Foliar Azospirillum brasilense inoculation and phosphorus application for sustainable maize production in tropical cropping systems

Abstract

Introdution:

Climatic variability during the growth of off-season maize, the primary maize cycle in Brazil, creates stresses that limit yields and demand sustainable management strategies that reduce the reliance on excessive nitrogen (N) inputs.

Methods:

This study evaluated foliar inoculation with A. brasilense and foliar phosphorus (P) application as strategies to improve off-season maize nutrition and yield under reduced N fertilization at six sites in Brazil.

Results and Discussion:

The combined application of A. brasilense and foliar P increased leaf N and P concentrations, stalk diameter, the number of grains per ear, 100-grain weight, and grain yield (GY). Across sites, GY was highest under the combined application at the full N application rate, but combined application under a 25% lower N application rate produced GYs similar to those under the full N rate without inoculation or foliar P. Reducing the N rate by 25% led to a proportional decrease in N₂O emissions without compromising GYs when combined with inoculation and P supplementation. Thus, managing off-season maize with foliar Azospirillum brasilense inoculation combined with foliar P application represents a sustainable alternative to optimize nutrient use efficiency and maintain productivity with reduced N input. In addition to agronomic benefits, this practice contributes to mitigating N₂O emissions, making it a sustainable alternative for large-scale off-season maize production in Brazil.

Highlights

• The combination of foliar A. brasilense inoculation and phosphorus application enhances nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiencies in off-season maize.

• This alternative management strategy can reduce the nitrogen fertilization rate by 25% without compromising grain yield.

• Reducing nitrogen rates reduces N₂O emissions, providing environmental benefits.

• The new practice combines the N & P decoupling philosophy (TSP + Urea decoupled vs. MAP) with the 4R Nutrient Stewardship principles.

1 Introduction

The increasing population and global food demand require the maintenance of high agricultural productivity, especially for maize (Zea mays L.), an important crop both globally and in Brazil (FAO, 2025). In the 2024/2025 season, the planted area in Brazil reached 21.679 million hectares, with an estimated production of 137 million tons (CONAB, 2025). The off-season (second-crop maize) is the main maize cultivation cycle in Brazil, accounting for approximately 80% of national maize production (CONAB, 2025). This crop is typically established after soybean harvest and develops under transitional climatic conditions characterized by irregular rainfall. Short dry spells often occur early in the cycle, followed by a marked reduction in precipitation from mid- to late season, frequently coinciding with periods of high crop water demand. These conditions are commonly associated with elevated temperatures, an early onset of the dry season, and, in some regions, occasional frost events (Cunningham, 2020). Collectively, these climatic stresses restrict grain filling, disrupt photosynthetic processes, and reduce nutrient uptake, underscoring the importance of appropriate crop management strategies (Bigolin and Talamini, 2024; Moretti et al., 2026).

Maize productivity is strongly influenced by the availability of both nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Moreira et al., 2017, 2026). N is essential for the production of proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophylls, coenzymes, phytohormones, and secondary metabolites, all of which are critical for vegetative growth and grain formation (Govindasamy et al., 2023; Khan et al., 2023). Consequently, N is one of the most limiting nutrients for crop productivity. In tropical soils like those found in Brazil, low N use efficiency (NUE) is often caused by N losses through volatilization, leaching, or microbial processes such as denitrification (Ladha et al., 2022). These losses not only reduce crop productivity but also lead to emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O), a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential approximately 300 times that of CO₂ (Butterbach-Bahl et al., 2013; Griffis et al., 2017). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that in humid climates, applied N has an average N₂O emission factor of 1.6% (De Klein et al., 2019), although field values can vary depending on fertilization type and management (Yang et al., 2022). Improving NUE is therefore crucial to maximize productivity while mitigating environmental impacts (Eagle et al., 2020; Ladha et al., 2022). P plays a central role in energy transfer through ATP, nucleic acid synthesis, membrane structure, root development, and early plant establishment (Khan et al., 2023; de Souza et al., 2025), and promoting P use efficiency (PUE) is critical for sustaining growth and yield under off-season conditions (Crusciol et al., 2022; Moreira et al., 2022).

A promising strategy to meet the nutritional demands of maize during critical growth stages is combining the foliar application of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) such as Azospirillum brasilense at the vegetative stage with P supplementation at the reproductive stage. A. brasilense can supplement the supply of N to maize by fixing atmospheric N₂ (Moretti et al., 2018; Fukami et al., 2018; Condori et al., 2024). In addition, foliar inoculation with A. brasilense has been shown to stimulate root development (van Loon et al., 1998; Doornbos et al., 2012), photosynthetic pigment synthesis, nutrient accumulation (Hungria et al., 2010), and tolerance to abiotic stress, ultimately boosting grain yield (Arzanesh et al., 2011; Alhammad et al., 2023). Foliar P supplementation enhances photosynthetic and antioxidant metabolism, physiological recovery under stress, and productivity (Viveiros et al., 2024, 2025; Rodrigues et al., 2025; de Souza et al., 2025). Together, these practices have the potential to improve nutrient use efficiency, sustain physiological processes, and enhance maize productivity under tropical conditions.

The objective is to develop a sustainable (green) management practice capable of reducing the carbon footprint while maintaining the same profitability and productivity. This can be achieved by lowering nitrogen fertilizer doses and improving nutrient use efficiency, specifically nitrogen use efficiency. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of foliar Azospirillum brasilense application at the V₃ growth stage and foliar soluble monoammonium phosphate application at the R₁ stage, applied individually or in combination, on nitrogen uptake efficiency, plant nutrition, and grain yield of off-season maize grown under field conditions.

For each treatment, we also compared two N doses (100% and 75%). For both N doses, standard soluble monoammonium phosphate (MAP) only at sowing served as a control. We hypothesized that foliar application of Azospirillum brasilense and/or P would enhance NUE, improve the nutritional status of the crop, and increase grain yield in off-season maize, even under reduced N fertilization (75% instead of 100%).

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Location descriptions

The experiments were conducted in commercial fields during the off-season maize crop (2024) in six municipalities in five states in central and southern Brazil: Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo (São Paulo State), Sengés (Paraná State), Jataí (Goiás State), Dourados (Mato Grosso do Sul State), Campo Verde (Mato Grosso State) and Primavera do Leste (Mato Grosso State) (Figure 1). These experimental sites represent a wide range of edaphoclimatic conditions under which second-season maize is cultivated, encompassing, for instance, substantial variation in soil texture, with clay contents ranging from 155 to 490 g kg⁻¹; (from Dourados to Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo).

Figure 1

Tables 1 and 2 provide detailed information on the geographic location and climatic characteristics of each experimental site (Table 1), as well as the chemical properties (Cantarella et al., 1998) and granulometric properties (Donagema et al., 2017) of soil samples collected from the 0.0–0.2 m layer prior to the establishment of the experiment (Table 2).

2.2 Experimental design and implementation

The experiment followed a randomized strip design with 8 treatments and 4 replications. Table 3 presents the compositions of the treatments. Each plot covered an area of 250 m². Maize fertilization consisted of 100 kg ha⁻¹ of nitrogen (N), 82 kg ha⁻¹ of phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅), and 50 kg ha^-1 of potassium oxide (K₂O). In T1 and T5, basal fertilization at sowing used MAP, and N was equalized via urea topdressing at V₃. In T2–T4 and T6–T8, triple superphosphate (TSP) was used as the P source at sowing, and the entire N dose was top-dressed at V₂. In all treatments, potassium (KCl) was applied as at V₃, and phytosanitary management followed the standard technical recommendations for maize.

Foliar inoculation was carried out at maize V₃ stage (Ritchie et al., 1993) using Azospirillum brasilense strains Ab-V₅ (CNPSo 2083) and Ab-V₆ (CNPSo 2084). A total of 300 mL of inoculant containing 1.2 x 10⁵ CFU mL⁻¹ was diluted in 150 L of water ha⁻¹. The phenological stage for foliar application of the inoculant was defined based on previous studies (Fukami et al., 2016, Fukami et al., 2017). The strains are preserved in the “Diazotrophic and Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria Culture Collection of Embrapa Soja” (WFCC Collection #1213, WDCM Collection #1054) in Londrina (PR). Foliar spraying was performed in the late afternoon (5:00 p.m. local time) to preserve inoculant viability, as cooler temperatures and lower solar radiation favor microbial survival, in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines and previously published studies (Moretti et al., 2020b, 2020a; 2021, 2024).

Foliar P application was performed at maize R₁ using soluble MAP (12-61-00; Nutridrop^®; OCP Morocco) at a rate of 5 kg ha⁻¹, which corresponds to 3.1 kg ha⁻¹ of P₂O₅ and 0.55 kg ha^-1 of NH₄⁺. The phenological stage for P foliar application was defined based on previous studies (de Souza et al., 2025). An organosilicon adjuvant (polydimethylsiloxane, d = 1.1 g cm^-3) was added at 30 ml ha⁻¹ to improve spray performance. Details of the experimental setup and management are presented in Table 4 and Figure 2.

Figure 2

2.3 Assessments

2.3.1 Nutritional status

To assess nutritional content, maize leaves were collected from randomly selected plants at the full flowering stage (R₂) (Ritchie et al., 1993). The leaves at the base of the main ear, excluding the lower and upper thirds, were collected following the methodology described by Cantarella et al. (1997). The leaves were dried in a forced-air circulation oven at 65°C for 72 h and ground in a Wiley-type mill to determine the contents of N and P. N was extracted by digestion with sulfuric acid solution (H₂SO₄) and quantified using the Kjeldahl distillation method following the AOAC methodology (AOAC, 2019). P was determined by nitroperchloric digestion followed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry as described by Malavolta et al. (1997).

2.3.2 Biometric and yield parameters

Maize biometric and yield parameters were determined at physiological maturity. Representative plants were sampled to measure stalk diameter (SD), plant height (PH), and the following yield components: number of rows ear⁻¹ (NRE), number of grains row⁻¹ (NGR, calculated as the average number of grains in 3 rows ear⁻¹), number of grains ear⁻¹ (NGE, calculated as the product of NRE and NGR), and the weight of 100 grains (W100). Grain yield (GY) was determined by harvesting the useful experimental area and adjusted to 13% moisture (wet basis).

2.3.3 Estimating N₂O emissions

To estimate the reduction in nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions associated with decreased N fertilization as an alternative management strategy, two N application rates were considered: the recommended rate of 100 kg N ha⁻¹ and a 25% lower rate of 75 kg ha⁻¹. The amount of fertilizer required was calculated based on the N content of the urea used (45% N).

Direct N₂O emissions were estimated using a regional emission factor adjusted for Brazilian conditions (1.45%) (Mazzetto et al., 2020). The amount of N₂O-N was determined using Equation 1, and total N₂O was derived by applying the molecular weight conversion factor (Equation 2). Finally, the yield per unit of N₂O emitted was determined for each treatment (Equation 3).

where N₂O – N is the N fraction of N₂O (kg ha⁻¹); N rate is the amount of N applied (kg ha⁻¹); and EF is the emission factor in decimal form (0.0145).

where N₂O is the total N₂O emitted (kg ha⁻¹); N₂O – N is the N fraction of N₂O (kg ha⁻¹); and 44/28 is the molecular weight conversion factor (N₂O/N).

where yield per N₂O emitted is the mass of grain produced per unit of N₂O emitted (kg grain kg^-1 N₂O); GY is the grain yield (kg ha⁻¹); and N₂O is total N₂O emitted (kg ha⁻¹), considering 2.28 kg N₂O for 100% N and 1.71 kg N₂O for 75% N (i.e., the values determined from Equation 2).

2.4 Statistical analysis

The data were first analyzed for normality of errors using the Shapiro–Wilk test (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965) and for homoscedasticity of variances using Levene’s test (Levene, 1960). Subsequent data analyses were performed using AgroEstat software. The data were subjected to analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) with the application of the F test at a 5% probability level. The means were compared using the modified t-test [least significant difference (LSD)] with a significance level of p ≤ 0.05.

After the conventional site-by-site analysis, a joint data analysis was conducted. This method enabled a more robust and reliable understanding of the data by integrating various datasets, identifying patterns, and validating findings across different conditions or locations.

3 Results

3.1 Foliar A. brasilense inoculation and/or P application increases maize nitrogen use efficiency

Significant differences in leaf N concentration (p ≤ 0.05) were observed only at Dourados and Jataí (Table 5). At all three sites, N concentrations were highest in the treatments with the full N rate (T1–T4) but did not differ significantly between T1 (MAP + 100% N, no inoculation or foliar P) and T2–T4. Moreover, the differences in leaf N concentrations between T1–T4 and T6–T8 were not significant, despite the 25% reduction in the N application rate in T6–T8. Only the leaf N concentration in T5 (TSP + 75% N, no inoculation or foliar P application) was significantly lower than that in T1, with decreases of 11.2%, and 7.7% at Dourados and Jataí, respectively. These results, as well as the lack of significant differences in leaf N concentrations among the treatments at the other three sites, suggest that A. brasilense and foliar P application, whether performed individually or combined, can allow the N application rate to be reduced without reducing leaf N content, thereby increasing the NUE of off-season maize.

3.2 Combined foliar A. brasilense inoculation and P application increases maize phosphorus use efficiency

Leaf P concentrations differed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) among the treatments at four sites: Jataí, Campo Verde, and Primavera do Leste (Table 5). The leaf P concentration was highest in T4 (TSP + 100% N + A. brasilense + foliar P), with increases of 15.7%, 10.7%, and 3.6%, respectively, compared with the control (T1 – MAP + 100% N). However, this difference was significant only at Jataí and Campo Verde, and the leaf P concentration did not differ between T2, T3, and T4 at any site.

Compared with T1, reducing the N dose by 25% without foliar inoculation or foliar P (T5 – 75%N + MAP) reduced the leaf P concentration by 18.0% at Campo Verde, and 11.3% at Primavera do Leste. At these three sites, leaf P concentrations were generally higher in T6–T8 than in T5. Overall, the combination of foliar inoculation and P supplementation tended to enhance the PUE of off-season maize, particularly when the N application rate was reduced.

3.3 Combined foliar A. brasilense inoculation and P application preserves off-season maize development under reduced N application rates

PH differed significantly among the treatments at Dourados and Campo Verde and was highest in T3 and T4 at Dourados and T1–T4 at Campo Verde (Table 5). PH was lowest in the treatments with the lower N application rate at these two sites. Compared with T1, PH in T5 was 8.7% lower at Dourados; the difference in PH between T1 and T5 at Campo Verde was not significant.

The treatments significantly affected SD at Sengés and Dourados. In particular, SD was significantly lower in T5 (MAP + 75% N) than in T1 (MAP + 100% N), with decreases of 5.4% and 9.5%, respectively. The differences in SD between the treatments at the same N application rate were significant only at Dourados. At 100% N, SD was 5.3% higher in T4 (TSP + 100% N + A. brasilense + foliar P) and 3.9% higher in T3 (TPS + 100%N + A. brasilense) than in T1 (control). At 75% N, SD in T6–T8 was significantly higher than that in T5 and comparable to that in T1 and T2.

Overall, these results indicate that combined foliar inoculation and P application can compensate for the negative impact of a reduced N application rate on the biometric parameters of off-season maize.

3.4 Combined foliar A. brasilense inoculation and P application maintains grain yield under reduced N application rates

Neither foliar A. brasilense inoculation nor foliar P application significantly influenced the plant final population at any site (Table 5). With respect to yield components, NRE differed significantly among the treatments only at Dourados, where it was highest in T3 and T4 and lowest in T5 and T6. Similarly, NGR was highest in T3 and T4 at Primavera do Leste; compared with T1, NGR was 1.8% and 3.9% higher in T3 and T4, respectively, and 4.6% lower in T5. At Dourados and Campo Verde, reducing the N application rate significantly reduced NGE, with decreases of 8.9% and 18.5% in T5, respectively, compared with T1. Under the reduced N rate, foliar inoculation and/or P application significantly increased NGE at these two sites. Finally, the treatments significantly affected W100 at all sites except Sengés, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo and Primavera do Leste. W100 was highest in T4 at all four sites with significant differences. However, the difference in W100 between T4 and T1 was significant only at Jataí, with an increase of 5.2% in T4. At Dourados, Jataí, and Campo Verde, W100 was 7.2%, 2.9%, and 5.8% lower in T5 than in T1, reflecting the effect of reducing the N application rate. At Jataí and Campo Verde, foliar inoculation under reduced N application (i.e., T7 and T8) restored W100 to levels similar to those observed under the full N application rate.

Although GY differed significantly among the treatments at all sites, this effect was not observed at Sengés, the effects of specific treatments varied (Table 5). At Dourados, Jataí, and Campo Verde, GY was significantly lower in T5 than in T1 (decreases of 17.3%, 13.3%, and 14.1%), indicating that reducing the N application rate decreased GY in the absence of foliar inoculation and/or P application. Comparing treatments with the full N application rate (i.e., T1–T4) revealed that GY was significantly higher in T4 (TSP + 100% N + A. brasilense + foliar P) than in T1 at Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, and Dourados (increases of 13%, and 14.4%). However, GY did not differ significantly between T2, T3, and T4 at any site. At the reduced N application rate (i.e., T5–T8), GY was significantly higher in T8 than in T5 at Campo Verde and did not differ significantly between T6, T7, and T8 at any site. Across regions, T4 consistently achieved the highest yields, confirming its superior performance under full N fertilization.

Figure 3 presents a comparison of the average GY of off-season maize across all sites in Brazil. GY was highest in T4 (100%N + A. brasilense + P), followed by T3 (100%N + A. brasilense) and T2 (100%N + P), T1 (100%N) and T8 (75%N + A. brasilense + P), and T7 (75%N + A. brasilense) (Figure 2). Compared with T1 (100% N fertilization control), T2 increased average GY by 5.2%, T3 by 6.7%, and T4 by 11.7%. Compared with T5 (75% N fertilization control), T6 (TSP + 75%N + foliar P) increased GY by 3.6%, T7 (TSP + 75%N + A. brasilense) by 7.5%, and T8 by 10.5%. The strong performance of T8 under reduced N application conditions indicates that combining a 25% reduction in N with foliar P application and A. brasilense inoculation may sustain yields while lowering N inputs.

Figure 3

3.5 Combined foliar A. brasilense inoculation and P application improves grain yield per unit of nitrous oxide emissions under reduced N application rates

The estimated N₂O emissions reflected the effects of N management. Applying 100 kg N ha⁻¹ resulted in emissions of 1.45 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹, equivalent to 2.28 kg N₂O ha⁻¹ or 679 kg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹. The 25% reduced rate (75 kg N ha⁻¹) resulted in emissions of 1.09 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹, corresponding to 1.71 kg N₂O ha⁻¹ or 510 kg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹ and an approximately 25% reduction, demonstrating the direct relationship between N input and N₂O emission under the evaluated conditions.

As shown in Figure 4, the yield per unit of N₂O emitted varied significantly among the treatments. Under full N fertilization, the treatment combining foliar A. brasilense inoculation with foliar P (T4) improved emissions efficiency compared with the control (T1). Among all treatments, the yield per N₂O emitted was highest in T8 (TSP + 75%N + A. brasilense + foliar P), followed by T7 and T6, which were statistically similar. The emissions efficiency of T8 was also higher than that of the corresponding control (T5), indicating improved N use.

Figure 4

4 Discussions

Maize production in Brazil contributes significantly to the global grain supply and the growing demand for animal feed, biofuels, and food (Cardozo et al., 2022). In Brazil, maize is predominantly cultivated as a second crop during the off-season, a period of high climatic variability, including water deficits and extreme heat (Santos et al., 2020; de Oliveira et al., 2025). The six sites in our study perfectly illustrate this variability: Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, Sengés and Dourados experienced below-average, irregular rainfall in 2024 (226, 237 and 278 mm, respectively), whereas Jataí, Campo Verde and Primavera do Leste received adequate rainfall (894, 811 and 770 mm, respectively). GY was lower at the former three sites than at the latter three sites (Table 5), highlighting the importance of adequate water availability for maize, particularly during the tasseling stage (Bergamaschi et al., 2004).

High climatic variability in the off-season makes N management a critical factor for efficiently maximizing maize yield. Maize has a high requirement for N, but despite high N application rates (Hungria et al., 2022), NUE is usually low, emphasizing the need for strategies that improve nutrient uptake and yield (Galindo et al., 2019). Studies have shown that either foliar inoculation with PGPB or foliar P application alone can improve nutrient uptake and GY (Oliveira et al., 2017; Scudeletti et al., 2023; Viveiros et al., 2024, 2025; de Souza et al., 2025). In the present study, combined foliar A. brasilense inoculation and P application increased leaf N and P concentrations as well as GY under both 100% and 75% of the recommend N rate. Notably, under 75% N, the same foliar applications resulted in leaf N and P concentrations and GY similar to those obtained with the full N rate.

The increase in leaf N concentrations may be related to the ability of A. brasilense to synthesize phytohormones, particularly indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which stimulates root growth and consequently improves the plant’s capacity to explore the soil and acquire nutrients (Fukami et al., 2018; Santos et al., 2021; Hungria et al., 2022). Azospirillum also fixes atmospheric N₂, directly supplementing the plant’s N nutrition (Fukami et al., 2018; Condori et al., 2024). Corroborating these findings, Galindo et al. (2019) and Condori et al. (2024) reported that, even without urea fertilization, plants inoculated with A. brasilense outperformed the control and reached leaf N concentration values comparable to those in fertilized treatments.

Both the direct effect of foliar P supply and the action of A. brasilense likely contributed to the increase in leaf P concentrations. A. brasilense promotes root proliferation through phytohormone synthesis (Hungria et al., 2022; Silva et al., 2022) and releases organic compounds in the rhizosphere that may enhance P solubilization and uptake (Moreira et al., 2016, 2018; Sithole et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2022). Scudeletti et al. (2023) and de Souza et al. (2025) respectively reported that inoculation of sugarcane or foliar P supplementation of maize increased leaf P concentrations.

Despite the absence of significant differences in foliar N and P concentrations at the other sites, this likely reflects site-specific conditions that limited the expression of the treatment effect, such as baseline soil fertility, pH, microbial activity, or local climate. Soil P levels ranged from low to high across sites, with concentrations of 7 mg kg⁻¹; in Dourados (low), 23 mg kg⁻¹; in Sengés (medium), 29 mg kg⁻¹; in Campo Verde (medium), 59 mg kg⁻¹; in Primavera do Leste (high), 51 mg kg⁻¹; in Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo (high), and 77 mg kg⁻¹; in Jataí (high). These differences may have interacted with the foliar P treatment to modulate plant responses, helping to explain why some sites exhibited significant increases in foliar P whereas others did not. Regardless of treatment or site, the maize plants were not nutrient limited, as the leaf concentrations of N and P were within the ranges of maize sufficiency (25–35 and 1.9–3.5 g kg⁻¹, respectively; Cantarella et al., 2022).

In addition to enhancing nutrient uptake, foliar A. brasilense inoculation and P application promoted plant growth, as evidenced by increases in PH and SD. Yield components, including NRE, NGE, W100, and GY, were also enhanced (Díaz-Zorita et al., 2015; Barbosa et al., 2022; Cardozo et al., 2022). Maize plants produced more grains per plant with higher individual grain weight, directly reflecting more efficient nutrient uptake and potentially increased metabolic activity.

Excessive N application not only increases production costs but also damages the environment. In our study, the combined use of foliar A. brasilense inoculation and foliar P application enabled a 25% reduction in the N fertilization rate without significant yield losses, as evidenced by the comparable GYs of T8 and T1. This demonstrates that integrating inoculation and foliar supplementation may be a viable approach to improve nutrient use efficiency. Our findings are consistent with those of previous studies reporting that maize inoculation with A. brasilense strains Ab-V₅ and Ab-V₆ enhances N fertilizer efficiency (Hungria, 2011; Díaz-Zorita et al., 2015; Martins et al., 2018). Hungria et al. (2022) also observed positive responses to inoculation at 0, 75, and 100% of the recommended N rate but not at 50%. In that study, inoculated plants that received 75% of the N rate achieved an average 4.6% yield increase compared with non-inoculated controls and performed similarly to non-inoculated plants supplied with the full N dose. Taken together, these results and our findings indicate that inoculation can enable a 25% reduction in N fertilization without yield penalties, supporting a synergistic interaction between inoculation and N fertilization in optimizing maize productivity.

More than 85% of anthropogenic N₂O emissions are associated with N enrichment of agricultural soils (Arango and Rice, 2021). As expected, N₂O emissions were higher under the higher N rate in our study (Shcherbak et al., 2014). The observed reduction in N₂O emissions under the 25% lower N application rate can be attributed to the lower availability of mineral N, which limits substrates for nitrification and denitrification, the main processes responsible for N₂O formation. When larger amounts of mineral N (ammonium (NH₄⁺), and nitrate (NO₃⁻) are applied, nitrifying microbes increase the NO₃⁻ supply for denitrifying bacteria under partially anaerobic conditions, such as high soil moisture, thereby enhancing N₂O production (Li et al., 2025; Luo et al., 2025). The yield per N₂O emitted represents an integrative indicator of how efficiently a crop converts available N into economic yield while minimizing environmental losses. Higher values of this ratio indicate that more grain is produced per unit of N₂O emitted, reflecting both agronomic efficiency and reduced emission intensity. Here, this ratio was highest in T8, i.e., when a 25% reduction of the N application rate was combined with foliar inoculation and P application (Figure 3). These findings highlight that moderate reductions in the N rate can effectively lower N₂O emissions while maintaining GY, emphasizing the potential of optimized N management, including complementary practices such as foliar P application and A. brasilense inoculation, as a strategy for sustainable maize yield.

5 Conclusions

The combination of foliar Azospirillum brasilense inoculation and foliar P application effectively enhanced nutrient uptake and grain yield of off-season maize across Brazilian regions under both full and reduced N fertilization. Treatments integrating foliar inoculation and P, particularly T4 (TSP + 100% N + A. brasilense + foliar P), consistently achieved the highest grain yield, confirming the synergistic effects of these practices. Notably, grain yield under reduced N application in T8 (75% N + A. brasilense + foliar P) was comparable to that achieved under full N application, demonstrating the potential of inoculation and foliar P application to sustain productivity while reducing N inputs. This strategy also reduced estimated N₂O emissions, a major greenhouse gas associated with agricultural N use, highlighting both agronomic and environmental benefits. By enabling reductions in N fertilizer inputs without compromising grain yield, this management approach contributes to climate change mitigation and supports sustainable agriculture. Overall, the combined use of foliar Azospirillum brasilense inoculation and foliar P application represents a sustainable strategy to optimize nutrient use efficiency, reduce environmental impacts, and ensure stable off-season maize production.

References

• 1

  Alhammad B. A. Zaheer M. S. Ali H. H. Hameed A. Ghanem K. Z. Seleiman M. F. et al . (2023). Effect of Co-Application of Azospirillum brasilense and Rhizobium pisi on Wheat Performance and Soil Nutrient Status under Deficit and Partial Root Drying Stress. Plants12, 3141. doi: 10.3390/plants12173141

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 2

  AOAC (2019). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International. 21th edn (Gaithersburg, Maryland: AOAC International).

  • Google Scholar

• 3

  Arango M. A. Rice C. W. (2021). Impact of nitrogen management and tillage practices on nitrous oxide emissions from rainfed corn. Soil Sci. Soc. America J.85, 1425–1436. doi: 10.1002/saj2.20285

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 4

  Arzanesh M. H. Alikhani H. A. Khavazi K. Rahimian H. A. Miransari M . (2011). Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth enhancement by Azospirillum sp. under drought stress. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol.27, 197–205. doi: 10.1007/s11274-010-0444-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 5

  Barbosa J. Z. de Almeida Roberto L. Hungria M. Corrêa R. S. Magri E. Correia T. D. et al . (2022). Meta-analysis of maize responses to Azospirillum brasilense inoculation in Brazil: Benefits and lessons to improve inoculation efficiency. Appl. Soil Ecol.170, 104276. doi: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2021.104276

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 6

  Bergamaschi H. Dalmago G. A. Bergonci J. I. Bianchi C. A. M. Müller A. G. Comiran F. et al . (2004). Distribuição hídrica no período crítico do milho e produção de grãos. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 39, 831–839.

  • Google Scholar

• 7

  Bigolin T. Talamini E. (2024). Impacts of climate change scenarios on the corn and soybean double-cropping system in Brazil. Climate12, 42. doi: 10.3390/cli12030042

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 8

  Butterbach-Bahl K. Baggs E. M. Dannenmann M. Kiese R. Zechmeister-Boltenstern S . (2013). Nitrous oxide emissions from soils: how well do we understand the processes and their controls? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci.368, 20130122. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0122

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 9

  Cantarella H. Quaggio J. A. Mattos D. Jr. Boaretto R. M. van Raij B. (2022). Bulletin 100: Fertilization and liming recommendations for the state of São Paulo. Eds.  CantarellaH.QuaggioJ. A.BoarettoD.M. Jr., R. M.RaijB.v. (Campinas: Agronomic Institute). 489 p.

  • Google Scholar

• 10

  Cantarella H. van Raij B. Camargo C. E. O. (1997). “ Adubação de cereais,” in Recomendações de adubação e calagem para o Estado de São Paulo, POTAFÖS. Eds. van RaijB.CantarellaH.QuaggioJ. A.FurlaniA. M. C. ( Boletim 100, Instituto Agronômico, Campinas, Brazil), 43–50.

  • Google Scholar

• 11

  Cantarella H. van Raij B. Quaggio J. A. (1998). Soil and plant analyses for lime and fertilizer recommendations in Brazil. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.29, 1691–1706. doi: 10.1080/00103629809370060

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 12

  Cardozo P. Di Palma A. Martin S. Cerliani C. Esposito G. Reinoso H. et al . (2022). Improvement of maize yield by foliar application of azospirillum brasilense az39. J. Plant Growth Regul.41, 1032–1040. doi: 10.1007/s00344-021-10356-9

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 13

  CONAB (2025). Acompanhamento da Safra Brasileira - Quinto Levantamento Safra 2024/25 (Brasília, DF: Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento).

  • Google Scholar

• 14

  Condori T. Alarcón S. Huasasquiche L. García-Blásquez C. Padilla-Castro C. Velásquez J. et al . (2024). Inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense as a Strategy to Reduce Nitrogen Fertilization in Cultivating Purple Maize (Zea mays L.) in the Inter-Andean Valleys of Peru. Microorganisms12, 2107. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12102107

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 15

  Crusciol C. A. C. Bossolani J. W. Portugal J. R. Moretti L. G. Momesso L. de Campos M. et al . (2022). Exploring the synergism between surface liming and nitrogen fertilization in no-till system. Agron. J.113, 1–10. doi: 10.1002/agj2.20988

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 16

  Cunningham C. (2020). Characterization of dry spells in southeastern Brazil during the monsoon season. Int. J. Climatology40, 4609–4621. doi: 10.1002/joc.6478

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 17

  de Oliveira B. R. Ratke R. F. Steiner F. Al-Askar A. A. Aguilera J. G. Hashem A. H. et al . (2025). Enhancing off-season maize production through tailored nitrogen management and advanced cultivar selection techniques. Agric. Syst.224, 104239. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2024.104239

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 18

  de Souza F. M. Galeriani T. M. Moretti L. G. Viveiros J. Rodrigues V. A. de Oliveira S. L. et al . (2025). Foliar phosphorus boosts the antioxidant defenses and yield of off-season corn under water-stress. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 25, 6045–6058. doi: 10.1007/s42729-025-02517-6

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 19

  Díaz-Zorita M. Canigia M. V. F. Bravo O. Á. Berger A. Satorre E. H . (2015). “ Field evaluation of extensive crops inoculated with azospirillum sp,” in Handbook for azospirillum ( Springer International Publishing, Cham), 435–445.

  • Google Scholar

• 20

  De Klein C. Akiyama H. Bernoux M. Chirinda N. del Prado A. Kasimir Å. et al . (2019). Chapter 11: N₂O emissions from managed soils, and CO₂ emissions from lime and urea application. In: 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (pp. 11.1–11.48). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Switzerland: IPCC National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme.

  • Google Scholar

• 21

  Donagemma G. K. Viana J. M. de Almeida B. G. Ruiz H. A. Klein V. A. Dechen S. C. F. et al . (2017). “ Granulometric analysis,” in Soil Analysis Methods Manual, 3rd edn. Eds. TeixeiraP. C.DonagemaG. K.FontanaA.TeixeiraW. G. ( Embrapa Solos, Brasília, DF), 95–116.

  • Google Scholar

• 22

  Doornbos R. F. van Loon L. C. Bakker P. A. H. M. (2012). Impact of root exudates and plant defense signaling on bacterial communities in the rhizosphere. A review. Agron. Sustain Dev.32, 227–243. doi: 10.1007/s13593-011-0028-y

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 23

  Eagle A. J. McLellan E. L. Brawner E. M. Chantigny M. H. Davidson E. A. Dickey J. B. et al . (2020). Quantifying on-farm nitrous oxide emission reductions in food supply chains. Earths Future8, 1–16. doi: 10.1029/2020EF001504

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 24

  FAO . (2025). “ The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2025,” in The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

  • Google Scholar

• 25

  Fukami J. Nogueira M. A. Araujo R. S. Hungria M . (2016). Accessing inoculation methods of maize and wheat with Azospirillum brasilense. AMB express, 6 (1), 3. doi: 10.1186/s13568-015-0171-y

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 26

  Fukami J. Ollero F. J. Megías M. Hungria M . (2017). Phytohormones and induction of plant-stress tolerance and defense genes by seed and foliar inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense cells and metabolites promote maize growth. AMB express, 7(1), 153. doi: 10.1186/s13568-017-0453-7

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 27

  Fukami J. Ollero F. J. de la Osa C. Valderrama-Fernandez R. Nogueira M. A. Megías M. et al . (2018). Antioxidant activity and induction of mechanisms of resistance to stresses related to the inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense. Arch. Microbiol.200, 1191–1203. doi: 10.1007/s00203-018-1535-x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 28

  Galindo F. S. Teixeira Filho M. C. Buzetti S. Pagliari P. H. Santini J. M. Alves C. J. et al . (2019). Maize yield response to nitrogen rates and sources associated with azospirillum brasilense. Agron. J.111, 1985–1997. doi: 10.2134/agronj2018.07.0481

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 29

  Govindasamy P. Muthusamy S. K. Bagavathiannan M. Mowrer J. Jagannadham P. T. K. Maity A. et al . (2023). Nitrogen use efficiency—a key to enhance crop productivity under a changing climate. Front. Plant Sci.14. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1121073

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 30

  Griffis T. J. Chen Z. Baker J. M. Wood J. D. Millet D. B. Lee X. et al . (2017). Nitrous oxide emissions are enhanced in a warmer and wetter world. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.114, 12081–12085. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704552114

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 31

  Hungria M. Barbosa J. Z. Rondina A. B. L. Nogueira M. A. (2022). Improving maize sustainability with partial replacement of N fertilizers by inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense. Agron. J.114, 2969–2980. doi: 10.1002/agj2.21150

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 32

  Hungria M. Campo R. J. Souza E. M. Pedrosa F. O. (2010). Inoculation with selected strains of Azospirillum brasilense and A. lipoferum improves yields of maize and wheat in Brazil. Plant Soil331, 413–425. doi: 10.1007/s11104-009-0262-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 33

  Hungria M . (2011) Inoculação com Azospirillum brasiliense: inovação em rendimento a baixo custo. Londrina, Embrapa Soja, 36.

  • Google Scholar

• 34

  Khan M. I. R. Nazir F. Maheshwari C. Chopra P. Chhillar H. Sreenivasulu N. et al . (2023). Mineral nutrients in plants under changing environments: A road to future food and nutrition security. Plant Genome16, 1–29. doi: 10.1002/tpg2.20362

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 35

  Kumar S. Diksha Sindhu S. S. Kumar R. (2022). Biofertilizers: An ecofriendly technology for nutrient recycling and environmental sustainability. Curr. Res. Microb. Sci.3, 100094. doi: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2021.100094

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 36

  Ladha J. K. Peoples M. B. Reddy P. M. Biswas J. C. Bennett A. Jat M. L. et al . (2022). Biological nitrogen fixation and prospects for ecological intensification in cereal-based cropping systems. Field Crops Res.283, 108541. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108541

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 37

  Levene H. (1960). “ Robust tests for equality of variances,” in Contributions to probability and statistics: Essays in. Eds. OlkinI.GhuryeS. G.HoeffdingW.et al (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), 278–292.

  • Google Scholar

• 38

  Li Z. Xu Q. Lu Y. Ning W. Wu R. Li T. et al . (2025). Reducing nitrogen fertilizer applications mitigates N2O emissions and maintains sugarcane yields in South China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.377, 109250. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2024.109250

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 39

  Luo X. Zhang M. Ni Y. Shen G. (2025). Mitigation strategies for NH₃ and N₂O emissions in greenhouse agriculture: Insights into fertilizer management and nitrogen emission mechanisms. Environ. Technol. Innov.37, 103995. doi: 10.1016/j.eti.2024.103995

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 40

  Malavolta E. Vitti G. C. Oliveira S. A. (1997). Evaluation of the Nutritional Status of Plants: Principles and Applications. 2nd edn (Piracicaba, Brazil: POTAFOS).

  • Google Scholar

• 41

  Martins T. G. Freitas S. P. Luz L. N. Marco C. A. Vásquez E. M. F . (2018). Inoculation efficiency of Azospirillum brasilense on economising nitrogen fertiliser in landrace popcorn. Revista Ciência Agronômica, 49 (2), 283–290.

  • Google Scholar

• 42

  Mazzetto A. M. Styles D. Gibbons J. Arndt C. Misselbrook T. Chadwick D. et al . (2020). Region-specific emission factors for Brazil increase the estimate of nitrous oxide emissions from nitrogen fertiliser application by 21%. Atmos Environ.230, 117506. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117506

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 43

  Moreira A. Moraes L. A. C. Delfim J. Faria Júnior J. M. Heinrichs R. Moretti L. G. et al . (2026). Cowpea yield and phosphorus use efficiency in soils with contrasting textures. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 1–11. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2025.2574336

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 44

  Moreira A. Moraes L. A. de Melo T. R. Heinrichs R. Moretti L. G . (2022). “ Management of copper for crop production,” in Advances in Agronomy (San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press Inc.), 257–298.

  • Google Scholar

• 45

  Moreira A. Moraes L. A. C. Moretti L. G. (2017). Yield, yield components, soil chemical properties, plant physiology, and phosphorus use efficiency in soybean genotypes. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.48, 2464–2476. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2017.1416126

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 46

  Moreira A. Moraes L. A. C. Moretti L. G. Aquino G. S. (2018). Phosphorus, potassium and sulfur interactions in soybean plants on a typic hapludox. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.49, 405–415. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2018.1427262

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 47

  Moreira A. Moraes L. A. C. Souza L. G. M. Bruno I. P. (2016). Bioavailability of nutrients in seeds from tropical and subtropical soybean varieties. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.47, 888–898. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2016.1146899

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 48

  Moretti L. G. Crusciol C. A. C. Bossolani J. W. Momesso L. Garcia A. Kuramae E. E. et al . (2020a). Bacterial consortium and microbial metabolites increase grain quality and soybean yield. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.20, 1923–1934. doi: 10.1007/s42729-020-00263-5

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 49

  Moretti L. G. Crusciol C. A. C. Bossolani J. W. Calonego J. C. Moreira A. Garcia A. et al . (2021). Beneficial microbial species and metabolites alleviate soybean oxidative damage and increase grain yield during short dry spells. Eur. J. Agron.127, 126293. doi: 10.1016/j.eja.2021.126293

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 50

  Moretti L. G. Crusciol C. A. C. Kuramae E. E. Bossolani J. W. Moreira A. Costa N. R. et al . (2020b). Effects of growth-promoting bacteria on soybean root activity, plant development, and yield. Agron. J.112, 418–428. doi: 10.1002/agj2.20010

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 51

  Moretti L. G. Crusciol C. A. C. Leite M. F. A. Momesso L. Bossolani J. W. Costa O. Y. A. et al . (2024). Diverse bacterial consortia: key drivers of rhizosoil fertility modulating microbiome functions, plant physiology, nutrition, and soybean grain yield. Environ. Microbiome19, 50. doi: 10.1186/s40793-024-00595-0

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 52

  Moretti L. G. Crusciol C. A. C. Nogueira M. A. Bossolani J. W. Portugal J. R. Hungria M. (2026). Nickel treatment of soybean seeds: evaluating optimal levels for Bradyrhizobium spp. survival, nitrogen fixation, physiological traits and grain yield. Front. Plant Sci.16. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2025.1656956

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 53

  Moretti L. G. Lazarini E. Bossolani J. W. Parente T. L. Caioni S. Araujo R. S. et al . (2018). Can additional inoculations increase soybean nodulation and grain yield? Agron. J.110, 715–721. doi: 10.2134/agronj2017.09.0540

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 54

  Oliveira A. L. Santos O. J. Marcelino P. R. Milani K. M. Zuluaga M. Y. Zucareli C. et al . (2017). Maize Inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense Ab-V5 Cells Enriched with Exopolysaccharides and Polyhydroxybutyrate Results in High Productivity under Low N Fertilizer Input. Front. Microbiol.8. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01873

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 55

  Ritchie S. W. Hanway J. J. Benson G. O. (1993). How a corn plant develops (Ames, IA, USA: Iowa State University of Science and Technology. Cooperative Extension Service). Special Report n. 48.

  • Google Scholar

• 56

  Rodrigues V. A. Moretti L. G. Alves Filho I. Pacola M. Viveiros J. Jacomassi L. M. et al . (2025). Enhancing soybean physiology and productivity through foliar application of soluble monoammonium phosphate. Agronomy15, 818. doi: 10.3390/agronomy15040818

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 57

  Santos L. O. Moraes L. A. C. Petineli R. Moretti L. G. Moreira A . (2020). Yield, yield components, soil fertility, and nutritional status of soybean as influenced by limestone and copper interactions. J. Plant Nutr.43, 2445–2454. doi: 10.1080/01904167.2020.1783308

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 58

  Santos M. S. Nogueira M. A. Hungria M. (2021). Outstanding impact of Azospirillum brasilense strains Ab-V5 and Ab-V6 on the Brazilian agriculture: Lessons that farmers are receptive to adopt new microbial inoculants. Rev. Bras. Cienc Solo45. doi: 10.36783/18069657rbcs20200128

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 59

  Scudeletti D. Crusciol C. A. C. Momesso L. Bossolani J. W. Moretti L. G. De Oliveira E. F. et al . (2023). Inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense as a strategy to enhance sugarcane biomass production and bioenergy potential. Eur. J. Agron.144, 126749. doi: 10.1016/j.eja.2023.126749

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 60

  Shapiro S. S. Wilk M. B. (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality (Complete samples). Biometrika52, 591. doi: 10.2307/2333709

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 61

  Shcherbak I. Millar N. Robertson G. P. (2014). Global metaanalysis of the nonlinear response of soil nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) emissions to fertilizer nitrogen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.111, 9199–9204. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1322434111

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 62

  Silva P. S. T. Cassiolato A. M. R. Galindo F. S. Jalal A. Nogueira T. A. R. Oliveira C. E. D. S. et al . (2022). Azospirillum brasilense and zinc rates effect on fungal root colonization and yield of wheat-maize in tropical savannah conditions. Plants11, 3154. doi: 10.3390/plants11223154

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 63

  Sithole N. J. Magwaza L. S. Thibaud G. R. (2019). Long-term impact of no-till conservation agriculture and N-fertilizer on soil aggregate stability, infiltration and distribution of C in different size fractions. Soil Tillage Res.190, 147–156. doi: 10.1016/j.still.2019.03.004

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 64

  van Loon L. C. Bakker P. A. H. M. Pieterse C. M. J. (1998). Systemic resistance induced by rhizosphere bacteria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol.36, 453–483. doi: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.36.1.453

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 65

  Viveiros J. Moretti L. G. Alves Filho I. Pacola M. Jacomassi L. M. Rodrigues V. A. et al . (2025). Can foliar application of soluble monoammonium phosphate effectively alleviate herbicide-induced oxidative stress in key crops? Front. Plant Sci.16. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2025.1504244

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 66

  Viveiros J. Moretti L. G. Pacola M. Jacomassi L. M. de Souza F. M. Rodrigues V. A. et al . (2024). Foliar application of phosphoric acid mitigates oxidative stress induced by herbicides in soybean, maize, and cotton crops. Plant Stress13, 1–17. doi: 10.1016/j.stress.2024.100543

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 67

  Yang Y. Liu H. Lv J. (2022). Response of N2O emission and denitrification genes to different inorganic and organic amendments. Sci. Rep.12, 3940. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-07753-9

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar