training, resource sharing, and access to expert technical guidance, can address both primary and secondary causes of pre-weaning goat kid mortality, thereby improving productivity under the current and future production systems while conserving important South African goat genetic resources.

1 Introduction

Indigenous goats are an important animal genetic resource in South Africa and across the world. They play a key role in food security and subsistence (Mohlatlole et al., 2015; Mdladla et al., 2017), household financial security (Oluwatayo and Oluwatayo, 2018), and sociocultural heritage (Mataveia et al., 2023). In addition, their meat is lean, mineral-rich, and presents a healthier red meat option for the consumer market (Simela, 2005). These animals are well adapted to low-input production systems and harsh environmental conditions and are highly prolific (Robertson et al., 2020; Grandin, 2022; Silva et al., 2022). In South Africa, about 63% of total goats are raised under extensive farming systems by under-resourced smallholder farmers in rural areas (Mohlatlole et al., 2015; Dzomba et al., 2017). These production systems remain underdeveloped and are associated with suboptimal economic productivity and can benefit from strategic intervention (Gwaze et al., 2008). The Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces are major goat-producing provinces in South Africa, collectively reporting more than 2.5 million goats (Census, 2022). Extensive systems rely heavily on natural resources (Gwaze et al., 2008) and are often associated with suboptimal breeding strategies and inadequate animal health management leading to high mortalities (Slayi et al., 2014) leading to low herd numbers. In this system, goat mortality can go up to 40.6% of deaths per year in communal areas (Webb and Mamabolo, 2004), with kids (<4 months) accounting for 44.6% of deaths recorded in the studied regions (Manyeki et al., 2022).

There are several studies conducted investigating the causes of pre-weaning mortality across different regions and production systems (Sebei et al., 2004; Snyman, 2010; Slayi et al., 2014; Chauhan et al., 2019; Slayi et al., 2022). According to these studies, pre-weaning mortality is often linked to the production system (El-Raghi and Hashem, 2022; Ali et al., 2025b) with extensive systems experiencing highest loses. Factors reported in extensive systems include poor housing and nutrition, lack of vaccination against endemic diseases, ineffective methods of parasite control, lack of care for pregnant and lactating does, unhygienic pen conditions and lack of access to veterinary support (Turkson, 2003; Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2022; Anwar et al., 2024). Genetic factors such as low birth weight, large litter size, kid sex, and breed have also been associated with pre-weaning mortality (Côté and Festa-Bianchet, 2001; Josiane et al., 2020; Ngongolo and Mmbaga, 2022; Anwar et al., 2024).

Due to the lack of accurate data in extensively farmed livestock herds, participatory rural appraisal methods through questionnaire surveys have been used to investigate pre-weaning kid mortality rates in various parts of Africa including, Nigeria (Ameh et al., 2000), Ethiopia (Alula et al., 2014), Ghana (Turkson, 2003), Kenya (Abdilatif et al., 2018), Benin and South Africa (Slayi et al., 2014). Cited farmer perceptions include diseases, ticks and tick-borne diseases, gastrointestinal parasites, poor housing, and malnourishment, especially in drought-prone climates (Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2014; Godfrey and Dan, 2020). Low animal health management in general is widely implicated in pre-weaning mortality and productive losses (Mdladla et al., 2017; Godfrey and Dan, 2020). Ali et al. (2025a) found that gastrointestinal parasites were perceived to contribute to productive losses and Haemonchus contortus was perceived as the most common parasite.

Communal farming systems tend to lack structured record keeping for animal identification and performance (Mdladla et al., 2017), and this may contribute to poor herd management, limited traceability, unstructured disease control and limited access to formal markets. Farmers, together with extension and local veterinary officials, face challenges in measuring performance, monitoring disease outbreaks, and making informed breeding or culling decisions in real time. In addition, characteristic of communal goat farmers, the majority of them are elderly and illiterate and use traditional selection methods for breeding stock, making it challenging to measure the quantitative burden of performance and production factors such as pre-weaning kid mortality.

CBBPs are organized livestock breeding programs that rely on the voluntary participation of farmers, particularly those sharing communal grazing land and facing common challenges (Haile et al., 2018). These programs foster collaboration for genetic improvement and enhance the productivity of their livestock, with the help of expert technical and organizational support (Haile et al., 2018). CBBPs are widely recommended as an ideal model in farmer-focused research that uses a bottom-up approach, with the participants actively involved in the planning and implementation stages of the program (Mueller et al., 2015). In Ethiopia, for instance, significant genetic gains have been made through CBBPs in traits such as weight at six months, litter size, and prolificacy over a ten-year period (Haile et al., 2020). In light of this, the ARC-BTP, in collaboration with the KyD recording scheme, initiated two CBBP sites in two districts, namely, Buffalo City in the Eastern Cape and uMkhanyakude in the KwaZulu-Natal province in April of 2023, as a strategy to improve goat production through record keeping and data-driven breeding strategies in these regions. These provinces were chosen because they represent significant goat farming areas within South Africa, providing an appropriate environment to evaluate and refine the CBBP model. The successful execution of these pilot programs in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal is essential for demonstrating the program’s efficacy and adaptability, which will then inform its expansion to other parts of the country. Recording schemes such as the ARC- KyD are important vehicles to bridge the gap between rural farming communities and research efforts focusing on indigenous farm animal genetic resources by facilitating the collection of accurate data that can drive intervention and improvement decisions. The present study adopted a participatory farmer-appraisal approach using structured questionnaires as a mode for data collection. This approach facilitated direct engagement with goat farmers, allowing them to share their experiences and perceptions of factors contributing to pre-weaning goat kid mortality. The study explores goat farmer perceptions on factors contributing to pre-weaning goat kid mortality within a CBBP in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape and uMkhanyakude District, KwaZulu-Natal.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Ethics

The parts of the study involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Faculty Committee for Research Ethics of the Tshwane University of Technology (Reference: FCRE 2024-07-003 (Science)). The animal component of the study was approved by the Ondersterpoort Veterinary Institute Animal Ethics of the Agricultural Research Council - Onderstepoort Veterinary Research (Reference: AE22.15) and the Animal Research Ethics Committee of the Tshwane University of Technology (Reference: AREC2024/08/002). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided a written informed consent to participate in this study and for the use of their animals.

2.2 Site description

The study targeted five villages in the Eastern Cape and four villages in KwaZulu-Natal. These villages included Ezinkunini, Machibini, Majozini and Ophande villages in uMkhanyakude, KwaZulu-Natal, and Anders Mission, Giff, Ncera, Mxhaxho and Mantlaneni in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape (Figure 1). The villages are represented by the red dots on Figure 1. The uMkhanyakude District Municipality is the second largest district (12–818 km²) in the upper Northern part of KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa (32.014489; -27.622242) (uMkhanyakude District Municipality, 2024) with a population of 625 846 (UKDM, 2024). As of 2022, there are 203–897 goats in the uMkhanyakude District (Census, 2022). Buffalo City is situated in the southern coastal part of the Eastern Cape (-27.0; 32.5) and has a total population of 885 102. Although Buffalo City is a coastal region, it is drought-prone and dry (Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, 2024). The district covers a surface area of 2–753 km²and has a population of 975 255 (www.citypopulation.de). The total number of goats in Buffalo City is 54 982 (Census, 2022).

Figure 1

Figure 1. The CBBP sites in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape and uMkhanyakude, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

2.3 Participating farmers

Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude districts were purposively chosen for the study regions because they have a relatively large number of indigenous goats, and under developed production system and unskilled limited resource farmers. These districts were identified as priority pilot sites for the practical implementation of the CBBP. As a result, five villages from Buffalo City and four villages from uMkhanyakude District were selected as target regions. Briefly, the KyD recording scheme, an initiative of the Agricultural Research Council (ARC), facilitated the enrollment of participants into the CBBP through liaison with the local community leaders and extension officers. Farmers that resided in these 9 villages were invited to participate in the CBBP. For ethical reasons, participating farmers signed a consent form.

2.4 Data collection

During the initial stage of the CBBP, focus group discussions were conducted to identify key areas for indigenous goat improvement and to understand farmer perceptions on the limitations to goat productivity. During the focus group discussions, notes were taken in real-time while farmers shared their views and experiences. These notes are reported as originally documented to maintain the participants’ views and expressions during the sessions. Farmers were then randomly selected from the participants of the CBBP and focus group discussion for the questionnaire interview.

The questionnaire survey took place between October 2023 and November 2024. A total of 195 village-based farmers were selected from within the CBBP for voluntary participation in the study. The number of participants and the total number of goats owned by the participants are depicted in Table 1. The participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire to establish the demographic information, herd size and composition, resource availability in terms of forage and water supply, animal health challenges and management, number of kid mortalities over the preceding 12 months and suspected causes. The questionnaire was tested for unambiguity and ease of understanding for both the enumerator and the respondent. The questionnaires were administered in the local languages (isiZulu and Xhosa), depending on the region. Demographic variables covered farmer dynamics such as age, farming experience in years, education level, and primary source of income. Herd composition variables included the total number of goats, breeding does, bucks, kids (< 6 months), castrates and young does and bucks (> 6 months and< 1 year).

Table 1

Table 1. Summary of the number of participants and the number of goats from each participating village.

2.5 Statistical analysis

2.5.1 Descriptive and comparative analysis

The demographic data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations and medians) in RStudio (R version 4.4.0). Categorical variables were summarized using frequency tables and proportions, while continuous variables (participants’ age and farming experience in years) were summarized using means and standard deviations.

The participants were asked to list 5 factors or diseases contributing to goat kids’ mortality and rank them by importance from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important). The rankings were captured on Microsoft Excel and the frequencies of each ranked factor and rankings were computed using the tidyverse package on R Studio. A Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to compare the perceived importance of each factor reported across the two districts using the tidyverse package in R Studio (Wickham et al., 2019; Wilcoxon, 1945). Factors with low frequency (<3 mentions) were excluded from statistical comparisons. The prevalence of each factor was summarized by district. In addition, to test whether individual factors received significantly different rankings between the districts, Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were performed for each factor. A significance level of p< 0.05 was used to identify statistically significant differences.

2.5.2 Regression modeling of mortality counts

Negative Binomial Regression model was fitted with the number of mortalities over the previous 12 months as the response variable and binary predictors (Yes/No) for each reported factor. Model assumptions were tested by inspecting residuals and dispersion (2.643699). The model was interpreted using predicted counts and significance value (p< 0.05). The negative binomial regression model formula is as follows:

$$\mu = e^{^}({\beta }_0+{\beta }_1{x}_1+{\beta }_2{x}_2+\dots +{\beta }_k{x}_k)$$

Where:

μ is the expected count or mean of the dependent variable.

e is the base of the natural logarithm (approximately equal to 2.71828).

β₀, β₁, β₂,…, β_k are the coefficients associated with the predictor variables.

x₁, x₂,…, x_k are the values of the predictor variables.

In this formula:

β₀ represents the intercept, which is the expected count when all predictor variables are zero.

β₁, β₂,…, β_k are the coefficients that measure the effect of each predictor variable on the expected count.

The negative binomial regression model computes the values of the coefficients (β₀, β₁, β₂,…, β_k) based on the dataset, and these coefficients model the predictor variables influence the count data (reported mortalities). This model accounts for overdispersion, which is common in count data.

All results were visualized using the R package ggplot2 (Wickham, 2011).

3 Results

3.1 Outcomes of the focus group discussions

All farmers identified a lack of proper nutrition, parasitic infestations, heartwater, diarrhea, and infectious diseases as important factors contributing to pre-weaning kid mortality. These challenges are exacerbated by limited access to veterinary support and inadequate skills in animal husbandry. Additionally, the presence of poisonous plants, heat stress, and a shortage of good-quality breeding bucks were perceived as key environmental and genetic factors affecting kid survivability.

In Buffalo City, the participants perceived gastrointestinal parasites, external parasites, which lead to other ailments such as foot rot, to contribute to low weaning rates. Diarrhea, which the farmers attributed to a mixed diet of milk and veld grass, was also a perceived contributor towards kid mortalities. Farmers also reported that they were untrained in proper health management of animals, specifically deworming and vaccination. They also highlighted that dipping facilities were available in the area but were not functional. Heat stress was a major concern due to the area being coastal. The participants also mentioned that the costs of managing health were difficult to meet since most of them rely on social support grants.

Does with poor body condition at kidding were reported to produce low milk, leading to undernourishment and low survivability of kids. Participants also stated that there are poisonous plants in the grazing pastures that affect the eyes of goats when they forage. Ticks, particularly Bont ticks, and gastrointestinal worms were also listed as important parasites contributing to pre-weaning kid mortality in Ncera villages. This suggests that there is higher perceived prevalence of internal and external parasites in the Ncera villages than in other villages.

In the uMkhanyakude District, diarrhea and heartwater were reported as prevalent challenges in the area. External parasites, particularly in kids that remain with the adult herd were also among the reported challenges. More specific challenges that were mentioned were blue mouth, foot rot and Orf virus, which are microbial infections. Starvation, which participants reported as being linked with low milk production by the does, was also perceived to be an important factor. Low milk production was perceived to have a more serious impact among twin- and triplet kids.

3.2 Perceptions on goat mortality

3.2.1 Ownership patterns and gender participation

Table 2 presents a breakdown of the respondent demographic information, including age, gender, farming experience measured in years, herd size, primary source of income and highest level of education per district. Overall, of the 195 participants, 31.8% were female and 68.2% were male, with an average age 56.9 ± 11.8 years and a median age of 60 years. In Buffalo City, 64% of the participants were male and 35.3% were female. The average number of years of experience with goat farming was 16.5 ± 13.6 and the median was 14 years. In uMkhanyakude, 80% of the participants were male and 20% were female.

Table 2

Table 2. Respondent demographics, education and source of income per District in each of the provinces.

Overall, 16% of the participants had no formal education, while 42.1% had primary school education and 37.9% had high school education. Only 3.6% of the participants had a post-school tertiary qualification. The majority of the participants (56.4%) received old age pension, while 22.1% relied on livestock sales as their main source of income. Some were employed (12.3%), 2.6% received a child support grant, 2.1% had other means of income, like a small business and 4.6% had no source of income or were unemployed.

3.2.2 Herd/flock sizes of different livestock species and goat flock composition

Table 3 illustrates the herd or flock sizes of the various livestock species kept by participants, as well as the goat flock composition per participant. In Buffalo City, the mean number of kids per herd was 5.3 ± 5.6, while the mean number of young bucks and young does between the ages of 6 months to 1 year were 2.2 ± 2.1 and 4.0 ± 5.0, respectively. The mean number of mature bucks and mature does per herd in Buffalo City was 2.4 ± 2.7 and 8.8 ± 10.7, respectively. The mean number of castrated males per herd was 3.2 ± 3.6. In uMkhanyakude, the mean number of kids per herd was 5.2 ± 3.8, and the mean number of young buckling and young does between the ages of 6 months to 1 year were 4.2 ± 5.4 and 6.2 ± 6.6, respectively. The mean number of mature bucks and mature does per herd in uMkhanyakude were 2.1 ± 1.5 and 11.4 ± 11.6, respectively. Finally, the mean number of castrated males per herd was 3.2 ± 2.2. The breeds kept by participants included Nguni, Boer goat crosses, Savanna goat crosses, and local goats. Participants in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude also kept relatively low numbers of other various livestock such as sheep (13 ± 13.4 and 11.3 ± 6.8, respectively), cattle (10.2 ± 18.0 and 9.6 ± 7.2, respectively), and poultry (13.8 ± 10.3 and 16.1 ± 8.1).

Table 3

Table 3. Means (± SD) herd/flock sizes of different livestock species and goat flock composition per farmer.

3.2.3 Nutrition, disease and parasite management practices

In Buffalo City, 76% of the participants reported that forage was available, and in uMkhanyakude, 51.1% of the participants had sufficient forage for their animals. Thirty-four percent of the participants provided their goats with supplementary feed and 66% did not provide supplementary feed. In Buffalo City, 47.3% of the participants had an adequate water supply, either from nearby dams/rivers or from local water supply and 52.7% had an inadequate water supply for their animals.

A high proportion (81.5%) of the participants reported the presence of disease prevalence in their herds. Despite the high disease prevalence reported by participants, only 13.7% vaccinated their goats against endemic diseases. Ecto- and endoparasite control was practiced 86.1% and 81.0%, respectively. Eighty-eight percent and 79.3% of the participants reported that diseases were prevalent in their goat herd in the uMkhanyakude District and Buffalo City, respectively (Table 4).

Table 4

Table 4. Nutrition, disease and parasite management practices in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude.

Seventy-eight percent of the participants from Buffalo City reported that they regularly deworm their goats and 22% did not deworm their goats. Ninety-one percent of the participants from the uMkhanyakude District reported that they regularly deworm their goats and 8.8% did not deworm their goats. Eighty-two percent of the participants from Buffalo City vaccinated their goats using multi-spectrum vaccines and 17.33% did not vaccinate their goats, while 88.8% of the participants from uMkhanyakude vaccinated their goats and 11.1% did not vaccinate their goats. Supplementary feed was provided by 64.7% of the participants from Buffalo City, while 35.3% did not provide supplementary feed. In the uMkhanyakude District, 68.9% of the participants provided supplementary feed to their animals and 31.1% did not. Tick control by various methods was practiced by 88.9% and 85.3% of the participants in the uMkhanyakude District and Buffalo City, respectively.

3.3 Severity rankings of respondent-nominated factors contributing to pre-weaning goat kids mortality

A total of 32 different conditions were reported by farmers as causes of pre-weaning goat kids mortality and are presented in Table 5. Among these, heartwater, diarrhea, and worms emerged as the most frequently cited and highly ranked causes. Heartwater was mentioned by 95 participants in Buffalo City and 29 participants in uMkhanyakude. Heartwater was the most frequently first-ranked disease associated with pre-weaning goat kid mortality in both Buffalo City (33.7%) and uMkhanyakude (44.8%). Diarrhea was mentioned by 82 participants in Buffalo City and 29 participants in uMkhanyakude and was ranked first at 23.2% in Buffalo City and 34.5% in uMkhanyakude. Foot rot was mentioned by 56 participants in Buffalo City and was ranked first at 28.6%, second at 34.8% and third at 17.4%. In uMkhanyakude, foot rot was mentioned by 18 participants, and was ranked first at 11.1%, second at 27.8%, and third at 38.9%. Orf virus were mentioned by 48, and 14 participants in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude, respectively. Orf was ranked first at 28.6% in Buffalo City and at 21.4% in uMkhanyakude (21.4%). Worms were mentioned by 69 and 19 participants in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude, respectively, and was ranked first at 15.9% and second at 34.8% in Buffalo city and first at 14.3% and second at 14.3%. Mastitis was mentioned by 21 and eight participants in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude, respectively. Mastitis was mostly ranked third at 57.1% in Buffalo City, and third (37.5%) and fourth (37.5%) in uMkhanyakude. Coughing was mentioned by 37 participants Buffalo City and six participants in uMkhanyakude. Of the 37 participants, 32.3% ranked coughing second and third each, respectively and only 12% ranked coughing first. Skin problems, were mentioned by 10 participants in uMkhanyakude, were ranked first at 10%, and fourth and fifth at 30% and 60%, respectively. In Buffalo City, skin problems were mentioned by 11 participants and were ranked first at 18.2%, second at 9.1%, fourth at 18.2% and fifth at 54.5%.

Table 5

Table 5. Severity rankings of respondent-nominated factors contributing to pre-weaning goat kids mortality in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude.

The Wilcoxon rank-sum test results shown in Table 6 revealed that red water and heartwater had significantly different rankings in Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude (red water: p-value=0.0086, heartwater: p-value=0.017). Both red water and heartwater were ranked higher in Buffalo City than in uMkhanyakude, while other factors did not differ significantly.

Table 6

Table 6. Wilcoxon rank-sum test results comparing severity rankings of respondent-nominated factors contributing to pre-weaning kid mortality between Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude.

3.4 Modeling of mortality counts by negative binomial regression

Negative Binomial Regression model was fitted with the number of mortalities over the previous 12 months as the response variable and binary predictors (Yes/No) for each nominated factor. Table 7 shows the incidence rate ratios (IRRs) with 95% confidence intervals from the negative binomial regression model assessing the association between respondent-nominated risk factors and the number of pre-weaning kid mortalities. The IRRs indicate the relative change in expected mortality count associated with each nominated factor, holding other variables constant. In this model, starvation had the highest IRR (2.52), indicating that the expected mortality was more than double among participants who identified starvation as a contributing factor. Diarrhea was also associated with a significantly (p<0.05) higher mortality rate (IRR = 1.93). Heartwater showed a significant association (p<0.05) with mortality, with an IRR of 1.58. Lastly, foot rot had a significant negative association with the number of kid mortalities with an IRR of 0.63 (p<0.05). This suggests that herds where foot rot was reported experienced less mortality than those where the condition was not reported.

Table 7

Table 7. Negative binomial regression modeling the association between respondent-nominated factors and the number of pre-weaning goat kid mortalities over the previous 12 months.

To visualize the model fit to the data, a scatterplot of the observed mortality against the predicted mortality counts from the fitted negative binomial regression model was generated (Figure 2). Each green point represents a participant’s response. The red dashed line is a 45-degree reference line indicating the ideal scenario where predicted values perfectly match observed values. The solid blue line is the line of best fit through the observed data, providing a visual indication of the actual prediction trend. There is overall agreement between observed and predicted counts, with the model capturing the central trend in the data. However, deviations at higher mortality values may point to potential model limitations in handling overdispersion or rare combinations of risk factors.

Figure 2

Figure 2. A scatterplot of the observed mortality versus the predicted mortality counts based on a negative binomial regression analysis.

4 Discussion

The ARC-BTP initiated a CBBP in two sites in the Eastern Cape Province and KwaZulu-Natal in the year 2023. The goal of the CBBP is to assist smallholder communal goat farmers to define clear breeding objectives and design strategies for genetic improvement and better market uptake of indigenous goats in the areas. During the project inception meetings, farmers who were interested in participating in the CBBP signed an informed consent form. One of the major constraints to goat production was the high burden of pre-weaning goat mortality. Therefore, the study aimed to explore farmers’ perceptions on factors contributing to pre-weaning goat kid mortality within the CBBP in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape and uMkhanyakude District, KwaZulu-Natal. The study integrates findings from both the focus group discussions and a structured questionnaire survey in each region.

Three focus group discussions were done in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape and one in uMzinyathi District, KwaZulu-Natal. During the focus group discussions, farmers across all the regions identified gastrointestinal and external parasites, foot rot, and diarrhea as key contributors to pre-weaning kid mortality. These findings align with previous studies that emphasize the burden of parasitic infections on neonatal survival in communal systems (Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2022). Farmers also mentioned starvation, possibly resulting from low milk production, as a contributing factor to pre-weaning kid mortality, more so among twin- and triplet-births, which require more milk from the doe (Dwyer, 2003; El-Raghi and Hashem, 2022). In a study conducted on Sahelian goats in Nigeria, starvation or malnutrition was linked to 3.4% of mortalities before the age of six months (Ameh et al., 2000). Poor udder and teat development or udder abnormalities may also contribute to starvation due to reduced colostrum and low milk yield (Peris et al., 1999) leading to undernourishment and mortality of pre-weaning kids. Another recurring problem mentioned across the four focus group discussions is the shortage of good-quality breeding bucks. Such scarcity or disproportionately low number of breeding bucks has been shown to contribute to inbreeding depression, reduced fertility and high kid mortality in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa (Dube et al., 2016).

The majority of the participants were resource-limited smallholder farmers older than 60 years, with 56.4% receiving government old age grant as their primary income source. The low participation of women and youth observed in the current study is not unique in rural households but remains unfavorable for the financial security of this group, considering that livestock remains the main form of currency in many rural communities (Oluwatayo and Oluwatayo, 2018). In the current study, only 7 out of 195 participants held post-school tertiary qualifications highlighting the level and type of training that can be designed for these farmers. Although, the participants were elderly, they could all read and write. This suggests that farmers are trainable using visual material, practical demonstrations, hands on training and group discussions, and participate in mentorship programs.

The farming system was a multispecies system with livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats which were mostly tended to by men. Participants in both districts kept small goat herds, which is typical in South African subsistence settings (Mohlatlole et al., 2015; Magoro et al., 2022). There was a low number of breeding bucks in both regions, such that the buck-to-doe ratio was 1 male for every 11 females. In an extensive system, this ratio may not work optimally, particularly with young bucks below 2 years (Mellado et al., 2000). This may diminish the gene pool and reduce the genetic variation and adaptability to changing environments and compromise future survivability. There was also a relatively low number of goat kids below 6 months. This may reflect either low fertility at the breeding herd level, or high pre-weaning kid mortality. Castration of males was practiced in both regions. Reasons or criteria for castration were not documented, however, this practice is widely discussed in literature as a way of alleviating over-aggression in males and improving meat yield and quality (Gwaze et al., 2008; Mdladla et al., 2017).

None of the participants kept animal records, which is a common limiting factor in research aimed at analyzing productive performance, including pre-weaning kid mortality rates in communal systems (Nguluma et al., 2020). The strong encouragement of record-keeping among communal farmers is one of the ways in which the CBBP can develop strategies to monitor progress, assess traits and build pedigree data (Gwaze et al., 2008; Tesema and Kebede, 2021). The absence of accurate records is a limiting factor on research efforts as well as on the farmer’s ability to monitor herd productivity, identify risk factors for pre-weaning kid mortality and make data-driven breeding and selection decisions (Mrode et al., 2018). These challenges highlight the importance of collaboration between smallholder farmers and the ARC through the KyD recording scheme. Integration into KyD facilitates structured data collection, and animal identification and performance recording.

Communal rangelands are heavily relied on in extensive goat production systems, and due to erosion and overgrazing, have become borderline suboptimal for meeting the daily nutrient requirements of goat herds in Africa, Asia and Latin America (Baenyi et al., 2020). As proficient browsers and grazers, goats can survive on various vegetation-types; therefore, forage availability was not perceived as a major concern in the studied regions. The majority of the participants had reported that there was no adequate access to water, and this was observed during the farm home visits, where some areas visited were experiencing water cuts during the time of the farm visits. Farmers opted for nearby natural water sources like rivers and dams for watering their livestock, which is often the only other option in extensive farming systems (Anwar et al., 2024). Some of the natural water sources, like rivers and dams, are contaminated (Rimayi et al., 2018; Kinge and Mbewe, 2012), which may, in some instances, be ingested, and may contribute to increased goat kid mortality due to the pathogenic conditions they enable (Gwaze et al., 2008). Many of the participants noted the poor body condition of their animals; however, due to socioeconomic circumstances, many still could not provide their animals with supplementary feed. Undernourished pregnant and lactating does are most may fail to reach the timely onset of lactogenesis and to maintain an adequate yield of milk, thus giving birth to weak, underweight offspring and with poor survivability (Banchero et al., 2015; Dwyer et al., 2016). The participants who provided supplementary feed predominantly use post-harvest crop residues and maize. Although mortality related to nutrition can be mitigated through supplementary feeding of pregnant and lactating goats, the solution is not always feasible among farmers with no source of income, who rely on the government social support grants.

Diseases are one of the key challenges in kid survival globally (Brien et al., 2014). In both regions, more than 80% of all the participants indicated that diseases were prevalent in their herds. These results are consistent with those reported by Slayi et al. (2014); Ngongolo and Mmbaga (2022), in South African as well as Tanzanian goats. In the current study, participants reported that diseases are managed using over-the-counter veterinary drugs, including antimicrobial drugs, and traditional herbs and remedies. Only 15.9% of the participants vaccinate their animals. The remaining 84.1%, focus on treating diseases once they occur. This approach to managing diseases was also observed in earlier studies on extensively reared goats in other African regions (Turkson, 2003; Tifashe et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2020). This can also be attributed to the fact that most of the extensively reared goats are indigenous goats, known for their hardiness and disease resistance (Erasmus, 2000; Dube et al., 2016). This suggests that the participants of this study leaned towards symptom treatment rather than preventative herd health management. Disease treatment, especially without the help of a veterinarian, can be difficult compared to disease prevention. As such, part of the strategic improvement interventions of the CBBP should be to train farmers on herd health management through collaborative effort with the local veterinary department.

A total of 32 different conditions were mentioned by the participants as factors that they perceived play a role in in pre-weaning kid mortality. This highlights the scale of variability in the experiences and challenges faced by the participants at the herd level. This also depicts the complexity of pre-weaning kid morality at the community level and necessitates a multi-disciplinary approach that brings holistic solutions. Heartwater, which is a tick-borne disease that is endemic to both the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal regions (van den Heever et al., 2022), was ranked as the most important factor contributing to pre-weaning kid mortality in Buffalo city and the second most important in uMkhanyakude. Diarrhea was ranked second in Buffalo city and first in uMkhanyakude. This findings align with findings by Slayi et al. (2022) who reported that heartwater was among the top two factors perceived to contribute to pre-weaning kid mortality; and Sebei et al. (2004) who reported that diarrhea and heartwater were suspected to cause 8.4% and 4.2% of the recorded pre-weaning mortality.

The perceived importance or severity of heartwater was significantly (p<0.05) higher in Buffalo City compared to uMkhanyakude and this could reflect differing levels of herd resistance to the disease (Mohlatlole et al., 2015). Currently, there is no vaccine against heartwater and Bont ticks, therefore, farmers must use tick management and breed resistant animals to increase herd resistance and reduce pre-weaning kid mortality resulting from heartwater. Genetic diversity within local goat populations, can be harnessed in breeding and selection for heartwater resistance (Mdladla et al., 2016). Although red water affects cattle, this disease was mentioned by some participants and was significantly ranked higher in Buffalo City than in uMkhanyakude. This may be due to the overlap in some of the symptoms of red water in cattle and possibly other diseases in goats such as fever and discolored urine (Gaorekwe et al., 2025).

Gastrointestinal worms were ranked the 3rd most important contributor to kid mortality across the districts. Furthermore, ticks and ecto-parasites were also ranked amongst the important contributors to pre-weaning kid mortality, and this suggests that these factors are not being managed effectively. The impact of endo- and ecto-parasites on pre-weaning kid mortality has also been reported in other studies (Slayi et al., 2014; Ngongolo and Mmbaga, 2022). Foot rot was also a factor perceived to contribute to pre-weaning kid mortality, and participants attributed this to interdigital colonization of goat hooves by ticks, causing bleeding, open wounds and infection, culminating in foot rot and limping. Overall, the majority of participants reported they deworm and dip their goats, contrasting Bester et al. (2009) who reported that only 30% of communal farmers dipped their animals in South Africa and only 25.8% treated their animals for worms by drenching.

Endo- and ecto-parasite management is a not a simple challenge, especially in extensively grazed communal rangelands. Due to continuous grazing, these rangelands can remain contaminated for extended periods and cause reinfection/reinfestation of animals regardless of their anthelminthic or dipping treatment status (Jongejan and Uilenberg, 2004; Pilarczyk et al., 2021). There may likely be some sporadic cases of acaricide resistance due to the misuse of acaricides (Obaid et al., 2022). Therefore, it is also recommended that farmer training on sustainable use of anthelmintic and antimicrobial products should be prioritized by policymakers to address the rise of antimicrobial and anthelmintic resistance in small stock (Bath, 2014).

The regression analysis revealed that among the farmer-identified factors, starvation, heartwater and diarrhea were significantly associated with higher pre-weaning kid mortality. These three predictors each had an incidence rate ratio (IRR) significantly greater than 1, indicating a positive association with mortality risk. Starvation emerged as the strongest predictor of kid mortality, emphasizing the critical role of nutritional deficiencies in neonatal survival, likely linked to poor-quality forage and the absence of supplementation under extensive systems, especially during winter seasons. Participants often linked starvation to low milk production in lactating does. Under-nutrition of pregnant or lactating may also lead to inadequate milk production, which causes kids to starve (Chauhan et al., 2019). Udder abnormalities can lead to insufficient colostrum ingestion during the neonatal stages, which causes weakened immunity in newborn goat kids and susceptibility to infections (El-Raghi and Hashem, 2022). Heartwater also showed a significant positive effect, aligning with previous findings that tick-borne diseases are major contributors to mortality in pre-weaning goat kids in high-risk endemic areas (Manyeki et al., 2022; Slayi et al., 2022; Yitagesu and Alemnew, 2022). This supports the concerns about limited access to veterinary care and challenges with ecto-parasite control under extensive systems.

Diarrhea was another significant predictor, and this is consistent with other studies in different areas (Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2014; Zeleke et al., 2017; Innocent et al., 2022; Slayi et al., 2022; Anwar et al., 2024). Diarrhea can result from several underlying factors, including over-suckling of milk (Dwyer et al., 2016), abrupt dietary changes (Knupp et al., 2016), and poor hygiene that favors pathogens in kidding pens (Sebei et al., 2004; Samsi et al., 2012). Pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus spp., fungi and protozoa, are common infectious causes of diarrhea (Samsi et al., 2012; Esmaeili et al., 2024; Rajasekaran et al., 2025). Biological factors also have an effect, with oxidative stress (Cheng et al., 2021), gastrointestinal tract parasites (Abd El-Hamid, 2023), and instabilities in microbial composition (Wang et al., 2018) contributing to its onset.

Foot rot is a wide-spread problem in small ruminants (Bishop and Morris, 2007; Innocent et al., 2022), and in the current study, it had a significant negative association with the number of mortalities. This may indicate better health awareness among farmers who recognize address foot rot promptly. Alternatively, it may suggest that participants with higher mortality rates face more severe health challenge, making foot rot appear less impactful.

5 Conclusion

Pre-weaning mortality of goat kids is a complex problem that is affected by many factors. The current study highlights the main perception based on goat farmers from Buffalo City and uMkhanyakude District. Factors including low milk production by the does, poor-performing kids, heartwater, endo-parasites and ecto-parasites, starvation, and diarrhea were the main factors perceived to be associated with pre-weaning kid mortality. Farmers need to be trained on record-keeping to improve the data available for more robust statistical modeling and to enable data-driven decisions. Collaborative efforts are needed to address both primary and secondary causes of mortality and enable farmers to enhance survival rates and improve the overall productivity of their herds. This can be achieved through pooling resources, and mobilizing experts to design and implement sustainable intervention programs. CBBPs should place an emphasis on defining breeding objectives that prioritize traits of adaptation and disease resistance and parasite resistance. CBBPs can be modeled as a cost-effective, farmer-centralized strategy for improvement.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Faculty Committee for Research Ethics of the Tshwane University of Technology (Reference: FCRE 2024-07-003 (Science)). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. The animal studies were approved by the Ondersterpoort Veterinary Institute Animal Ethics of the Agricultural Research Council (Reference: AE22.15) and the Animal Research Ethics Committee of the Tshwane University of Technology (Reference: AREC2024/08/002). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent was obtained from the owners for the participation of their animals in this study.

Author contributions

MS: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. BM: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. TaM: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. AM: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. OB: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. SN: Writing – review & editing, Resources. TlM: Writing – review & editing. KH: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The authors would like to acknowledge the Department of Agriculture for funding the research (SLA ref: A051), the Tshwane University of Technology for the Postgraduate Scholarship, and the Agricultural Research Council Professional Development Program for the financial support.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Agricultural Research Council - Kaonafatso Ya Dikgomo technicians and interns for their assistance and the goat farmers in KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa for participating in the research study.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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