Pre-weaning goat kid mortality in communal production systems: a multifactorial synthesis of causes, risk factors, and mitigation strategies

Pre-weaning mortality in goat kids presents a major threat to food security and the economic sustainability of rural households that are already resource-limited. The herd growth remains slow, resulting in low population numbers in local goat populations. Current literature discusses pre-weaner mortalities disjointedly in terms of the regions and observable symptoms, often without the in-depth analyses of biological processes and the environmental interactions causing these problems. This review unpacks the multifactorial nature of pre-weaning goat kid mortality, focusing on the underlying interactions between genetic, biological, environmental, management, and socioeconomic determinants. This review explores historic trends of kid mortality, farmer dynamics, and practices such as unstructured traditional breeding systems, indiscriminate cross-breeding, and the lack of performance and pedigree data in traditional farming systems. Genetic factors contributing to pre-weaning mortality include breed, birth weight (BW), litter size (LS), and milk yield (MY) of the doe. Common infectious factors include gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases, while non-infectious factors include malnutrition and tick-borne diseases, particularly heartwater. The review underscores the imperative to migrate beyond symptom-focused treatment toward addressing root causes through improved management and collaborative resource sharing. Intervention efforts such as community-based breeding programs must integrate the selection of animals that have superior pre-weaning performance and functional traits. An understanding of the underlying morbidity pathways and their environmental, management-related, or genetic origins can support the development of holistic and context-appropriate mitigation strategies to enhance kid survival and strengthen the long-term sustainability of goat farming systems.

1 Introduction

Goat farming has for centuries been important for food security in many parts of the world, fulfilling nutritional, economic, and sociocultural needs, especially in rural settings (Mdladla et al., 2017; Mhlanga et al., 2018; Visser, 2019; Monau et al., 2020; Mataveia et al., 2023). This sector faces economic, social, and environmental challenges, which are closely associated with goat health and welfare. Among these, pre-weaning kid mortality (PWKM) is one of the major factors causing significant economic losses in communal farming systems (CFSs), as it reduces the number of animals available for flock replacement and sale or slaughter (Chauhan et al., 2019; Cheng et al., 2021). Smallholder farmers often keep between 13 and 34 animals at a time; therefore, mortality rates severely impact their livelihoods, even if it is a loss of one animal (Amills et al., 2017), and the future sustainability of the production system (Mpofu et al., 2020).

Several studies report that PWKM rates range between 11% and 37% in extensive production systems and between 5% and 23% in intensively managed systems (Gandini et al., 2007; Dwyer et al., 2016; Cheng et al., 2021). According to a review by Temple and Manteca (2020), mortalities can reach 20% in neonatal goats kept under extensive production systems. The differences in the rates and burden between the two systems have been linked to animal management including nutrition and environmental conditions (Turkson et al., 2004; Snyman, 2010), genetically related factors, and low or lack of access to veterinary care. For example, India has the highest goat population globally, and their PWKM rates range between 10% and 30%, which is attributed to diseases, poor nutrition, and inadequate husbandry practices (Chauhan et al., 2019; Roy et al., 2022). In Bangladesh, PWKM rates of 10.07% ± 0.32% were reported in the Rajshahi District and attributed to low milk yield, low nutrition, fighting, and diseases such as pneumonia in winter (Hasan et al., 2014). In the Sylhet District, rates of up to 23.21% (Rahman et al., 2023) were reported and associated with inefficient doe milk yield, low birth weight, and litter size, with triplets having the highest mortality rates. According to a review by Iñiguez (2004), the overall PWKM rate for Central and West Asia and the Inter-Andean valleys is reported at 20%.

In some Middle Eastern countries, mortality rates may also vary widely, ranging from 3.2% in both neonatal kids and lambs in the northern parts of Jordan (Sharif et al., 2005) to 13.6% in Turkish Saanen goats (Ataç, 2023). Additionally, in some North African countries, PWKM is reported at 16% in Morocco (Bahri et al., 2021) and 43.56% in Egypt (Ibrahim et al., 2020), with diarrhea, respiratory disease, heat stress, and neonatal diseases as key contributing factors. In West Africa, PWKM rates of West African dwarf goats vary between 10% and 29.57% depending on the management system (Turkson et al., 2004; Oyeyemi and Akusu, 2005; Baiden, 2007). In some Sub-Saharan regions, figures are often higher, ranging between 20% and 35% due to limited access to veterinary services, high disease burden, and extreme climatic conditions (Manyeki et al., 2022; Anwar et al., 2024). In a review by Assan (2015), PWKM rates of between 40 and 50% were reported for the humid Sub-Saharan regions. A study by Kraai et al. (2022) on South African Savanna goat herds from Msinga, KwaZulu-Natal, reported PWKM rates as high as 44%. These statistics paint a bleak picture of poor productivity within the goat farming sector amid a growing global human population, climate change, and food security concerns. Farmers experiencing high PWKM may struggle to cope with climate-related stressors, such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves. Low numbers of young, viable animals also weaken the herd’s ability to adapt and thrive in changing conditions, and this is worsened by the already low herd numbers among rural subsistence farmers (Mdladla et al., 2017; Mhlanga et al., 2018).

PWKM has implications for several intertwined key themes in extensive animal agriculture, like sustainable farming, agricultural output, and economic activity (Onzima, 2014; Leroy et al., 2016), and food security (Monau et al., 2020). There are also important considerations for climate change, biodiversity conservation (Rosa García et al., 2012; Datta et al., 2024), policy and support systems (Miller and Lu, 2019), and indigenous knowledge preservation (Mkwanazi et al., 2021). Goats are becoming progressively important in conversations among policymakers regarding poverty alleviation (Boyazoglu et al., 2005; Koluman Darcan and Silanikove, 2018; Grandin, 2022; Lu, 2023). The South African goat population declined from 7,830,644 to 6,939,644 between the 2016 and 2022 Community Survey for Agricultural Households (Census 2022, Agricultural Households, 2022), and this is worrying from all points of view. The convergence of these issues highlights the potentially far-reaching implications of the PWKM burden and necessitates sustainable solutions.

Genetic improvement and conservation programs, particularly those that include the introduction of donor animals into village herds for cross-breeding, tend to focus on growth, meat traits, and other economic traits such as MY or wool quality (Dossa et al., 2007; Peacock, 2008; Visser and Van Marle-Köster, 2014; Ruvuga and Maleko, 2023; Msalya et al., 2017). The design of a sustainable breeding program should consider pre-weaning survivability as an important output index, and this requires a careful inspection of pre-weaning performance traits that are associated with survivability and the genetic influence driving these traits (Visser and Van Marle-Köster, 2014). Therefore, a holistic synthesis of factors contributing to PWKM should include a discussion of the genetic potential of the animals in question (Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007). Genetic factors that have frequently been associated with PWKM include breed, BW, gender of kid, and LS (Lehloenya et al., 2005; Zeleke Tesema et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2024).

PWKM is a multifactorial problem (Dwyer et al., 2016) and has been linked to genetic, environmental, nutritional, disease, parasite, and management factors (Sebei et al., 2004; Snyman, 2010; Slayi et al., 2014; Ngongolo and Mmbaga, 2022; Slayi et al., 2022). This review aims to describe the existing knowledge on PWKM in CFSs and to explore the complex, multifactorial nature of PWKM, highlighting how observable symptoms could be manifestations of underlying genetic, biological, environmental, and management factors. This will be achieved by presenting a holistic synthesis of causal chains and synergistic effects rather than isolated contributions.

2 Historic trends and insight into pre-weaning kid mortality

During the first few weeks of life, goat kids are most vulnerable to mortality because they are still in the early stages of developing immunity (Dwyer et al., 2016; Chauhan et al., 2019). Chauhan et al. (2019) also found that the highest incidence risk of mortality was on the first day after birth (FDAB) (0.3%), and mortalities during this period accounted for 3.5%, while the first week of birth accounted for 37% of total mortality. Zeleke Tesema et al. (2017) reported survival rates of 88.8%, 84.1%, and 75.8% at up to 1, 2, and 3 months, respectively. A South African study on Boer and Boer × Nguni goats reported 22% mortality within the first 48 h of birth (Lehloenya et al., 2005). Table 1 provides an overview of the PWKM rates in various breeds of goat in various countries from Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia, and the main causes of mortality reported.

Table 1

Table 1. Trends of PWKM from recent studies in various countries from Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia, citing sample size, herd size, the breeds assessed, production purpose of the breed, reported mortality rate, the risk or mitigation factors, and the references.

Weaning age is an important metric in the study of pre-weaning mortality; however, there is much variability across studies in weaning age, and this may pose a challenge for meta-analytical studies. The weaning ages vary between 3 months (Chauhan et al., 2019; Upadhyay et al., 2015), 4 months (Snyman, 2010), 5 months (Sebei et al., 2004), 6 months (Baiden, 2007), and up to 12 months (Turkson et al., 2004). Variability in weaning ages may stem from differences in study designs and production systems, with intensive systems typically weaning earlier than extensive ones. At 4 months old, Snyman (2010) reported an average survival rate of 88.5%.

Dwyer et al. (2016) explained the physiological changes that occur on the first day of birth and demonstrated the intricacy of kidding in the context of kid mortality. Kid success can be predicted based on how well the kid can make adaptations to achieve independence after birth, and these are pulmonary respiration, cardiovascular adjustment, and perhaps the most important factor, being agility and teat-seeking behavior for early ingestion of colostrum (Dwyer, 2003; Dwyer et al., 2016; Arfuso et al., 2017; Al-Sharif and Ateya, 2023). These are fundamental factors that cause most kids’ mortalities (up to 50%) to take place within the FDAB (Ali et al., 2025a).

Suckling of colostrum is arguably the most important activity in the first 24 to 36 h of the neonate’s life (Snyman, 2010). The epitheliochorial placenta of ruminants inhibits the transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the fetus (Dwyer et al., 2016; Al-Sharif and Ateya, 2023); therefore, agammaglobulinemic neonates must be suckled to receive immunoglobulins from the does through the colostrum, which is the first milk produced by mammals at parturition and the first few days after parturition (Sánchez-Macías et al., 2014). Newborn kids are most vulnerable to infectious diseases, such as diarrhea and respiratory infections, until passive immunity is developed through the colostrum (Zamuner et al., 2024). In CFSs, suckling of colostrum can be difficult to ensure and monitor if there is no provision of kidding pens and does are allowed to give birth in the veld (Prajapati and Chauhan, 2024).

The lactating doe requires proper nutrition to produce high-quality colostrum and milk that will enable the early development of a healthy and vigorous neonate (Banchero et al., 2015). Poor vegetation and lack of supplementary feeding of pregnant and suckling does in CFSs (Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007; Mdladla et al., 2017; Slayi et al., 2022) may disfavor the onset of lactogenesis (Banchero et al., 2015). Several studies have used the product-limit method of Kaplan and Meier to model the survival of pre-weaning kids until weaning. Mustefa et al. (2019) reported that 26% mortality occurred before the fourth day after birth. Chauhan et al. (2019) found that 37.3% of mortality occurs within the first week of birth. Singh et al. (2008) recorded 69.03% of total pre-weaning mortality within the first 2 weeks. El-Raghi and Hashem (2022) reported that out of a total mortality of 9.38%, more than half (5.32%) occurred within the first month after birth.

Late neonatal survival to weaning refers to the survival of goat kids from approximately 7 days of age until the point of weaning, a period that later includes the beginning of transition from maternal milk to solid feed and increased exposure to environmental stressors (Slayi et al., 2014). Once kids reach approximately 1 week of age, the risk of mortality decreases. While early neonatal deaths are frequently linked to low BW and lack of access to colostrum, late neonatal mortality is typically driven by cumulative stressors such as undernourishment, increased environmental exposure, and rising pathogen load, especially gastrointestinal and respiratory infections (Snyman, 2010; Subramaniyan et al., 2016). This period coincides with the neonate’s increasing independence from maternal care, which, under the CFS, may worsen the risks due to poorly disinfected pens, which may lead to a higher risk of late-onset diarrhea, pneumonia, and parasitic infestations (Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2014).

The process of weaning is the removal of milk from the diet of the weaner and the introduction of solid food (Zobel et al., 2020), either naturally as the doe reduces interaction with the kid or artificially through farmer intervention. As the kid approaches weaning, studies have found that the risk of mortality decreases significantly. For instance, El-Raghi and Hashem (2022) reported that the mortality rate for the period of 2 to 3 months of age was only 1.19% during their study period. Chauhan et al. (2019) reported a total mortality of 7.8% with 3.5% being on the FDAB. Singh et al. (2008) found that survivability was the highest during the period of 61–75 and 76–90 days (98.9% and 98.5%, respectively). During the process of weaning, however, complications such as weaning stress and slow growth post-weaning can occur if kids are weaned abruptly (Abdelsattar et al., 2023; Vickery et al., 2023).

Pre-weaning kid mortality can negatively impact the conservation and biodiversity of important goat genetic resources, such as indigenous ecotypes. Indigenous goats are genetically heterogeneous (Magoro et al., 2022) and highly phenotypically variable (Monau et al., 2018), and this is critical for future adaptation amid climate change (Visser, 2019). One of the problems currently facing most indigenous livestock ecotypes is the cross-breeding with commercial breeds to improve production (Tesema and Kebede, 2021). Some breed improvement programs have been implemented in parts of Africa (Chenyambuga and Lekule, 2014; Onzima, 2014; Nguluma et al., 2020; Kuraz Abebe, 2022) and India (Tesema and Kebede, 2021) but were discontinued due to unsustainability and incompatibility with the low-input CFS, inadequate pre-evaluation of existing infrastructure and resources, and lack of long-term strategic planning (Leroy et al., 2016). In a study conducted on Boer goats and the crosses with Central Highland goats in Ethiopia, the total survival rate at weaning (3 months) was 53.57%, which translates to a mortality rate of 46.43% (Mustefa et al., 2019).

Boer goats tend to be the breed of choice when cross-breeding to improve meat production, and some studies have found that Boer does have higher mortality in kids than local does. In South Africa, a study reported higher pre-weaning kid survival (PWKS) rates for unimproved South African Nguni Veld goats compared to Boer goats (86% vs. 24% in year 1; 90% vs. 70% in year 2) (Lehloenya et al., 2005). In a different study of cross-breeding between Central Highland goats and Boer goats in Ethiopia, the risk of mortality with kids (F3) from F2 generation cross-bred does was 2.06 times higher than with kids born from F1 Central Highland does (Zeleke Tesema et al., 2017). A similar trend was observed in Spain, where Spanish does had higher kid survival rates than Boer does (Browning and Leite-Browning, 2011). Cross-breeding programs may inadvertently threaten the existing genetic diversity of the local ecotypes and compromise the genetic adaptability of cross-bred populations (Madalena et al., 2002; Van Marle-Köster and Visser, 2021), particularly in developing countries (Dubeuf and Boyazoglu, 2009).

3 Overview of causal factors contributing to pre-weaning kid mortality

3.1 Farmer perceptions on pre-weaning kid mortality

Farmer views and opinions toward pre-weaning kid mortality are important for developing appropriate intervention strategies and defining breeding goals for genetic improvement programs (Ule et al., 2023). Farmer appraisal methods have been employed to investigate goat kid mortality and farmer perceptions on factors contributing to kid mortality (Sebei et al., 2004; Dossa et al., 2007; Slayi et al., 2014). This farmer-focused research approach is important to identify key problematic areas, estimate the burden of mortality, and design tailored interventions for the needs and objectives of the farmer and community in communal rangelands.

Communal farmers practice traditional methods of animal husbandry and often neglect farm records (Mdladla et al., 2017). This is a major hurdle in quantifying pre-weaning kid mortality in these systems, and most studies have relied on participatory rural appraisal methods using interviews and questionnaire surveys. Using this approach, pre-weaning kid mortality rates have been estimated in some parts of Africa including Nigeria (41.4% mortality at an unspecified age) (Ameh et al., 2000), Ethiopia (30.3% mortality before 30 days of age, 38.3% mortality before 60 days of age, and 46.8% mortality before 90 days of age) (Alula et al., 2014), Ghana (80.2% mortality before 90 days of age) (Turkson, 2003), Kenya (Abdilatif et al., 2018), Benin (20%–25% mortality before unspecified pre-weaning age), and South Africa (56.17% mortality before 1 year of age).

Common challenges that have been reported in CFS are diseases, ticks and tick-borne diseases, gastrointestinal parasites, lack of proper housing, and undernourishment resulting from starvation, especially in drought-prone climates (Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2014; Godfrey and Dan, 2020). Poor animal health in general is widely reported as contributing to pre-weaning mortality and productive losses overall (Mdladla et al., 2017; Godfrey and Dan, 2020). Ali et al. (2025a) found that gastrointestinal parasites were perceived to contribute to productive losses, and Haemonchus contortus was perceived as the most important parasite.

Slayi et al. (2022) implemented an intervention program in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa with a specific focus on improving PWKS at the household level and managed to reduce pre-weaning kid mortality rates from 56% to 22.38%. Another interesting intervention was implemented to reduce mortality in sheep, goats, and camels in Ethiopia (Allan et al., 2023), and this intervention focused on training and capacity development of farmers for long-term sustainability. The outcome of this intervention program was a reduction in the median small ruminant mortality (combined for sheep and goats; mortality from 0.45 pre-intervention to 0.06 post-intervention).

3.2 Genetic factors associated with pre-weaning kid mortality

Among pre-weaning traits, BW is arguably the most important factor for pre-weaning mortality (Baiden, 2007; Chen et al., 2024). Overwhelming data suggest that high BW is associated with reduced pre-weaning mortality in goats (Turkson et al., 2004; Ershaduzzaman et al., 2007; Chauhan et al., 2019; Mahmood et al., 2020; Roy et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2022). For instance, Miah et al. (2003) observed an increase in survivability from 39.8% to 90% with the increase of BW from 0.5–1.0 to 2.0–3.0 kg in Black Bengal goats of Bangladesh. In indigenous goat populations of Burundi, goat survival was observed to increase by 0.64 days per kilogram of BW (Josiane et al., 2020). In South African Angora goats, Snyman (2010) observed an increase in survivability from ±82.5% to ±90% with an increase in BW from 2.0 to 4.0 kg or higher. Noteworthy, neither underweight nor overweight at birth is conducive to kid’s survival (Chauhan et al., 2019; Zamuner et al., 2024). Growth performance traits (BW, weaning weight, average daily weight gain, and Kleiber ratio) have low to moderate heritability between 0.2 and 0.4 (Al-Shorepy et al., 2002; Barazandeh et al., 2012; Bangar et al., 2020; Gul et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023). Rashidi et al. (2011) estimated the heritability of pre-weaning mortality of 0.29 in Iranian goats raised under semi-intensive production. This is relatively low heritability compared to other pre-weaning traits and is similar to other results presented by Chen et al. (2024).

Mothering ability is behavioral and centered around the willingness of the doe to accept the neonate to suckle the udder, to offer care and protection, and form a strong bond with the kid (Dwyer et al., 2016). Indigenous goats such as the Nguni goats are known to exhibit strong maternal instincts, lowering the kid mortality (IVG, 2025). Higher rates of kid mortalities were observed among kids born to primiparous does that lack kidding experience (Singh et al., 2008; Alula et al., 2014; Roy et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2022; Datta et al., 2024). Mortalities related to mismothering often result from the doe failing to welcome the attempts of the kid to suckle; however, the doe may not necessarily be able to induce excitement in the kid but may only enable access to the udder by standing and welcoming the kid (Dwyer et al., 2016). Mismothering has been cited as a frequently suspected cause of pre-weaning mortality in CFS (Alula et al., 2014; Robertson et al., 2020). In a recent study using Bayesian analysis, maternal genetic effect was reported to have a significant impact on pre-weaning survival with a heritability of 0.015 ± 0.06 (Sevda et al., 2025). Mothering ability also influences kid performance traits like BW and average daily gain, and these may affect survival rates (Magotra et al., 2021).

Some studies evaluate maternal factors by focusing on milk production traits as a measurable indicator of mothering fitness (Weppert and Hayes, 2004; Osman, 2013). Weppert and Hayes (2004) looked at four dairy goat breeds and determined heritability estimates for direct genetic effects for MY of 0.13 ± 0.08 and 0.19 ± 0.06 with and without maternal effects in the model, respectively. MY is important for the survivability of kids to weaning and is associated with increased survival (Miah et al., 2003; El-Raghi and Hashem, 2022). Maternal behavior, on the other hand, may not have a strong genetic correlation with kid survival and is, in fact, poorly genetically correlated with kid survival (as kid vigor is not necessarily induced by maternal behavior) (Dwyer, 2003; Brien et al., 2014; Dwyer et al., 2016). Anwar et al. (2024) conducted a study on lamb and kid survival in CFS and reported that lambs and kids born to dams with “poor mothering behavior” had a 24.56 times greater risk of mortality than those with “adequate mothering” (p = 0.006).

Kids born as twins or triplets tend to have a lower BW and inferior growth performance compared to single-born kids (Singh et al., 2022). Low BW may predispose kids born in large litters to early mortality compared to single-born kids, as they are likely to receive divided attention from the doe. Although the doe may produce more colostrum, the amount available per kid may still be lower (Banchero et al., 2015; Dwyer et al., 2016). Large litters place more pressure on the doe to produce more milk, and this necessitates optimum nutrition for the doe to ensure proper nourishment of the kids. Singh et al. (2022) recommend structured feeding of the doe during gestation to facilitate the development of the fetus and the mammary system. In a CFS, feed resources may be limited; therefore, this approach may not be feasible or sustainable (Mohlatlole et al., 2015). The risk of higher mortality among kids born in large litters is well established in scientific reports, regardless of the breed (Baiden, 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Snyman, 2010; Bhattacharyya et al., 2015; Subramaniyan et al., 2016; Chauhan et al., 2019).

Several studies have been undertaken to identify genes associated with prolificacy, particularly in relation to LS and MY in goats to improve these traits and ultimately improve kid survival through genomics-assisted breeding and selection (Table 2). These studies employed DNA technologies such as microsatellites and genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Genes like GDF9, BMP15, and BMPR1B, first identified in sheep, have since been explored in goats for their role in controlling ovulation rates and LS (Chu et al., 2007; Ran et al., 2010; Abdel-Rahman et al., 2013; Baenyi et al., 2020). Certain mutations have been associated with increased fecundity, while some homozygous mutations have shown associations with infertility (Bodin et al., 2006; Monteagudo et al., 2008). In specific breeds such as Black Bengal, Boer, and Guanzhong, variations in genes like BMP4 and the prolactin receptor have demonstrated strong ties to prolific traits (An et al., 2013b). Genes including DGAT1, STAT5A, and kappa-casein (CSN3) have been linked to MY and milk nutrient quality, and these traits have direct implications for kid nourishment and early survival (Baenyi et al., 2020).

Table 2

Table 2. Candidate genes associated with traits related to pre-weaning survival in goats.

Furthermore, understanding the genetics of disease response and resistance and environmental adaptation is important for PWKS in goats, especially in the design of breeding programs. Review articles on the genes, their interactions, and biological roles, as well as selection in goats, have been published previously (Bishop and Morris, 2007; Torres-Hernández et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2024). Other studies reported candidate genes such as NELFCD, which is involved in immunoregulation in native Chinese goats (Zhao et al., 2024); CTSZ, which is actively involved in immune response to gastrointestinal nematodes (Hu et al., 2020; Saravanan et al., 2023); and SLC11A1, CD-14, and Toll-like receptor genes, which are reported to be potential markers for pneumonia resistance in Egyptian Baladi goats (Ateya et al., 2023). Other genes that are actively involved in immune regulation include NLRC4, HCLS1, IL17D, IL17R, and IL17RC, which were reported in a study involving local Kazakhstan goats (Kichamu et al., 2025). In addition, genes associated with heat stress response and thermotolerance have also been found in goat breeds from several countries including India, Mexico, and Uganda (Rout et al., 2016; Onzima et al., 2018; Mili and Chutia, 2021). These genes include the heat response protein gene HSP70 in Mexican and Indian goats (Meza-Herrera et al., 2006; Rout et al., 2016) and MTOR and DNAJC24 in Ugandan goats (Onzima et al., 2018). Mdladla et al. (2018) described genes associated with environmental factors and location as an indication of local adaptation in South African goats. The genes provide a survival advantage in resource-limited production systems. Table 2 presents some of the candidate genes associated with immunity, disease resistance, adaptation, LS, and MY in goats.

3.3 Factors related to the doe during gestation up to kidding

Pre-weaning mortality is often attributed to factors acting after birth, yet its causes can also be traced back to the gestation period and the kidding moment. Snyman (2010) pointed out that during the final stages of fetal development, the nutritional requirements of a pregnant doe are nearly twice those of a non-pregnant doe and nearly triple in the case of a doe carrying twins. Maternal health during gestation is critical, as malnutrition, parasitic infestations, and chronic illnesses not only compromise fetal development but also predispose kids to early mortality (Slayi et al., 2022). The nutritional management of pregnant does is vital for fetal growth and lactation (Celi et al., 2008). Studies have observed a reduction in kid mortality when the doe is well nourished during gestation, as this leads to an increase in BW and MY (Chowdhury et al., 2002; Baiden, 2007). Nutritional deficiencies during this time can lead to weak offspring with low BW and poor vigor, increasing their susceptibility to diseases and environmental stressors (Abraham et al., 2018).

Stressful conditions during gestation, whether due to inadequate housing, poor handling practices, or exposure to extreme weather, further increase the risk of weak newborns (Silva et al., 2022). Under CFS, the lack of well-built housing shelters exacerbates the exposure to extreme climatic conditions and contributes to climate-related pre-weaning mortality (Sebei et al., 2004; Slayi et al., 2022). Seasonal variations can have a profound impact; for instance, gestation during harsh winters may increase the risk of hypothermia and negatively affect forage availability, while gestation and kidding under extreme heat have been linked to reduced placental efficiency and increased mortality at weaning (Silva et al., 2021). Seasonal breeding practices and poor timing of kidding events may inadvertently heighten mortality risks by misaligning the kidding period with optimal environmental and resource conditions (Assan, 2015; Anwar et al., 2024).

During the dry season, kids are more likely to experience starvation–mismothering complex due to forage shortage (Alula et al., 2014). However, rainy or wet seasons are associated with higher mortality in pre-weaning kids and an increased likelihood of heavy parasite loads, and in Southern Africa, heavy tick load may increase the risk of exposure to heartwater (Ameh et al., 2000; Manyeki et al., 2022). For instance, Upadhyay et al. (2015) found that mortality was the highest during the rainy season (5.94%), followed by winter (3.24%) and summer (1.75%) in local Indian goats. Turkson et al. (2004) also observed a higher percentage (10.5%) of deaths in kids born in the rainy seasons, compared to those born in the dry season (8.3%), from birth to 3 months in Ghanaian West African dwarf goats. A similar observation was made in Ethiopia, where kids born during the long rainy season had a significantly (p = 0.008) higher risk of mortality than those born in the dry season (Yitagesu and Alemnew, 2022).

Primiparous does often exhibit different maternal behaviors and physiological capabilities compared to multiparous does, which can significantly affect kid mortality rates (Browning et al., 1996; Thompson et al., 2021). Kids born to primiparous does are often at a higher risk of mortality due to inadequate colostrum production, a lack of maternal care, and a higher likelihood of dystocia (Singh et al., 2008, 2022). El-Raghi and Hashem (2022) reported mortality rates of 50.0%, 22.22%, and 27.78% for first, second, and third parties, respectively, during a study on Egyptian goats. Younger does may also have smaller pelvic areas, potentially leading to more difficult births and increased rates of dystocia or early neonatal mortality (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). Primiparous does also have a higher likelihood of giving birth to kids with a lower BW compared to does in their second or third parity (Baiden, 2007). Multiparous does were reported to have a shorter lick latency toward their kids compared to primiparous does (p = 0.015), and their offspring were more likely to stand within the first 30 min post-partum (Cano-Suarez et al., 2024). Extra care, including kidding assistance, where necessary, should be given to primiparous does to reduce the risk of potential birth-related complications (Dwyer, 2003).

Complications during kidding, such as dystocia, also contribute to mortality (Robertson et al., 2020). Prolonged labor, misaligned presentations, or the absence of skilled intervention often leads to trauma, injury, or asphyxiation, leaving newborns weak or unresponsive (Purohit et al., 2006; Robertson et al., 2025). Additionally, the management of does leading up to kidding, such as providing clean and comfortable birthing areas and close monitoring for signs of labor, can influence outcomes significantly (Silva et al., 2022). Poor sanitation during parturition increases the risk of umbilical infections and other postpartum complications that can quickly escalate to kid mortality (Prajapati and Chauhan, 2024).

3.4 Animal health-related factors

A sizable proportion of kid mortalities in CFS is due to manageable health issues, especially infectious diseases. However, reliable mortality statistics specifically citing health-related causes, such as percentage mortality due to diarrhea, respiratory disease, or parasitic overload, are often lacking in developing countries. Among the diseases affecting goat kids during the pre-weaning phase, infections caused by pathogens and ticks are highly prevalent (Sebei et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2008; Dwyer et al., 2016), and diarrhea is one of the most prominent. In this section, we discuss the major animal health factors associated with pre-weaning mortality, with a focus on infectious diseases, parasites, inadequate passive immunity transfer or colostrum intake, and poor health management practices. Understanding these factors in mechanistic detail is essential for developing effective prevention and treatment strategies tailored to resource-limited CFS.

3.4.1 Diarrhea

Diarrhea is the most well-documented and significant contributor to pre-weaning kid mortality (Cheng et al., 2021; Al-Sharif and Ateya, 2023; Esmaeili et al., 2024; Rajasekaran et al., 2025), but the physiological pathways underlying its impact are not unique to gastrointestinal diseases. In Ethiopia, diarrhea has been linked to over 44% of kid mortality (Alula et al., 2014). The etiology of diarrhea is multifactorial, with causes linked to management practices, biological factors, and pathogens. Management-related causes include oversuckling of milk (Dwyer et al., 2016), sudden dietary changes (Knupp et al., 2016), and pathogenic hygiene conditions in kidding pens (Sebei et al., 2004; Samsi et al., 2012). Pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus spp., fungi, and protozoa are commonly implicated in the disease (Samsi et al., 2012; Esmaeili et al., 2024; Rajasekaran et al., 2025). Biological factors also play a significant role, with oxidative stress (OS) (Cheng et al., 2021), gastrointestinal parasites (Abd El-Hamid, 2023), and disruptions in microbial composition (Wang et al., 2018) contributing to its onset.

Diarrhea is characterized by gastrointestinal dysfunction, with pasty white to watery brown feces in kids, and often leads to severe dehydration and subsequent mortality (Wang et al., 2018; Esmaeili et al., 2024). Frequently cited as the leading cause of neonatal disease, mortality, and economic losses in goat production, diarrhea poses a critical challenge to goat farming globally (Al-Sharif and Ateya, 2023). In South Africa, diarrhea had a prevalence ranging between 18% and 50% across different pre-weaning age groups and different seasons in a cohort study in the Eastern Cape (Slayi et al., 2022).

Al-Sharif and Ateya (2023) explored genetic mechanisms involved in diarrhea, identifying single-nucleotide polymorphisms and variations in mRNA expression levels between healthy and susceptible goat kids. Similarly, Cheng et al. (2021) identified 364 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the intestinal tissue of neonatal diarrhea goats compared to a healthy control group. Among these DEGs, three were involved in the Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway and barrier function (TLR4), namely, MUC20, ZO2, and MyD88. The TLR4 signaling pathway is part of the innate immune response mechanisms, and it functions through recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns of microbes and the damage-associated patterns of damaged cells (Mitsiopoulou et al., 2021; Stierschneider and Wiesner, 2023). These findings provide a foundation for investigating whether the observed DEGs are inherited traits or adaptive stress responses.

Prevention of diarrhea is more cost-effective and beneficial for animal welfare compared to treatment. Ensuring high hygiene standards in kidding pens is crucial to reducing pathogenic load and preventing the disease (Sebei et al., 2004; Samsi et al., 2012). Gradual weaning is important to maintain gastrointestinal balance and avoid upsetting the rumen microbiome, which can lead to diarrhea (Vickery et al., 2023; Esmaeili et al., 2024). In severe cases, systemic inflammatory responses can lead to cytokine overproduction (cytotoxicity) (Zhong et al., 2022), resulting in tissue damage and metabolic imbalances.

Nutrient malabsorption is a potential consequence of diarrhea, as physiological disruption of the intestinal lining inhibits the absorption of essential nutrients, leading to deficiencies that weaken the immune system and impair growth (Cheng et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2024). This phenomenon is not unique to diarrhea. Many systemic infections, such as enterotoxemia, more commonly referred to as pulpy kidney disease, cause metabolic disruptions that result in poor nutrient utilization (Uzal and Kelly, 1998). For example, toxins produced by Clostridium perfringens during enterotoxemia can disrupt normal digestion and metabolism, compounding the effects of malnutrition (Karthik et al., 2017). Malabsorption adds to the challenge of meeting the high nutritional demands of growing kids, particularly in extensive farming systems where forage quality and availability may already be suboptimal (Yusuf et al., 2018; Silva et al., 2022).

3.4.2 Infectious diseases linked to pre-weaning kid mortality

Infectious diseases are among the leading causes of pre-weaning mortality in goat kids (Mohiuddin et al., 2020), not only because of their direct impact on health but also due to the common and complex mechanisms through which they compromise neonatal survival. Infectious diseases, such as pneumonia, septicemia, and enterotoxemia, operate through mechanisms that weaken resilience, diminish growth potential, and ultimately lead to death in affected kids (Sebei et al., 2004). In this section, the common infectious diseases associated with pre-weaning kid mortality are discussed.

Pneumonia is a respiratory disease characterized by pulmonary inflammation due to bacterial or viral infection (Metre, 2018). The main clinical signs are labored respiration, coughing, nasal discharge, and fever (Mondal et al., 2004; Kacar et al., 2018; Metre, 2018). Environmental factors like poor hygiene and extreme weather in CFS are also thought to contribute to symptoms associated with pneumonia (Slayi et al., 2022). Pneumonia is a complex disease, as some symptoms may appear unrelated to the pulmonary system, including arthritis (Filioussis et al., 2011), septicemia (Mondal et al., 2004), an increase in rectal temperature, and anemia (Sadeghian et al., 2011), depending on the causal agent.

A common pneumonia is bacterial bronchopneumonia due to Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, and Mycoplasma spp. (Kacar et al., 2018) and is often more severe among pre-weaning goats and sheep (MacKay, 2024). Caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae has been reported in a meta-analytical study conducted in Ethiopia (Asmare et al., 2016). Some of these bacteria are part of the normal nasal microbiome, but may cause inflammation under stressful conditions such as poor hygiene, overcrowding, or when animals have compromised immunity (Berhe et al., 2017). Less common among goats is caprine arthritis-encephalitis, which is caused by a small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) (Moroz et al., 2022). The SRLVs are more prevalent in Europe and Central America than in Africa (De Miguel et al., 2021). Although the primary clinical symptom in goats is progressive arthritis (Moroz et al., 2022), histopathological features of chronic interstitial pneumonia are common in goats (Preziuso et al., 2009). Parainfluenza 3 and respiratory syncytial virus have been occasionally implicated in respiratory diseases in Asia (Li et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2016). In sheep, 13 candidate genes have been identified to be involved in the immune response to the progression of disease resulting from SRLV infection (Larruskain et al., 2013). In goats, the genes are not as explicitly defined; however, antibody differences in antibody responses, immune profile associations, and lack of seroconversion in PCR goats suggest genetic and immunological variation that could be explored for resistance traits (Preziuso et al., 2009). Viral infections typically predispose kids to secondary bacterial infection or acute death in severe cases (Moroz et al., 2022).

Infections typically elicit an inflammatory response as the body attempts to combat invading pathogens; however, prolonged inflammation can become pathological (Antonelli and Kushner, 2017). In respiratory infections like pneumonia, the inflammatory response in the lungs impairs oxygen exchange and compromises other systemic functions (Mondal et al., 2004; Elsheikh and Hassan, 2012). This chronic inflammation is often linked with OS as the body produces toxic oxidants to fight off infection, resulting in an imbalance between the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the biological antioxidant system (Yusuf et al., 2018). This imbalance has been particularly well-studied (Amini et al., 2011; Mahmood et al., 2020; Cheng et al., 2021). ROS can damage cellular structures, including lipids, proteins, and DNA, leading to impaired cellular function and apoptosis (Brieger et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2023). OS also plays a significant role in systemic infections such as septicemia and respiratory illnesses, where oxidative damage contributes to tissue injury and impedes recovery (Novac and Andrei, 2020). Environmental stressors have also been positively linked with OS and immune suppression (Solaiman et al., 2007), which can be worsened by the poor nutritional status of the doe and suckling kids (Dwyer et al., 2016).

3.5 Internal and external parasites as contributing factors to kid mortality

3.5.1 Gastrointestinal parasites

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) are a challenge in small ruminants (Bath, 2014; Mpofu et al., 2020; Ali et al., 2025b), with implications for pre-weaning mortality in goat kids. GIP infections by species such as H. contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., and Teladorsagia spp. (Bath, 2014) contribute to several symptoms, including reduced nutrient absorption, anemia, and impaired growth, which collectively weaken the kids and predispose them to secondary infections. GIPs were perceived as one of the major (72%) contributors to kid mortality in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Tifashe et al. (2017) reported a lower proportion (20%) of mortality related to gastrointestinal tract diseases, possibly related to parasites. Ali et al. (2025a) reported GIP-related mortality of up to 74% in goat kids.

The clinical presentation of GIP infection in pre-weaning kids often includes diarrhea, coccidiosis, poor body condition, and, in severe cases, mortality due to hypoproteinemia and energy deficits (Bath, 2014; Fthenakis and Papadopoulos, 2018; Diao et al., 2022). These parasites also reduce the health and productivity of does, potentially lowering milk quality and quantity, which directly impacts kid survival (Diao et al., 2022). Eimeria spp. are widely spread, with high infection rates exceeding 90% in some regions (Cavalcante et al., 2012; Ali et al., 2025a). The main clinical biomarker of coccidiosis is diarrhea. Other observations linked with Eimeria spp. include low feed conversion rate, weight loss, and lack of vigor (Diao et al., 2022).

Environmental and climatic conditions affect GIP development and transmission dynamics (Sissay et al., 2007; Zvinorova et al., 2016). Warm and humid environments in the tropical regions favor larval development and survival, leading to higher infection pressures (Mpofu et al., 2020). Seasonal peaks in GIP burdens can coincide with kidding seasons, particularly in the summer, due to the increased availability of vegetation in the rainy season, amplifying the risks to both does and kids (Sissay et al., 2007; Zvinorova et al., 2016). Bath (2014) highlighted the need to rely less on anthelmintics and more on holistic approaches to seek to undo the scourge of anthelmintic resistance in South African small ruminant populations.

The gut microbiome is well understood as a symbiotic colonizer of the gut, which assists with fermentation and other metabolic functions (Palma-Hidalgo et al., 2021). According to a recent review by Abdelsattar et al. (2023), the rumen microbiome in newborn goats is crucial for nutrient absorption, growth, and metabolic function. The rumen microbiome from birth till weaning and post-weaning is a dynamic ecosystem that is characterized by the co-evolution of the host digestive tract and the microbial community (Malmuthuge et al., 2015). Several factors, including weaning practices, can affect the development of both the digestive tract and the microbial diversity, and some of the problems with sudden or early weaning are post-weaning stress due to underdeveloped rumen effectiveness, inadequate nutrient absorption, stunted growth, diarrhea, and even lower respiratory tract infection (Magistrelli et al., 2013; Meale et al., 2016; Liao et al., 2019; Palma-Hidalgo et al., 2021; Abdelsattar et al., 2023). A varied diet with some fiber early on during the pre-weaning phase is said to interact favorably with epithelial gene expression in pre-weaning goats (Htoo et al., 2018) and rumen morphological development (Chai et al., 2021). Understanding the weaning practices of farmers can help identify potential issues that can lead to an impaired rumen or a lacking rumen microbiome.

3.5.2 Ticks and tick-borne diseases

Ticks cause direct and indirect losses in goat production, and the wide variety of pathogens they transmit is a serious problem in ruminant production globally (Araya-Anchetta et al., 2015; Beyer and Carlyon, 2015). Amblyomma, Rhipicephalus, and Hyalomma ticks are the primary vectors of economically important infections (Jongejan et al., 2020; Makwarela et al., 2023) and are increasingly acaricide-resistant (Adenubi et al., 2016) bearing serious environmental implications. Ticks are the most important vectors of pathogenic diseases, and among the diseases related to ticks, heartwater, caused by Ehrlichia ruminantium, transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, is widely devastating (Jongejan et al., 2020; Mkwanazi et al., 2020, 2021). Goat kids are highly susceptible to heartwater due to their underdeveloped immune systems (Slayi et al., 2022), and the disease often manifests as high fever, nervous signs such as convulsions and paddling movements, respiratory distress, and, in many cases, acute death. The peracute form of the disease can lead to mortality before clinical signs are noticeable, making early detection and intervention challenging yet crucial.

Resistance to ticks, also described as the ability to develop an effective immunological reaction to infestation, is genetic (Jongejan and Uilenberg, 2004). Selection for tick-resistant animals is possible and has been practiced in many regions worldwide in sheep and goats (Bishop and Morris, 2007). While kids from immune does may receive temporary passive immunity through the colostrum, this protection wanes within a few weeks, leaving them vulnerable to infection. South Africa is divided into agroecological zones that are defined by variable geographic and climatic conditions, and these conditions affect the spread of ticks and endemic status of heartwater (Mdladla et al., 2016). Heartwater has been linked with kid mortality in South Africa (Slayi et al., 2022).

Other tick-borne diseases impact mortality risks in young goats (Araya-Anchetta et al., 2015). Anaplasmosis, caused by Anaplasma ovis and transmitted by Rhipicephalus ticks, not only affects animals but can also be transmitted to humans (Alessandra and Santo, 2012) and has, in fact, already raised public health concerns in China (Beyer and Carlyon, 2015; Lin et al., 2023). In goats, it results in anemia, weakness, weight loss, and reduced milk production, which can indirectly affect kids (Alessandra and Santo, 2012; Onyiche and MacLeod, 2023). This disease is more common in the East African regions (Onyiche and MacLeod, 2023) and has a higher prevalence in cattle globally (Barbosa et al., 2021).

Theileriosis, caused by Theileria species, is characterized by fever, swollen lymph nodes, and severe immunosuppression, which predisposes goat kids to secondary infections (Alessandra and Santo, 2012). Theileria lestoquardi infects small ruminants such as sheep and goats and causes malignant theileriosis (Mans et al., 2015). Babesiosis, although more commonly associated with cattle, can also affect goats, causing hemolytic anemia and jaundice (Alessandra and Santo, 2012). Additionally, tick infestations themselves can cause direct harm through blood loss, foot abscess and lameness due to interdigital infestation, adverse reactions to toxic tick saliva, anemia, relentless irritation, stress, and skin damage, which can lead to secondary bacterial infections and myiasis (flystrike) (Sotiraki and Hall, 2012; Jongejan et al., 2020; Kasaija et al., 2021; Onyiche and MacLeod, 2023). The direct impact of ticks is through blood loss due to overinfestation and skin and hide injury (Kasaija et al., 2021). Table 3 presents common tick-borne diseases and their known vectors.

Table 3

Table 3. Common tick-borne diseases and their known vectors.

Tick infestations are seasonal, and this may translate into disease outbreaks, with peak transmissions often coinciding with warm and wet conditions that favor tick reproduction (Sebei et al., 2004). Management strategies such as rotational grazing, strategic acaricide application (Slayi et al., 2022), and selecting tick-resistant animals can help mitigate the impact of ticks and the diseases they carry (Mkwanazi et al., 2021; Makwarela et al., 2023). However, in endemic regions, long-term solutions such as heartwater vaccines and improved vector control strategies remain essential to reducing mortality, particularly in areas with high kid mortality rates. To reduce pre-weaning mortality effectively, a holistic approach is needed that addresses the root causes of infectious diseases. This includes improving hygiene in kidding pens to minimize pathogen exposure (Meijer et al., 2021), ensuring adequate colostrum intake to boost passive immunity (Cheng et al., 2021), and optimizing nutrition to support both growth and immune function (Dwyer et al., 2016). Vaccination programs are effective in preventing specific infections (Slayi et al., 2022), while regular health monitoring enables early detection and management of subclinical diseases before they progress.

4 The potential of community-based strategies as a tool to mitigate pre-weaning kid mortality

High pre-weaning kid mortality rates in locally adapted populations reduce the gene pool of breeding populations and limit the selection of climate-resilient traits and animals. A community-based breeding program (CBBP) is a vehicle that can be used to improve the output potential of animals by selecting traits that confer higher productivity under the current management systems and prevailing environmental conditions (Olesen et al., 2000; Abraham et al., 2018). CBBPs have been applied in various livestock species with a range of positive outputs including reduced mortality in calves (Slayi et al., 2024), lambs (Mirkena et al., 2012), and goat kids. These programs require the definition of clear breeding objectives that align with the local socioeconomic and environmental realities as well as market standards (Dubeuf and Boyazoglu, 2009; Monau et al., 2020). Therefore, maintaining high kid survival rates ensures that animals are available for future breeding and selection under local production conditions. Community-based interventions have been reported to significantly reduce goat kid mortality by promoting the selection of animals with strong maternal traits, improving management practices, enhancing genetic resistance to local diseases, and fostering knowledge sharing and collective action among farmers to address health and survival challenges (Haile et al., 2018; Solaiman et al., 2020; Slayi et al., 2022).

CBBPs have demonstrable utility in addressing the genetic factors contributing to pre-weaning mortality, and several countries serve as success stories. In Ethiopian community-based sheep breeding programs, working communities defined their selection criteria including traits such as MY and mothering ability which was measured by lamb survival and lamb size at birth. A structured breeding and selection program was implemented. This resulted in annual genetic gain in the weaning rate per ewe across all the breeds kept, ranging from 0.008% to 0.011% and a genetic gain per year in MY of the local Afar breed of 0.018 to 0.020 kg (Mirkena et al., 2012). These genetic gains greatly improved the chances of pre-weaning survival in the offspring (Dwyer et al., 2016). In Bangladesh, a CBBP was implemented for the genetic improvement of indigenous Black Bengal goats by Solaiman et al. (2020). During the initial stages of this program, three keen participants received training on husbandry, management, and CBBP concepts. After the development of a simple recording scheme, superior bucks were selected based on BW and growth performance traits as well as milk reproduction records of their dams. These bucks were then kept at buck stations and used to service the community herd through structured rotation. Health-oriented interventions were also implemented including supplementary feeding of pregnant and lactating does, regular vaccination against Peste des petits, and regular deworming. Solaiman et al. (2020) concluded that these interventions resulted in improved growth and reproductive performance.

In Kenya, participants were nominated from among the CBBP members to receive training on basic animal health management to enable them to provide animal health services to the community conveniently and at reasonable costs (Peacock, 2008; Mueller et al., 2015). The provision of technical training on animal health management can assist participants to provide immediate care and attention to sick animals. In addition to improving access to animal health services, Slayi et al. (2022) implemented animal husbandry strategies, including setting up improved housing structures and maintaining hygiene through regular removal of manure from the pens. They also provided supplementary feed for pregnant and lactating does and implemented structured dosing and dipping for parasite management. These interventions resulted in a decline in mortalities associated with climate-related factors, parasites, nutrition, infectious illnesses, and diseases related to parasite overload. Improved housing and hygiene effectively helps to keep pens dry and less prone to parasite and infectious agent infestation (Ali et al., 2019), while structured dosing and dipping programs help manage the parasite load of animals (Bath, 2014; Onyiche and MacLeod, 2023; Ali et al., 2025a).

5 Methodological strategy in pre-weaning kid mortality

There are several methodological strategies or study designs applied to PWKM in CFS, but more commonly, longitudinal or cohort studies (Alula et al., 2014; Anwar et al., 2024) and cross-sectional studies (Slayi et al., 2014; Tifashe et al., 2017). Cross-sectional studies often make use of questionnaire surveys to assess the incidence rates of mortality or PWKM rates and suspected causes of mortality based on the participants’ previous observations and experiences. Longitudinal studies recruit participants into a long-term project, typically 2 years or more, and establish birth records and monitor the animals born within the timeline of the project from birth till either weaning or death. This methodological strategy requires more investment in terms of time and resources. Field data pertaining to birth, animal performance, weaning, and death records require regular timed visits to participant households, which are done by the research team or by field enumerators often recruited from within the participating community and trained on animal tagging and recording.

These methodical strategies each have their pros and cons depending on the time and resources available to the research project. Cross-sectional studies can include a large sample size due to the relatively cost-effective nature of the approach. With cohort studies, a large sample size may not always be feasible, especially if the participants are spread apart across long distances. Another challenge with cohort studies is retaining participants until the end of the study. Some participants may stop engaging in the study activities or decide to exit the study at any point, and this poses a risk for which the research team should always remain prepared. A notable advantage of cohort studies is that larger quantities of good quality data can be collected over the study period, and this can enable very robust statistical analysis, such as survival analysis, which requires “time-to-event’ data to compute the risk of mortality from birth to weaning (Kaplan and Meier, 1958; Kartsonaki, 2016; Manyeki et al., 2022). This enables the assessment of the precise age at which kids are most susceptible to mortality and to identify appropriate mitigating factors.

6 Research perspectives and gaps on pre-weaning kid mortality

PWKM in CFS requires a multidisciplinary approach for a thorough investigation of causal chains of mortality. Each category of factors contributing to PWKM should form part of a combined experiment or research project. For instance, genetic, animal health-related, management-related, and parasitic factors should be investigated together using genomics tools, veterinary diagnostics, participatory appraisal, and helminthology and parasitology techniques. This approach requires strong mobilization of resources and collaboration of multiple research institutions across disciplines. The rationale for such an approach is that it overcomes the limitations of a single-tier approach that focuses on one aspect without assessing the overall confounding production environment and other animal health-related factors of the animals under investigation.

Genomics tools are a powerful technology in assessing the genetic predisposition of animals to certain conditions; however, these technologies require accurate phenotypic data for more robust interpretation and application. Phenotypic data can include a wide range of key performance traits recorded from birth till weaning or even in the parent stock performance records. For instance, techniques like transcriptomics can assess the expression of certain genes that confer either resistance or susceptibility to diseases and parasites. This can ultimately assist in the application of genomic selection of superior animals that are disease- or parasite-resistant. This research approach investigates a problem and brings potential mitigation strategies that can help the farmer improve the overall pre-weaning performance and survival.

Gaps in the literature are in multidisciplinary approach studies investigating PWKM and the lack of uptake of genomics tools in research, particularly in developing regions. Much of the research conducted is based on cross-sectional studies that use questionnaire surveys and rural participatory appraisal. These are critical for baseline assessment of the production environments, perceptions on PWKM, and challenges to livestock production in CFS; however, these approaches are often limited to the farmers’ recollection of events and observations and exacerbated by the lack of written evidence of animal production or performance records. For this reason, PWKM rates in CFS are difficult to measure accurately, due to the lack of record-keeping; therefore, there is a need to develop and implement simple animal recording and traceability schemes to monitor livestock herds in CFS.

7 Conclusion

Pre-weaning kid mortality is caused by multiple factors including genetic and production- and climatic-related factors, as well as parasite and disease burden. According to the literature, internal and external parasites, as well as the diseases they carry, play a big role in kid mortality and are worsened by the rise of anthelminthic and antimicrobial resistance. Symptom-focused treatments may provide immediate relief, but addressing underlying mechanisms and management practices is critical for sustainability and enhancement of the regenerative capacity of goat farming systems. Intervention efforts and breed improvement programs should address both primary and secondary causes of mortality and prioritize the selection of animals with superior functional traits that aid in the kid survival. CBBPs can be modeled as a cost-effective, farmer-centralized strategy for long-term sustainable intervention to promote goat kid survival.

Author contributions

MS: Investigation, Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. TM: Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Validation. BM: Validation, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. KH: Writing – original draft, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, Investigation, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The review is part of the research project funded by the South African National Department of Agriculture and the Tshwane University of Technology.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support from the South African National Department of Agriculture.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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