Jemal Tola Horo1
Xinyao He2
Kitessa Gutu Danu1
Netsanet Bacha Hei3
Shitaye Homma Megerssa3
Xu Zhang4
Pawan Kumar Singh2*- 1Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Ambo Agricultural Research Center, Ambo, Ethiopia
- 2International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Texcoco, Mexico
- 3Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Headquarters, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- 4CIMMYT-JAAS Joint Center for Wheat Diseases, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused predominantly by Fusarium graminearum species complex, is a re-emerging and highly damaging disease affecting wheat production in Ethiopia and other wheat-growing countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The disease results in a significant reduction of yield and contaminates wheat grain by producing mycotoxins, particularly deoxynivalenol (DON), which has adverse effects on human and animal health. This article examines the disease emergence, its impact on the national economy, and solutions for managing it in SSA. FHB disease is highly prevalent and can cause grain yield losses of over 50% in the SSA, especially in Ethiopia. Globally, it is recognized as a highly challenging wheat disease to manage, which necessitates an integrated disease management approach including host resistance, cultural, biological, and chemical control strategies. Implementing crop rotation with non-host crops, such as soybeans, and effectively managing crop residue are essential cultural practices that greatly decrease the occurrence and intensity of FHB. Studies revealed that there is no wheat genotype immune to wheat FHB disease. However, research evidences show that utilizing moderately resistant wheat varieties in combination with other control methods could limit the development of the disease effectively. Although there have been limited fungicide efficacy testing conducted in SSA, the use of multiple triazole-based chemical fungicides, such as prothioconazole, tebuconazole, and propiconazole, either individually or in combination, are suggested as an effective method for controlling FHB in wheat in other nations, such as the United States, Europe, and China. The only fungicides currently available in Ethiopia are Fuzaro 400 SC (containing prothioconazole and tebuconazole) and Natura 250 EW (containing tebuconazole). In general, SSA has made little effort to develop FHB management strategies, resulting in lack of information regarding the disease control strategies in the region. Hence, it is crucial to immediately develop an integrated FHB disease management strategy and improve disease monitoring, identification, and forecasting. Improving the success of FHB management relies heavily on fostering awareness and education among wheat growers, as well as promoting regional and international collaboration. The findings of this review indicate that the development and implementation of an effective integrated management strategy for wheat FHB will substantially enhance regional production and productivity. Furthermore, it would provide considerable support to national wheat initiatives aimed at ensuring food security and safety in SSA, with specific relevance to Ethiopia.
1 Introduction
Wheat is a food security crop that provides a staple food source for more than 2.5 billion people worldwide (Bentley et al., 2022), accounting for about 35% of the world’s population (Oerke et al., 2012). It is the major staple in SSA, and consumption is increasing from time to time due to urbanization, societal changes and industrialization (Shewry and Hey, 2015). Various food products, such as bread and pasta, utilize wheat, which contributes to approximately 20% of the total dietary calories and protein globally (Shiferaw et al., 2013). At present, global annual wheat production has reached 800 million metric tons from 219 million hectares of land (FAOSTAT, 2023), and mainly produced in regions such as Asia, Europe, North and South America, Australasia, and beyond (Xu et al., 2022). This is estimated to increase by around 60% over the next thirty years to meet the demand of the ever-increasing world population (Petronaitis et al., 2021), which is projected to be 9.7 billion by 2050 (UN-DESA, 2019). In developing countries, the total wheat production is far less than the total amount required for domestic consumption. For instance, Sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) wheat production has increased by 283% in the past two decades, from 3.82 Mt in 2000 to 10.82 Mt in 2022 (FAOSTAT, 2023) but continues to fall short of rising demand and consumption. Though FAO has designated SSA as a very suitable region for growing rainfed wheat (= 80% of the maximum possible yield of 3.6 to 4.9 t/ha) based on climatic, geographic and edaphic factors (Oerke et al., 2012), its average wheat productivity remained 1.54 t/ha (2022), which is 43% and 58% below the average yield in Africa (2.72 t/ha) and the world (3.69 t/ha), respectively (FAOSTAT, 2023). Thus, the region imports twenty million tons of wheat annually and uses food aid in meeting its wheat demand. According to the latest updates of food security indicators in SSA, hunger increased from 22.2 percent to 22.5 percent between 2021 and 2022, which translates into 9 million more people compared to 2021 (FAO et al., 2023). The proportion of the population facing hunger is much larger in Africa compared to the other-regions of the world – nearly 20 percent but much severe in the middle and eastern Africa (29%).
Ethiopia is the leading wheat producer in SSA, followed by South Africa, Sudan, Kenya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Ethiopia has an annual production of seven million metric tons from 2.3 million hectares of land, with an average productivity of 3.04 tons per hectare (FAOSTAT, 2023). At present, Ethiopian wheat production is mainly subsistence farming, although it is a political priority and a prerequisite for food security and economic stability. Since the beginning of 2018, the government has made substantial investments in irrigated wheat production to ensure import substitution, with an ambition to start wheat exports (Effa et al., 2023). In spite of the substantial increase in wheat cultivation over the past five years, productivity and production continue to be inadequate (Senbeta and Worku, 2023). Several factors, including inadequate adoption of improved varieties and technologies and reduced public and private investments, contribute to this; however, the wheat diseases have had pronounced effects (Tadesse et al., 2018).
Among the diseases affecting wheat in Ethiopia in particular and in SSA in general, Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a re-emerging and expanding destructive wheat disease (Getahun et al., 2024a). FHB, also known as head scab, is a devastating fungal disease of small-grain cereals worldwide, including wheat, barley, oats, and rye (McMullen et al., 1997; Bottalico and Perrone, 2002; Powell and Vujanovic, 2021; Xu et al., 2022);. It poses a serious risk to food security and human health by causing severe yield losses and significantly reducing grain quality. The disease is particularly notorious due to its production of the trichothecene mycotoxins represented by deoxynivalenol (DON), which is harmful to human and animal health and serves as an important virulence factor for the pathogen (Xu et al., 2022; CPN, 2019). The disease is primarily caused by species from the genus Fusarium, with F. graminearum being the most prevalent and economically significant pathogen in many regions (Goswami and Kistler, 2004). Due to its global impact on cereal production, F. graminearum has been ranked among the most important plant-pathogenic fungi (Dean et al., 2012). This fungus (taxonomically placed in Sordariomycetes; Ascomycota) is responsible for FHB and crown rot in wheat, as well as Gibberella ear and stalk rot in maize (Lipps et al., 2025). F. graminearum thrives in warm, humid conditions and is notorious for contaminating grain with harmful mycotoxins (Wegulo et al., 2015). The most concerning mycotoxins include the type B trichothecenes deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV), as well as the estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) (Munkvold, 2017). The presence of these toxins in global grain supplies poses a significant health risk; DON is associated with emesis, feed refusal, and immunotoxicity, while ZEA exerts estrogenic effects, potentially causing reproductive disorders (Pestka, 2010; Zinedine et al., 2007). In response to these risks, regulatory bodies have established guidelines for mycotoxin levels in food and feed. For instance, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set advisory levels for DON, which range from 1 to 10 parts per million (ppm) depending on the final product’s intended use (FDA, 2010). Similarly, the European Union has established strict maximum levels for both DON and ZEA in products intended for human and animal consumption (European Commission, 2006/2023/2024). However, the stringency and enforcement of mycotoxin regulations are not uniform globally, with many low- and middle-income countries often lacking the comprehensive monitoring and regulatory frameworks found in major grain-exporting nations (Eskola et al., 2020).
In addition to existing yield-limiting factors like wheat rusts, wheat production in Sub-Saharan Africa now faces its most significant threat from the emergence of Fusarium Head Blight (FHB), a risk intensified by changing rainfall patterns that align with the wheat heading stage and other factors. The recent research showed that FHB infected over 90% of wheat fields in all major growing areas, leading to over 50% loss in grain yield in Ethiopia (Getahun et al., 2022; Getahun et al., 2024a). Popular Ethiopian wheat varieties, including Danda’a, Wane, Kakaba, Hidassie, Kubsa, Digalu, and Huluka, exhibited susceptibility to FHB (Abdissa and Bekele, 2020; Kebede et al., 2021a; Getnet et al., 2021). This indicates that FHB has become a significant concern for wheat production in SSA, particularly in Ethiopia, necessitating effective management strategies to mitigate its impact. Several investigators also reported that the disease has emerged as a major threat to global food security and human health, especially in regions with warm and humid climates (Petronaitis et al., 2021; Ha et al., 2016).
Climate change, cultivar susceptibility, maize-wheat rotation, conservation agricultural practices, and a lack of effective FHB management practices all contribute to the rising incidence and severity of FHB (Petronaitis et al., 2021). Changes in global climate patterns and farming systems have influenced FHB epidemics (Champeil et al., 2004). As global warming advances, the frequency and severity of FHB outbreaks have increased (Xu et al., 2022). FHB is favored by wet and warm weather, high humidity, and prolonged rainfall around anthesis (Champeil et al., 2004). In SSA, particularly in Ethiopia, climate change (i.e., prolonged rain and foggy weather during late cropping season when the crop flowers), increased maize and teff production in the wheat growing belt, increased wheat-maize/teff rotation, and poor FHB management practices are likely to be the main factors for the increased FHB epidemics.
Like many other countries, Ethiopia and other wheat-producing countries in SSA face challenges related to FHB in wheat production. Researchers and policymakers are actively seeking strategies to mitigate the impact of FHB on wheat crops. However, there is insufficient documentation or understanding of the emergence, impact and management method of FHB in these countries, warranting a need for more research on the epidemiology, genetics, management, and socioeconomic aspects of this disease. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge and gaps on FHB, as well as to highlight its potential threats to food security in the region, with objectives of assessing its economic impact on SSA countries’ wheat production, evaluating and identifying effective FHB management strategies, and providing recommendations for policymakers, researchers, and farmers.
2 Biology and epidemiology
Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) is primarily caused by the ascomycete fungus Fusarium graminearum Schwabe (teleomorph: Gibberella zeae), a species within a complex of pathogenic Fusarium spp (O'Donnell et al., 2004). This fungus is a hemibiotroph, capable of existing as a saprophyte on crop residue and switching to a necrotrophic lifestyle on living plants (Goswami and Kistler, 2004). Its pathogenicity is not limited to heads; it is also a significant cause of seedling blights and root and crown rots in wheat and is the primary causal agent of Gibberella stalk and ear rot in corn (Sutton, 1982). The pathogen overwinters on infected crop debris, where it produces spore-bearing structures (perithecia). Ascospores, forcibly discharged from these perithecia, and macroconidia, dispersed by rain splash, serve as the primary inoculum for new infections (Trail, 2009). Sexual reproduction in F. graminearum generates significant genetic diversity, which can lead to the emergence of new, virulent strains (Khan et al., 2020).
Wheat is most susceptible to infection during flowering (anthesis), when the spikelets are exposed and floral tissues, particularly anthers, provide a nutrient-rich entry point for the fungus (Pritsch et al., 2000). Spores land on the spikelets, germinate, and form appressoria to penetrate the plant tissue. Once inside, the fungus colonizes the vascular tissue of the rachis, facilitating spread to adjacent spikelets and causing the characteristic symptoms of premature bleaching (Bushnell et al., 2003). Under humid conditions, pink-orange sporodochia bearing macroconidia may form on infected glumes. The infection results in shriveled, chalky-white or pinkish “tombstone” kernels that are lightweight and often contaminated with mycotoxins (McMullen et al., 2012).
FHB is a monocyclic disease, with one primary infection cycle per season originating from the residue-borne inoculum (Fernando et al., 1997). Disease development is strongly favored by warm, humid conditions and prolonged rainfall or high humidity during anthesis and the early grain-filling period (Champeil et al., 2004). Rainfall is critical both for the maturation and discharge of ascospores from perithecia and for facilitating spore deposition and germination on the wheat head (Alisaac and Mahlein, 2023). Ultimately, the severity of FHB epidemics and their impact on yield and quality are determined by the confluence of three key factors: the presence of a virulent inoculum source, the cultivation of a susceptible host variety, and conducive environmental conditions during the critical infection window (Parry et al., 1995).
3 Emergence and distribution in Ethiopia
As reviewed by Powell and Vujanovic (2021), the association of FHB with small cereal grain crops was first described by Worthington G. Smith of England in his 1884 book, Diseases of Field and Garden Crops. In subsequent years, the disease spread to other countries with the global movement of human beings and wheat grains, becoming a major risk factor for barley and wheat production (Ma et al., 2020). Currently, the disease is widespread across the globe and prevalent in warm and humid regions of Europe, East Asia, East and Southern Africa, and North and South America (Powell and Vujanovic, 2021).
As historical and contemporary notes of FHB incidence in Ethiopia show, the first detection of FHB-associated pathogen dates back to the 1960s when F. culmorum (W.G.Sm.) Sacc. was first reported as the causal pathogen of wheat root rot in the book entitled “Index of Plant Diseases in Ethiopia” (Stewart and Yirgou, 1967). In 1975, high incidence and severity of the disease on durum wheat (T. durum) in Ethiopia was reported by Scientific Phytopathological Laboratory (SPL) (1975). Kidane (1985) collected wheat seed samples from various parts of Ethiopia during the 1975/76 season and identified Fusarium species, including F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. dimerum, F. longipes, and F. semitectum, as causal agents of Fusarium infection, particularly in Arsi and Shewa. A review of wheat diseases in Ethiopia also highlighted the report of F. graminearum as the causal pathogen of crown rot disease in wheat before 1985 (Bekele, 1985). The disease was also identified with high incidence and severity on wheat seed collected from seed farms (Dixis, Gofer, Lole and Serufta), and research centers (Holeta and Kulumsa) in 1988, when it was practically absent where landraces were grown and was only observed around Holeta and Kulumsa where farmers used improved cultivars such as ‘Dashen’ (Bekele and Karr, 1997). After that, it remained intermittent and of low-impact for decades although reports on the occurrence of Fusarium pathogens and mycotoxins in grain samples (Ayalew et al., 2006; O'Donnell et al., 2008; Bishaw et al., 2013) show the persistence of the disease in Ethiopia. This, along with the sporadic occurrence of FHB, has made it harder for researchers in Ethiopia to learn about the causal organisms, the spread of the disease, and how to manage it (Gebre-Mariam et al., 1991; Tadesse, 2008). These factors facilitated the continuous spread of the pathogens and caused the recent re-emergence of the disease at epidemic levels, leading to significant yield losses in many wheat-growing regions in the last four to five consecutive years.
Later, survey from 2016 in the South Omo zone reported FHB infections of 10-47% on Huluka and ETBW5890 wheat varieties (Mitiku and Eshete, 2016). A 2017 survey in the Southwest found wheat fields with 100% incidence and 53.7% severity of FHB showing the intensification of the disease (Kebede et al., 2021a). By 2019, the disease widespread and found in nearly 89% of wheat fields, with severity levels averaging 76.3% in the most affected districts of West Shewa zone including Ambo, Dandi, and Toke Kutaye (Abdissa and Bekele, 2020).
In the recent years, FHB has been found in 80–100% of fields with up to 60% severity in the Arsi, West Arsi, West, and Southwest Shewa districts, as well as on numerous state farms (Abdissa and Bekele, 2020; Kebede et al., 2021a; Getnet et al., 2021). Particularly, the FHB infection detected on wheat seed multiplication farms run by the federal government and Oromia Seed Enterprise (OSE) in 2021 was concerning and alarming. We thank Mr. Diriba Regasa, a farm manager of OSE (Personal communication and observation, October 10, 2021), for informing us and letting us observe the disease incidence. According to the 2022 annual wheat disease survey in Ethiopia, FHB was observed with severe infection in over 50% of the wheat fields surveyed in the major wheat-growing regions (Figure 1). Surveys conducted in 2020 and 2021 across 12 districts revealed that 93.80% of wheat fields were infected, with disease intensity varying by district, altitude, preceding crop, growth stage, weed status, and tillage practices (Getahun et al., 2022). According to this report, the highest FHB prevalence was observed in Sankura, Mareko, and Hulbareg districts, where the high disease incidence and severity were associated with maize as a preceding crop, poor weed management, minimum tillage, and low altitudes (< 2000 m). Generally, recent reports show that the disease is highly prevalent in the main wheat-growing areas including Arsi, Bale, Shewa, Jimma, Sidama, Gurage, Siltie, north Shewa (Amh), Gojjam, and Wello (Abdissa and Bekele, 2020; Kebede et al., 2020; Zerihun et al., 2023; Getahun et al., 2022), showing an increasing trend both in intensity and distribution (Kebede et al., 2021a; Regasa, 2023).
Figure 1. FHB infection on wheat spikes: (A) - FHB infected and healthy durum wheat head, (B) - development of sporodochia on bread wheat and (C) - development of sporodochia on durum wheat. The compacted nature of durum wheat head favors FHB infection than bread wheat. The photo was taken by Jemal Tola, during 2022 cropping season wheat disease survey around Arsi and Bale, Ethiopia.
The increasing intensity of Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) is strongly associated with changes in key weather conditions and other disease-favoring factors. FHB incidence is influenced by a complex of interacting factors, including the susceptibility of wheat cultivars, the availability of primary inoculum, and conducive weather conditions—specifically warm temperatures, high humidity, and prolonged rainfall during anthesis (Miedaner and Juroszek, 2021). Agronomic practices such as monocropping, reduced tillage, and specific crop rotations further exacerbate the problem (Petronaitis et al., 2021). In Ethiopia, while FHB-causing pathogens were reported as early as the 1980s, their significant impact on national wheat production and widespread distribution have only been recognized since approximately 2018 (Abdissa and Bekele, 2020; Bayoush, 2021).
Research indicates that the recent FHB epidemics in Ethiopia are driven by several risk factors. These include climate change contributing to prolonged rainy periods that overlap with the susceptible flowering stage of wheat, the high susceptibility of widely grown varieties, and intensified cropping systems (Getahun et al., 2022). A study by Umer et al. (2025) in central and southwestern Ethiopia confirmed that high FHB incidence and severity were associated with humid weather, specific crop rotations (e.g., wheat with potato, teff, or maize), and reduced tillage. The highland regions, which are the primary wheat-growing areas of Ethiopia, are experiencing more intense and irregular rainfall (Yigezu, 2021). This unusual late-season precipitation in September and October often coincides with anthesis and kernel development, the crop stages most vulnerable to FHB infection and mycotoxin accumulation (McMullen et al., 2012). Compounding the problem, most popular wheat varieties are highly susceptible to FHB (Getahun et al., 2022). While rust-resistant varieties released through collaborations with international centers like CIMMYT have boosted productivity (Hodson et al., 2020), their performance is compromised under high FHB pressure.
Cropping systems in Ethiopia also contribute to pathogen buildup. Wheat monocropping is dominant in the southeastern highlands, creating a favorable environment for disease prevalence (Dinsa and Bogale, 2024). Similarly, rotations with maize or teff are increasing (Central Statistical Agency [CSA], 2022), which facilitates the carryover of Fusarium pathogens, as these crops are also hosts (Dweba et al., 2017). Such intensification of cropping, reduced crop diversity, and simplified rotations are widely recognized as drivers of increased disease incidence (Oerke, 2006).
Another critical triggering factor is poor crop management practices, often stemming from limited farmer awareness and institutional support. A report by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the FAO (MoANR & FAO, 2016) noted a significant decline in public pest management services between 2010 and 2015, attributed to organizational instability, limited budget, and low prioritization. This led to weak pest surveillance and loosely regulated practices, creating conditions for new pathogens to establish (Mulatu and Grando, 2011). The situation for FHB remains largely unimproved, with minimal disease control efforts, inadequate residue management, and low use of certified seeds exacerbating losses (Getahun et al., 2022).
Furthermore, in line with changing climate conditions, Fusarium species populations are predicted to shift. Studies in Europe suggest that Fusarium species complexes are constantly changing, which in turn alters the profile of mycotoxins contaminating wheat grain (Miedaner and Juroszek, 2021). In a given region, up to 20 different Fusarium species can co-exist, each with distinct ecological adaptations and environmental preferences (Timmusk et al., 2020). Critically, these species have different mycotoxin profiles (Stępień et al., 2020). The co-existence of multiple species introduces a diversity of mycotoxins into the food chain, posing a more complex threat to consumer health than infection by a single species.
4 Economic importance
FHB is globally recognized as one of the most destructive floral diseases of wheat, posing a major threat to both global food security and food safety, particularly in warm and humid climates (Figueroa et al., 2018; Alisaac and Mahlein, 2023). The disease gained prominent notoriety following severe epidemics in the 1990s in the United States and China, which resulted in billions of dollars in economic losses and, in some cases, forced farmers into bankruptcy due to consecutive years of increase in disease pressure (McMullen et al., 2012; Windels, 2000).
The economic loss due to FHB is caused in two ways. First, it causes direct yield losses, typically ranging from 10-30% but potentially exceeding 50% in susceptible cultivars under high disease pressure (Jevtić et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2022). These losses are manifested as shriveled, lightweight “tombstone” kernels, which reduce test weight and can compromise seed quality (Bishaw et al., 2012; McMullen et al., 2012). Second, and often more economically significant, is the contamination of grain with mycotoxins. The most concerning mycotoxins are deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN). DON, a trichothecene, causes vomiting, feed refusal, and immunotoxicity in humans and livestock, while ZEN exerts estrogenic effects, leading to reproductive disorders (Pestka, 2010; Zinedine et al., 2007). These stable compounds persist through processing into final products like bread and beer, posing a direct consumer health risk. Their presence leads to severe market discounts and rejections, especially when DON levels exceed 1–2 ppm, for instance, accounting for an estimated $3 billion in losses in the USA between 1990 and 2008 (McMullen et al., 2012; Schumann and D'Arcy, 2009).
In Africa, the yield loss data due to FHB infection is not well documented. However, Kriel and Pretorius (2008) reported a yield loss of up to 24% due to FHB infection in central region of South Africa. In Kenya, Muthomi et al. (2007) reported FHB occurrence in 90-100% of wheat fields with an average severity of 24%. A study conducted in the Southern part of Ethiopia during 2020 and 2021 reported 93.56% of FHB-infected wheat fields (Getahun et al., 2022) and 46-53% wheat grain yield losses due to the disease (Mengesha et al., 2021; Getahun et al., 2024a).
Due to historically low importance of FHB in Ethiopia, mycotoxin surveys in wheat have primarily focused on aflatoxin and ochratoxin A, rather than FHB-associated mycotoxins such as DON, as recently reviewed by Atnkut et al. (2025) and Mamo et al. (2020). However, recent data indicate a significant increase in DON contamination in Ethiopian wheat over the past decade. Worku et al. (2019) conducted a mycotoxin survey in 2016 in major wheat-producing areas and found that DON levels were very low, ranging from 0.35 to 1.14 μg/kg. Conversely, in another survey conducted in 2020, when an FHB outbreak was reported in the country, DON emerged as the most prevalent mycotoxin, with a detection frequency of 70.8% (Getahun et al., 2023). Remarkably, a maximum DON level of 15,900 μg/kg was recorded, while the average level was 794 μg/kg, substantially higher than the levels reported by Worku et al. (2019). This raises serious food safety concerns, especially given the ongoing reports of FHB epidemics in recent years. Urgent nationwide mycotoxin surveys focusing on DON are critically needed to better understand the current food safety status in Ethiopia.
5 FHB causing Fusarium species in SSA
At least 17 Fusarium species cause FHB in wheat worldwide and the dominant species are F. graminearum, F. culmorum, and F. avenaceum (Petronaitis et al., 2021). In Ethiopia, over fourteen Fusarium species have been reported as a causal agent of wheat diseases. Detection of F. culmorum as a causal pathogen of wheat root rot in 1967 was the first report of FHB causing Fusarium spp. in Ethiopia (Stewart and Yirgou, 1967). Earlier in 1988, Bekele (1990) identified 11 Fusarium species, namely F. avenaceum, F. graminearum, F. poae, F. lateritium, F. sambucinum, F. semitectum, F. sporotrichioides, F. udum, F. nivale, F. equiseti and F. heterospoum. This study indicated that F. nivale and F. avenaceum were the dominant species in samples collected from cool, moist, high-altitude areas, while F. graminearum was more frequent at lower altitudes and in northwestern regions. In both state farms and farmer fields, F. sporotrichioides and F. poae occurred less frequently and had more limited distribution than F. graminearum. F. equiseti was more commonly isolated from stored seed samples. In 2017, Kebede et al. (2021b) surveyed in Southwestern part (i.e., Jimma, Buno Bedelle and West Wellega zones) of Ethiopia and identified nine Fusarium species among which three species (F. culmorum, F. ussurianum, and F. pseudograminearum) were identified for the first time from FHB infected spikes in the country. This study identified that F. graminearum and F. culmorum were the two dominant species in the Buno-Bedele zone, having an isolation frequency of 44.9% and 59.2%, respectively. Similarly, in 2019, Abdissa and Bekele (2020) have identified four Fusarium species in West Shewa, where F. graminearum (42.9%) was the most dominant species followed by F. culmorum (26.2%) and F. avenaceum (19.3%) in the inspected areas; however, F. poae was found in lesser frequency. Recently, in the 2022 cropping season, the Debrezeit/BishoftuARC team collected FHB samples mostly from durum wheat fields and identified 10 Fusarium species, including the previously reported F. graminearum, F. equiseti and F. avenaceum, as well as the newly identified F. boothii, F. guttiforme, F. verticilliodes, F. arcuatisporum, F. hainanense, F. iranicum and F. pseudocircinatum (Regasa, 2023).
Given the highly conducive conditions for disease development in central Ethiopia, FHB infection on wheat heads appears severe under natural infection, and its symptoms may be confused with those of wheat blast infection observed elsewhere (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Symptomological similarity between FHB infection symptoms in Ethiopia and wheat blast (WB) infection elsewhere with full bleaching above infection point. (A–C) FHB infection symptoms taken from Ethiopia; (A, B) were taken from Ambo Agricultural Research Center on-station during 2023 and 2022, respectively, while (C) was taken during 2023 from an experimental plot at Bacho district of the Southwest Shewa zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia. Laboratory test signified that (A–C) wheat infections were caused by Fusarium spp. (D) Wheat blast (WB) symptoms taken from Bolivia. Photo credit: Jemal Tola Symptomological similarity between FHB infection symptoms in Ethiopia and wheat blast (WB) infection elsewhere with full bleaching above infection point. (A–C) FHB infection symptoms taken from Ethiopia; (A, B) were taken from Ambo Agricultural Research Center on-station during 2023 and 2022, respectively, while (C) was taken during 2023 from an experimental plot at Bacho district of the Southwest Shewa zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia. Laboratory test signified that (A–C) wheat infections were caused by Fusarium spp. (D) Wheat blast (WB) symptoms taken from Bolivia. Photo credit: Jemal Tola (A–C) and Xinyao He (D).
6 Current management practices
FHB is one of the most difficult diseases to control due to the complex nature of the causal pathogen (Powell and Vujanovic, 2021). The absence of immune varieties, the limited efficacy of chemical fungicides, and the significant influence of environmental conditions are the other reasons that make FHB management more challenging (Petronaitis et al., 2021). For instance, in North America, following the unforgettable FHB epidemics in 1990s and early 2000s, different strategies have been employed to manage this disease, though, FHB still remains a persistent problem (Powell and Vujanovic, 2021).
Successful and sustainable management of Fusarium head blight (FHB) necessitates an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach, which strategically combines cultural, genetic, biological, and chemical control tactics. IPM is broadly defined as a cost-effective and environmentally sensitive pest management strategy that employs a combination of available pest control methods to mitigate pest damage in the most economical manner and with the least amount of risk to the environment, property, and people (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2024). For FHB specifically, a single management tactic is often insufficient, especially under epidemic conditions (McMullen et al., 2008; Wegulo et al., 2015). Consequently, an integrated approach is essential, leveraging the synergistic effect of combining multiple strategies such as cultural practices to reduce initial inoculum, the deployment of genetic resistance, well-timed application of fungicides, and the use of biological control agents (Bai and Shaner, 2004; McMullen et al., 2012). This multi-faceted strategy is widely endorsed as the only reliable method to achieve consistent and sustainable FHB suppression. In North America and Europe, an integrated disease management approach has been utilized to minimize the yield loss and toxin contamination caused by Fusarium infection (Dweba et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2020; Alisaac and Mahlein, 2023). Additionally, disease surveillance, diagnosis, awareness raising, capacity development, and collaboration among stakeholders play key roles in the improvement and application of management strategies (Mamo et al., 2020). To reduce DON accumulation in wheat grain, postharvest mitigation strategies are required, which include proper drying, grain and seed processing, such as sorting and cleaning, and avoiding fungal infection (Jian et al., 2021; Neme and Mohammed, 2017).
Nevertheless, in Africa, FHB management methods are largely lacking compared to those in North America and China, where FHB management is more advanced. The disease has received less attention from the local government and researchers, resulting in limited management options and making things even worse.
In Ethiopia, even though FHB was identified as a significant wheat disease in the early 1980s (Bekele, 1985), no effective management approach has been developed. Very few studies have suggested the integration of moderately resistant wheat varieties (i.e., Shorima and Kingbird) and triazole fungicides (i.e., tebuconazole and propiconazole) for managing this disease (Mengesha et al., 2021 and Getahun et al., 2023). The following sub-sections discuss existing components of integrated FHB management, their limitations, and opportunities for improvement in SSA.
6.1 Cultural practices
Cultural practices such as crop rotation, residue management, irrigation management, planting date, seeding rate, row spacing, etc., can affect the inoculum level and disease development. Crop rotations matter, as residues from the previously infected crop can harbor the FHB pathogens. Residues that represent the greatest risk are those from corn, followed by wheat and barley (Dill-Macky and Jones, 2000). Using tillage to incorporate infected residues will reduce disease risk but will not completely mitigate the threat that these rotations pose (Shah et al., 2018). Similarly, wheat to soybean rotation resulted in 15% yield increase and 25% DON reduction as compared to corn-to-wheat rotation (Dill-Macky and Jones, 2000). Seed treatment, planting date adjustment, and appropriate harvest practices also suppress both FHB and DON. In SSA, cultural practices appear less considered for the management of pests in general and FHB in particular. As indicated in the risk factor section of this paper, crop rotation is reduced in Ethiopia due to the factor of wheat intensification (rainfed and irrigated) that led to monoculture in many areas of major wheat production zones. Getahun et al. (2022) reported that reduction in FHB infection and its associated DON was linked to rotation with legume crop, good weed management, and higher altitudes (> 2500 m) in Ethiopia. In general, fallow retention followed by dry tillage, and wheat rotation with rapeseed and faba bean resulted in the highest wheat yields in southeastern Ethiopia (Girma and Mengistu, 2024).
6.2 Breeding for resistance
Breeding for genetic resistance is widely regarded as the most effective, economical, and environmentally sustainable strategy to mitigate the impact of Fusarium head blight (FHB) (Dweba et al., 2017). However, this approach faces significant challenges, including a scarcity of resistance sources that are often linked to undesirable agronomic traits (Bai and Shaner, 2004). On the other hand, FHB resistance in wheat is predominantly quantitative, being controlled by numerous minor genes. A major breakthrough was the identification of major-effect quantitative trait loci (QTLs) from quantitative resistance sources, with the Fhb1 gene from the Chinese cultivar ‘Sumai-3’ being the most prominent and widely deployed example (Bai et al., 2018). To date, seven FHB resistance genes (Fhb1 through Fhb7) have been identified. Among these Fhb1 and Fhb7, have been cloned, enabling their precise introgression into elite germplasm (Li et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020). Breeding programs in some major wheat-growing countries have since developed wheat varieties with resistant (R), moderately resistant (MR), and moderately susceptible (MS) reactions to FHB. For instance, at least 18 and over 60 FHB-resistant wheat varieties have been released in USA and China, respectively. These includes Alsen, SY Ingmar, SY Soren, Barlow, Glenn, Prosper, Faller, Prevail, Focus, Brick, McVey and Sabin in USA, and Yangmai 4, Yangmai 5, Yangmai 158, Yang 9-16, Jingzhou 1, Jingzhou 47, Jingzhou 66, Yangmai 11, Yangmai 12, Yangmai 16, Yangmai 20, Zhenmai 10, and Ningmai 13 in China (Buerstmayr et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019). Combining these resistant varieties with fungicide applications has proven effective in significantly suppressing FHB incidence and DON contamination, ensuring sustainable control of FHB (Dweba et al., 2019).
Due to the sporadic occurrence of FHB in Ethiopia before the past four years, breeders have prioritized breeding for rust resistance over FHB resistance. Hence, the focus on FHB resistance in wheat breeding programs has been limited, resulting in insufficient information regarding Ethiopian wheat varieties’ response against the disease. Though more than 115 bread wheat and 47 durum wheat varieties have been released/registered in Ethiopia (Geleta et al., 2022), data on their resistance to FHB remain limited. Earlier studies in the 1980s such as Bekele (1985), identified Enkoy variety as moderately resistant to Fusarium infection. Field investigations, supplemented by artificial inoculation, demonstrated that only 7 of the 38 assessed wheat varieties (18.4%), specifically Enkoy, Huluka, Galema, Hogana, K6295-4A, Dashen, and Derselegne, showed moderate resistance to FHB (Abdissa et al., 2022). Unfortunately, these varieties are obsolete and no longer produced because of their low productivity and inadequate resistance to emerging rust races (Senbeta and Worku, 2023). However, their resistance to FHB can be further explored to utilize them in breeding programs.
More recently, some progress has been made in understanding FHB resistance in Ethiopian wheat varieties. Greenhouse evaluations using artificial inoculation revealed that varieties like Kingbird, and Limu exhibited moderate resistance, with lower disease severity among the 24 Ethiopian wheat varieties tested (Getahun et al., 2024b). Contrarily, varieties like Dereselgne, Dambal, and Ogolcho were found to be highly susceptible to FHB. Similarly, Mengesha et al. (2021) has reported Shorima and Hidassie wheat varieties as moderately resistant and susceptible, respectively. Earecho et al. (2023) has also reported that some of Ethiopia bread wheat genotypes exhibited moderately resistance for Type-II resistance. Research outside Ethiopia also provides valuable insights. Zennah (2019) evaluated 215 spring wheat genotypes from Kenya and Ethiopia and identified six genotypes with stable resistance to FHB. In her study, positive associations were identified between the FHB index, Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK), and DON content, and negative associations were identified between FHB index and plant height or heading dates. Nevertheless, in the current scenario of FHB disease pressure in the field, none of the Ethiopian wheat varieties stand resistant to the disease, highlighting the urgent need for more comprehensive and coordinated breeding efforts to address FHB infection effectively.
Although significant advancements have been made in the rest of the world to mitigate the impact of this disease through the development of resistant wheat varieties over the past few decades, the FHB epidemic has been increasing due to changes in climate and agricultural practices (Ma et al., 2025). Therefore, there is a need for the identification and utilization of new resistance sources to improve breeding efficiency. Molecular markers and genomic tools can facilitate the selection and introgression of resistance genes into improved cultivars. Advanced genetic methods such as gene pyramiding and gene editing (Su et al., 2019) can increase the durability and effectiveness of resistance genes. In addition, common resistance genes for control of multiple diseases like wheat rusts, wheat blast, and FHB are unlikely to exist, highlighting the need to stack multiple genes in breeding programs for effective resistance (Ha et al., 2016).
6.3 Biological control
The use of biocontrol agents (BCAs) for the control of fungal pathogens causing FHB is a promising strategy for disease management, concerning the increasing demand for organic products and environmental concerns (Yuen and Schoneweis, 2007). Several studies have shown the effectiveness of BCAs against FHB in wheat under controlled or semi-controlled conditions (Abbas and Yli-Mattila, 2022; Palazzini et al., 2016). Several fungi, bacteria, and yeasts have been reported to have antagonistic effects against Fusarium spp (Dawson et al., 2004). Among these potential bioagents, Bacillus subtilis and Cryptococcus nodaensis have been evaluated under diverse growing conditions across USA (Stockwell et al., 2001). Palazzini et al. (2016) have evaluated the biocontrol effect of two bacterial strains viz., Bacillus subtilis RC 218 and Brevibacillus sp. RC 263 in field trials in Argentina, and reported that application of both bacterial strains has resulted in a reduction of FHB severity ranging from 62–76% and 100% control of DON contamination under semi-controlled field conditions.
Some studies have identified Aureobasidium pullulans, Clonostachys rosea, Cryptococcus spp., and Trichoderma spp. (T. harzianum, T. gamsii, T. longibrachiatum and T. atroviride) as potential BCAs against FHB disease caused by F. graminearum and F. culmorum, which can function directly on wheat spikes to suppress disease progression or act on debris to inhibit perithecia production (Wachowska and Glowacka, 2014). Bencheikh et al. (2022) reported that Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. are efficient against F. culmorum and F. chlamydosporum, while F. tricinctum is efficiently controlled by B. amyloliquefaciens (Wang et al., 2022). Moreover, some mycoviruses also showed antagonistic effects against F. graminearum and F. culmorum, reducing fungal pathogenicity and mycotoxins (Cho et al., 2012). However, under SSA conditions including Ethiopia, no antagonistic microorganisms have been studied as BCAs for managing FHB and mycotoxin contamination in wheat, both under field conditions and in vitro. Further research is needed.
Nevertheless, BCAs were generally less effective than conventional agrochemicals, especially in reducing pathogen abundance, controlling FHB, and preventing mycotoxin contamination (Risoli et al., 2024). Moreover, field application of BCAs has shown less progress and success, requiring further research. The main challenge of biocontrol is to design and develop BCA formulations that are highly effective and easy in utilization with a long shelf life (Chen et al., 2022).
6.4 Chemical method
The use of fungicides is the primary method to control FHB and its associated mycotoxins, given the lack of cultivars with high resistance to FHB (Chen et al., 2022). Chemicals can reduce FHB severity by as much as 50% and DON levels by 30 to 45%, though the actual reductions are highly variable (Paul et al., 2008; Nagelkirk and Kirk, 2011). It was also found that fungicides targeting FHB may result in improved grain quality and yield even without FHB occurrence, due to their effects on controlling foliar diseases (Nagelkirk and Kirk, 2011).
In general, to maximize the effectiveness of fungicides against FHB and DON, it is essential to select the most appropriate fungicides and apply them at the right growth stage using precise application techniques (Friskop et al., 2018). All fungicide classes that are used for FHB control were found effective when applied at the anthesis stage (Balanos-Carriel et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2021), which can be extended only up to 6 days post-anthesis, a narrow spray window (Balanos-Carriel et al., 2020). To date, fungicides such as prothioconazole, metconazole, pydiflumetofen, phenamacril, tebuconazole and propiconazole are commonly used to manage FHB worldwide (CPN, 2019; Edwards, 2022; Hou et al., 2017). Paul et al. (2008) have evaluated the efficacy of triazole-based fungicides for FHB and DON control and reported that the combination of prothioconazole and tebuconazole was the most effective, achieving over 50% control efficacy. This was followed by metconazole (50%), prothioconazole (48%), tebuconazole (40%) and propiconazole (32%). Pydiflumetofen and phenamacril are the most recent and effective fungicides against wheat FHB. Although Tilt (Propiconazole) and other tebuconazole-based fungicides are less effective against FHB, they may be considered where the FHB risk is relatively low and the threat of foliar diseases persists, owing to their lower costs. Mycotoxin buildup in grain may be decreased by fungicide application at the late-milk stage (20 days post-anthesis) (Yoshida et al., 2012), even though DON levels are most effectively decreased by fungicide application at anthesis (Pirgozliev et al., 2008).
In Ethiopia, in the early 1980s, Benomyl fungicide was identified as an effective seed-dressing fungicide to suppress FHB (Bekele, 1985). Recently, Imidalm T 450 WS (Imidaclopride 250 gm/kg + Thiram 200 gm/kg) and Dynamic 400 FS (Thiram 20% WV + Carbofuran 20% WV) have been recommended as effective fungicides that suppress FHB when supplemented with foliar applications (Mengesha et al., 2022). Until 2022, the only foliar spray fungicide registered for wheat FHB control in Ethiopia was Fuzaro 400 SC (Prothioconazole 250g/L + Tebuconazole 150g/L) with an application rate of 0.5 L ha-1 (EAA, 2023). Besides, some fungicides of the triazole chemical class i.e., prothioconazole, tebuconazole, and propiconazole, which were originally registered for other wheat disease control, have been evaluated and recommended for the control of wheat FHB (Getahun et al., 2024a; Mengesha et al., 2021; AmARC, Unpublished data). Tebuconazole-containing fungicides were found more effective than propiconazole in reducing FHB severity, disease progression, Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK), and DON contamination while increasing yield and thousand seed weight (TSW) (Getahun et al., 2024a and Mengesha et al., 2021).
Generally, strobilurin-containing chemical fungicides are not recommended for controlling FHB in wheat even in combination with triazoles, as they increase mycotoxin contamination in the grain (Alberta Seed Guide, 2018; Audenaert et al., 2013; Blandino et al., 2006; Bolanos-Carriel et al., 2020; CPN, 2019; Leslie et al., 2021; Torres et al., 2019). Ellner (2005) has conducted a total of 23 field trials in five years to investigate the effect of strobilurin-containing fungicides on mycotoxin production in winter wheat and found that 85% of the plots treated with strobilurins at growth stages before anthesis increased DON content in comparison with untreated controls. Thus, many studies recommend always choosing a triazole fungicide when targeting FHB, and suggest applying strobilurin fungicides before the Feekes 8 growth stage, even when they are used to control other foliar diseases of wheat (Smith, 2013).
7 Future prospects
Wheat FHB disease is one of the most challenging to control. The literature review suggests that the disease has re-emerged as a severe and expanding threat to wheat production in SSA, with Ethiopia being the center of the crisis. This re-emergence poses a direct and multifaceted risk to regional food security and human health. Critically, current management efforts in the region are insufficient. Drawing insights from regions like North America and China, where FHB management is more advanced through integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, can provide valuable blueprints for SSA. Developing FHB resistant or tolerant varieties is the best strategy to effectively manage the disease. This can be facilitated through strong international collaboration by sharing resistance sources, knowledge and experiences. Host resistance is often supplemented by the application of effective fungicides to provide maximum protection to wheat from FHB infection, but the optimal application rate and timing require further study. Monitoring fungicide resistance is also crucial as the pathogen likely develop resistance, and an FHB forecasting system is needed to use fungicide in more effective and economical way. Additionally, research efforts in SSA must prioritize a deeper understanding of Fusarium species complexes, their diversity, and mycotoxin profiles through comprehensive regional surveys to identify dominant and emerging virulent strains for targeted management. Leveraging emerging technologies offers promising avenues: advanced remote sensing and drone technology, coupled with predictive modeling and artificial intelligence, can revolutionize disease monitoring and forecasting, thereby optimizing fungicide application. CRISPR-Cas based gene editing holds immense potential to develop durable FHB-resistant wheat varieties. Furthermore, exploring novel and locally adapted biocontrol agents tailored to Fusarium species in SSA is vital, learning from successful bio-control initiatives in other agricultural systems. Ultimately, successful FHB management hinges on robust capacity building and international collaboration. This involves investing in training local researchers, extension workers, and farmers on FHB identification and integrated management practices. International partnerships can accelerate knowledge transfer, germplasm exchange, and the development of locally adapted solutions. By fostering a collaborative ecosystem of research, innovation, and education, SSA can build resilience against FHB, safeguard its wheat production, and enhance regional food security.
Author contributions
JH: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. XH: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. KD: Writing – review & editing. NH: Writing – review & editing. SM: Writing – review & editing. XZ: Writing – review & editing. PS: Conceptualization, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. Financial support from the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, One CGIAR Initiatives ABI and PHI, Wheat Global Health Alliance, Agricultural Transformation Institute of Ethiopia, and International S&T Collaboration Project for Road and Belt Innovation funded by Jiangsu Provincial Department of Sciences and Technology, China (Grant No. BZ2024043), are gratefully acknowledged.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Keywords: Ethiopia, deoxynivalenol (DON), Fusarium head blight, Fusarium spp., sub-Saharan Africa, wheat
Citation: Horo JT, He X, Danu KG, Hei NB, Megerssa SH, Zhang X and Singh PK (2026) Fusarium head blight: emergence, impacts on wheat production and management in Ethiopia and beyond. Front. Agron. 7:1716770. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2025.1716770
Received: 30 September 2025; Accepted: 02 December 2025; Revised: 29 November 2025;
Published: 12 January 2026.
Edited by:
Xinhua Ding, Shandong Agricultural University, ChinaReviewed by:
Sarah Lipps, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United StatesOtilia Cotuna, University of Life Sciences King MIchael I, Romania
Copyright © 2026 Horo, He, Danu, Hei, Megerssa, Zhang and Singh. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Pawan Kumar Singh, cGsuc2luZ2hAY2dpYXIub3Jn