Socio-economic status and challenges of indigenous sheep production in poorly resourced Southern African development communities, pathway towards poverty alleviation and food security: a review

The Southern African Development Community region is home to various indigenous sheep breeds essential to communal farmers. In contrast to the high-yielding exotic breeds preferred by commercial farmers, indigenous sheep play a vital role in the socioeconomic status of rural areas, especially those that rely on subsistence farming. Among their contributions, indigenous breeds support the food system, improve nutrition, and enhance food security, thus contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals related to food security and poverty alleviation. These sheep possess characteristics that allow them to thrive in natural habitats and are known for their resilience and low maintenance requirements, thrive on limited available forage, require minimal veterinary care, and exhibit a high level of disease resistance. However, smallholder farmers may encounter challenges when trying to access formal markets due to limited market access, making it more difficult to reap the full benefits of raising sheep. It has been reported that these sheep are endangered, and their population continues to decline, with the effective population size remaining unknown in various Southern African Development Community countries. Therefore, this comprehensive review aims to address the socio-economic status and challenges of selected Southern African Development Communities rearing indigenous sheep breeds in poorly resourced communities and their impact on responding to improving the status quo of their communities through sheep farming, thus proving pathways towards food security and poverty alleviation. This review found that preserving genetic diversity and guaranteeing long-term sustainability of livestock resources depends on the protection of indigenous sheep breeds in the whole Southern African Development Community region. Moreover, as much as research and development initiatives concentrate on increasing indigenous breeds’ production, they should also maintain their distinctive characteristics and adaptability. Furthermore, interventions should focus on overcoming barriers, including market access and veterinary care, as well as the socioeconomic development of programs that assist rural sheep farmers. This is necessary for the gap recognition between indigenous sheep breeds and socioeconomic well-being.

1 Introduction

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is a regional organization consisting of sixteen member states. These member states include Angola, Botswana, Comoros, the Democratic Republic (DRC) of Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The human population in the SADC region is estimated to be increasing (Migration Data in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) ). According to the Southern African Developing Country (SADC slider), the SADC region currently has about 393 million inhabitants and is expected to reach 618 million by 2043. Seeing this high human population and the status quo of this region, it might lead to a high rate of chronic malnutrition among children in countries like the DRC, Mozambique, Angola, and Madagascar, as reported by (SADC slider, ), thus requiring swift intervention. On the other hand, it appears that this region is highly vulnerable to climate change, currently battling with increased temperatures, a change in rainfall patterns leading to poor forages, and more extreme weather leading to drought (Seyuba K and Garcia TF, 2022). This has been noticeable in nations like South Africa, which is currently regarded as a water-scarce country (Khoza, 2025). The challenges faced by the SADC region might worsen the challenge of poverty in this region.

Poverty is reported as a pressing issue worldwide, characterized by individuals being unable to meet their basic needs (Zavyalova and Krotova, 2021). Given that the link between poverty and human wellbeing can significantly impact mental, emotional, and physical health. Agricultural development in the SADC region is therefore essential for poverty alleviation [SADC. Food, agriculture & Natural resources (SADC)]. Hence, it is apparent that agricultural development in the SADC region is essential for reducing poverty, as poverty has significant effects on mental, emotional, and physical health [SADC. Food, agriculture & Natural resources (SADC)].Good nutrition is vital. However, unsustainable agriculture in the SADC regions that are affected by climate change can have detrimental effects like soil erosion, water and air pollution, and ultimately endanger human health by increasing the risk of disease and raising concerns about food safety (Sparling et al., 2024). Moreover, farming with exotic species in this region, particularly those vulnerable to climate change, might hinder the growth of agricultural production (Apraku et al., 2021). There are various indigenous breeds in the SADC region reported to adapt well to climate change and remain productive regardless of environmental conditions (Ngcobo et al., 2022).

There are approximately 39 million sheep in the SADC region, of which 19.9 million are found in South Africa (Molotsi et al., 2019a). These numbers mean that South Africa accounts for half of the sheep population in the SADC region. Furthermore, South Africa has the highest number (Bhateshwar et al., 2022) of sheep breeds compared to other SADC countries (Ngcobo et al., 2022) see Table 1. This diverse gene pool of indigenous, exotic, and locally developed breeds includes indigenous sheep breeds that are essential for feeding rural people on land unsuitable for crop farming (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Furthermore, indigenous sheep have been identified as vital role players in the employment of rural farmers, which emphasizes the need to reduce the genetic erosion of these valuable resources. Moreover, adapting to adverse environmental conditions made indigenous sheep contributors to the livelihood of farmers in Southern Africa (Kunene et al., 2009). Nevertheless, these breeds are underutilized because of their smaller body size and comparatively slow growth rate (Kunene et al., 2009). On the other hand, slow genetic progress has been reported for the indigenous sheep genetic resources, especially in smallholder farms.

Table 1

Table 1. African indigenous sheep overview in the SADC region (DAD-IS, 2025; Ngcobo et al., 2022; Tungu et al., 2017).

Many native ecotypes have experienced genetic erosion as a result of the increased emphasis on selecting for meat, wool, and sometimes milk has led to genetic erosion in many indigenous ecotypes. Genetic erosion usually occurs when a population is subjected to genetic drift and inbreeding or when crossbred with exotic breeds (Selepe et al., 2018). This can hardly be avoided in rural areas, as many farmers use large-framed exotic rams such as Dorper as terminal sires to improve the carcass value of the progeny (Selepe et al., 2018). Moreover, due to the limited resources available to rural farmers, previous studies have found that most indigenous breeds in rural areas typically share common water points and pastures, where animals are not isolated from each other and mate unsupervised (Mavule et al., 2013). Such unsupervised crossbreeding and other contributors to genetic erosion have led to less robustness of indigenous sheep (Kunene et al., 2009). Moreover, genetic erosion leads to the inability of the population to adapt to stressful conditions, defined as robustness (Molotsi et al., 2019b). Nevertheless, when it comes to other countries found in the SADC region, endangered breeds have an unknown population due to poor reporting, which poses a challenge (Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS), ). Given that conserving a population of unknown size is difficult, and sheep gametes, such as semen quality, decline as they grow, limiting chances of successful cryopreservation programs (Chella et al., 2017). Therefore, this comprehensive review aims to address the socio-economic status and challenges of selected Southern African Development Communities rearing indigenous sheep breeds in poorly resourced communities and their impact on responding to improving the status quo of their communities through sheep farming, thus proving pathways towards food security and poverty alleviation.

2 Methodology

This review aimed to assess the role and challenges of selected SADC-reared indigenous sheep breeds in poor-resource SADC communities (Figure 1) towards poverty alleviation and food security. A total of 125 research articles were downloaded. Following the inclusion and exclusion consideration (see section on inclusion and exclusion), a total of 16 articles (Table 2 and Figure 1) were included in this review. All research articles on the population, extinction status, and socio-economic characteristics were from the SADC (see Figure 1) region, and only articles on climate change were outside the SADC region. Scientific articles used in this research were collected and evaluated from various scientific platforms and databases. The keywords that were used to gather articles online were: indigenous sheep, SDGs, SADC, sustainable agriculture, sheep conservation, food security, farm labor, and manual work in agriculture (physical/hand work).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Showing the Southern African Development Communities (SADC) and included studies per country.

Table 2

Table 2. Included study characterization.

2.1 Literature search, inclusion, and exclusion criteria

Literature was conducted using various scientific platforms and databases, including the Tshwane University of Technology library, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. Studies written in different languages and duplicated information were excluded. Different word combinations were used to search these articles from the platforms mentioned above, including i) socio-economic characteristics in the SADC region; ii) indigenous sheep use in the SADC region; iii) role of indigenous sheep on poverty alleviation and food security in the SADC region; iv) challenges associated with sheep rearing in the SADC region. Following a careful review of all downloaded articles (125) from different search engines, articles were scrutinized and included based on the location where the study was conducted, those published in other languages and not English, and non-peer-reviewed studies were also excluded.

3 Synopses on sustainable development goals

The Southern African Development Communities (SADC) faces pressing development challenges, including income stagnation, high inequality, and food insecurity, exacerbated by population growth, with half of its member states falling into the low-to middle-income category (Matchaya et al., 2018). Sustainable development is about balancing human progress with environmental stewardship, using natural resources in a way that preserves their ability to replenish and support future generations (Martin, 2025). Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are crucial for creating a better future by addressing global challenges like poverty, inequality, and climate change. They are a comprehensive framework for promoting sustainable development and ensuring a more resilient and equitable world for all (United nations development programme). By working towards the 17 interconnected goals, countries can build a better future for present and future generations. In September 2015 (Horvath, 2016), reported that the United Nations (UN) adopted these goals as part of the Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda, a broad and ambitious plan addressing the economic, social, and environmental pillars of sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda serves as an international accord, providing a framework for global development initiatives over fifteen years, from 2015 to 2030 (150).

4 Socio-economic characteristics of households rearing indigenous sheep in the SADC region

Households raising indigenous sheep in the SADC region are mainly rural, limited in resources, and rely significantly on mixed crop-livestock systems, as shown in Table 3. These households function amid larger regional issues like stagnant income, extreme inequality, climate vulnerabilities, and ongoing food insecurity (Matchaya et al., 2018). Numerous SADC member countries are classified as low- to middle-income, and this economic landscape is evident in the lives of households that raise indigenous sheep (Motshekga et al., 2025). The socio-economic profile of these households usually features small to medium-sized family units, generally consisting of 3.2 to 3.5 individuals, with labor responsibilities distributed among men, women, and youth (Motshekga et al., 2025). Characterizing the socio-economic aspects of these communities is crucial for gaining insight into their lives, as it highlights important factors such as education, income, and primary sources of livelihood (Mohammed et al., 2024). Education levels among household heads are generally low, commonly limited to primary schooling, which restricts their access to formal employment and reinforces dependence on agricultural activities.

Table 3

Table 3. Socio-economic characteristics of households rearing indigenous sheep in the SADC region.

The primary economic practices of these households involve small-scale agriculture, informal commerce, casual labor, and raising livestock. As a result, income streams are varied but inconsistent, leading to a greater dependence on local sheep as a financial safety net. Generally, flock sizes are limited, usually smaller than those of cattle or goats, as observed among rural farmers throughout the region (Kunene et al., 2011). Indigenous sheep are raised among various ethnic and cultural groups in the SADC region, where they play a significant role in household economies and cultural traditions. On a global scale, indigenous sheep aid in food security, generate income, foster cultural identity, and promote sustainable rural development (Bolowe et al., 2022). Within the SADC region, they are primarily utilized for meat, income, and the payment of local fines, although they are typically not involved in marriage negotiations, such as lobola (Kunene et al., 2011). Additionally, sheep possess spiritual and cultural importance in numerous communities, being featured in initiation ceremonies and ancestral rituals (Motaung et al., 2024). Preferences for multi-colored sheep over traits like milk production or body conformation have also been recorded (Motaung et al., 2024).

The dependence on indigenous sheep is supported by their adaptive characteristics, such as resistance to diseases, the capacity to withstand challenging environmental conditions, and the ability to thrive on poor-quality forage (Ramsay: Landrace breeds: South Africa’s indigenous… - Google Scholar). For instance, Zulu sheep have been observed to flourish on locally sourced feed with little need for additional supplements, vaccinations, or dipping (Kunene et al., 2011), even though certain indigenous breeds are still vulnerable to particular diseases (Ngcobo et al., 2022). In general, households that raise indigenous sheep in the SADC region are marked by low-income rural lifestyles, limited educational levels, distinct roles based on gender for labor, small herd sizes, and deep-rooted cultural practices. Indigenous sheep serve an essential social, economic, and cultural function, enhancing economic resilience, food security, and cultural identity within rural communities.

5 Indigenous sheep overview and their role in poverty alleviation and food security

The role of indigenous sheep in SADC is to improve the livelihood of poor farmers (Molotsi et al., 2019b). South African farmers lean on indigenous sheep to overcome poverty and hunger (Ngcobo et al., 2022). A report on the unemployment rate in rural communities remains higher than in urban areas (Matchaya et al., 2018). Hence, South African indigenous breeds remain vital to reduce poverty (Nyam et al., 2022). According to Banda and Tanganyika (2021), the majority of the poorest of the poor often do not have livestock, but for those with livestock use them as a source of nutrition (food), a source of manure for soil fertility, income, and fulfilling socio-cultural roles (Maqhashu et al., 2020; Ngcobo et al., 2022). In turn, sheep contribute to improved diets, health, income, financial stability, crop productivity, job opportunities, and social standing (Banda and Tanganyika, 2021).

The amount of nutrients (vitamins and minerals) provided by sheep meat and milk plays a huge role in the health of both children and adults using stimulating growth, strengthening the immune system, and poor mental development. Consequently, the continuous decline in population size, climate change, and other production constraints impoverish rural residents. That is due to high competition for sheep products with fewer sheep available (Nyam et al., 2022). Small-scale sheep farmers can play a crucial role in reducing poverty and achieving food security. This can be done by fostering an environment that supports agribusiness development through policies and strategies that stimulate investment in sheep production across the entire value chain (Nyam et al., 2022).

5.1 Adaptation to heat stress

A report on climate conditions in South Africa from 1991 and 2020 showed that livestock sare increasingly at risk of heat stress, especially during peak periods (MacKellar et al., 2014). Heat stress can be defined as a situation in which an animal is unable to dissipate heat, thereby reducing its productivity (Das et al., 2016). According to Yang et al (Yang et al., 2021), environmental stressors like heat and aridity significantly affect sheep adaptability, immunity, growth, reproduction, and productivity, ultimately affecting profitability at a farm level. In South Africa, indigenous sheep have shown to be a valuable resource for farmers dealing with tough conditions like in drought, inadequate feed, and limited access to veterinary services (Maqhashu et al., 2020). Their adaptability has made them a crucial part of the livelihoods of many farmers in the region through the generation of income using informal trade and creating job opportunities (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Concisely, the adaptability of sheep in a region is influenced by a variety of traits that enable them to survive and be productive in dry, hot, and cold environmental conditions. Zhang et al (Zhang et al., 2024 ). reported that the fat tail in some sheep breeds acts as a vital energy storage mechanism, helping them cope with food and water shortages in harsh environments while maintaining their survivability and productivity. Hence, most South African indigenous sheep (Zulu, Damara, Bapedi, and Namaqua) are characterized by a long, fat tail, which makes them more adaptive to heat stress in contrast to exotic breeds (Berihulay et al., 2019; Maqhashu et al., 2020; Ngcobo et al., 2022). Specifically, their long legs and narrow bodies allow them to walk longer distances in search of food and water during times of drought. Indigenous sheep body shape, coat color, and behavioral responses, enables them to thrive in harsh environments. Their long narrow appendages and light coats help reduce heat gain while their ability to adjust their feeding and drinking habits seek shade and exhibit nocturnal behavior allows them to cope with heat stress (Berihulay et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2024).

6 Challenges associated with the rearing of indigenous sheep in SADC rural areas

6.1 Extinction threat and effective population size decline

Research has highlighted concerns about the declining number of indigenous livestock in various regions of Southern Africa. This includes sheep, which is quite alarming (Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS), ; Qwabe et al., 2013; Molotsi et al., 2019a; Ngcobo et al., 2022). Many of the indigenous sheep breeds are threatened, despite of having higher genetic merit than exotic breeds (Molotsi et al., 2019a). It is evidenced from Table 4 below that most of these indigenous sheep are at risk, while others have an unknown extinction status. Hence, their unknown extinction status is a concern, as it hinders the application of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) such as artificial insemination (AI) for continuous breeding purposes. This lack of data on effective population sizes for some breeds, while others are well-documented, underscores the challenges in conserving these breeds, largely due to insufficient reporting to international databases like FAO and DAD-IS in developing nations (Molotsi et al., 2019a; Ngcobo et al., 2022; Motaung et al., 2024). For instance (Retief, 2020), conducted a study on the effective population size of indigenous sheep (Afrino, Black Headed Persian, Damara, Namakwa Afrikaner, Pedi) and reported an average observed heterozygosity value of 0.340 for indigenous populations with the lowest average linkage disequilibrium (LD) estimates of 0.255 as depicted in Table 5 below. These results then indicate a decline in effective population size (Ne) across the populations and generations. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), species are classified as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable when their effective population size falls below 50, 250, or 1,000, respectively. Regarding South African indigenous sheep breeds, all three are on a downward trend. Their status is either critically endangered or unknown except Damara sheep (Ngcobo et al., 2022).

Table 4

Table 4. Extinction status of the SADC indigenous sheep (DAD-IS, Motaung et al., 2020, Molotsi et al., 2020).

Table 5

Table 5. Approximations of Ne using heterozygosity in the SADC region’s sheep population (Retief et al., 2020).

Indigenous breeds are often considered for the commercial production of composite breeds due to their small body size and slow growth rates (Motaung et al., 2024). Non-selective crossbreeding threatens the uniqueness of local genetic resources, potentially leading to the extinction of indigenous livestock species (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Moreover, results in erosion of the adaptive traits, which pose a threat to all indigenous livestock species with desirable traits such as disease tolerance and productivity under heat stress conditions. Smallholder farmers typically maintain small flocks of around 10 sheep, making random mating and inbreeding reduction a challenge (Motaung et al., 2024). Furthermore, uncontrolled breeding practices, such as rams roaming with ewes and sharing water sources without supervision, are common (Mavule et al., 2013). To address these challenges, strategies such as ARTs, including cryopreservation of genetic resources and nutrient-enriched germplasm (such as animal germ cells), should be implemented (Sithole et al., 2025). Additionally, breeding programs should incorporate AI and manage the use of males to preserve genetic diversity and prevent inbreeding (Ngcobo et al., 2022). According to the literature, multiple studies validate these strategies for preserving genetic diversity and criticize inbreeding (Ngcobo et al., 2024a). This is also supported by (IUCN), showing improved cryopreserved semen quality and fertility rates in indigenous sheep breeds when fed dietary flaxseed and ascorbic acid in a controlled environment.

6.2 Climate change challenges in the SADC regions

The SADC region is projected to face significant climate change impacts, with varying effects across the region (Ipcc: Climate change 2007: the physical science basis… - Google Scholar). Climate change poses substantial threats to global agriculture, particularly in developing nations, affecting livestock productivity and adaptation (see Table 6) (Prajapati et al., 2024). The rising temperatures, precipitation variability, and extreme weather events are intensifying pressure on livestock production (Cheng et al., 2022). This leads to increased operational costs, such as feed, medication, and disease management (Matlou et al., 2021). Climate change affects sheep reproduction and productivity through changes in feed availability, water resources, disease prevalence, and heat stress (Tesema et al., 2025). It has been found that heat stress negatively impacts sheep’s performance, milk quality, and growth rate (Bhateshwar et al., 2022). There are different ways proposed to mitigate heat stress (Ngcobo et al., 2025). This includes livestock genetic improvement, enhanced pasture management, sustainable feeding practices, and improved on-farm facilities such as shelter to provide shade for animals during extreme temperatures (Baumgard and Rhoads, 2013; Tesema et al., 2025). Nevertheless, poor rural farmers do not have the capital to invest in these expensive mitigation strategies (Touch et al., 2024).

Table 6

Table 6. Climate change impacts on indigenous sheep breeds production.

Indigenous animals are great assets due to their adaptive characteristics (Nyamushamba et al., 2016). Indigenous breed owners often face harsh environmental conditions, including drought, disease, and parasite infestations, which can impact their livestock (Mpofu et al., 2020). A great number of rural poor farmers will be negatively affected by climate change because they lack the resources to help mitigate its detrimental effects (Masipa, 2017). Owing to climate change in the SADC region and globally, natural selection is vital in the indigenous animals to adapt to a changing environment (Henry et al., 2018). However, this process is threatened by the continuous population decline of the indigenous ecotypes (Motaung et al., 2024; Wanjala et al., 2025). Crossbreeding climate-resilient breeds, such as indigenous breeds to improve agricultural sustainability and food security can be a solution to tackling adverse climate change effects (Henry et al., 2018) through improved genetic material and adaptability rate

6.3 Poor management

Southern African small-scale sheep farming faces productivity challenges due to various constraints, including poor management practices and a lack of education and knowledge (Zenda and Malan, 2021). Poor management is one of the biggest challenges, generally contributing to the inevitability of sheep farming and other enterprises, particularly among rural, low-income farmers. For example, according to Zenda and Malan (2021), South African small-scale sheep farming system faces numerous challenges that affect their livestock productivity, animal welfare, and overall sustainability of the operation. Moreover, most communal farmers in the SADC region have limited access to education, which hinders their ability to manage their farms, adapt to new technologies, or learn new management strategies to improve their farming practices (Bontsa et al., 2024). These challenges result in the decline of profit, reduced herd size due to high mortality rate caused by diseases, and low lambing rate, which encompasses poor feeding management, cross-breeding, and poor handling of animals. Good management on the farm is facilitated by updated records which include, number of animals kept, feeding management, health and disease status, financial records, lambing date, breeding date, and breeding goals.

Communal farming is characterized by arbitrary breeding practices that expose indigenous breeds to the risks associated with terminal crossbreeding (Nxumalo et al., 2022). Moreover, sheep kept under a communal farming system are prone to diseases and cross-contamination due to grazing animals of unknown status. Inefficiency of resources and poor management are the reasons small-scale farmers struggle to allocate available resources to an area of need and fail to make sound decisions for the unforeseen future. Sheep on communal land are susceptible to malnutrition, especially during the dry season, due to poorly planned fodder flow (Zenda and Malan, 2021). Continuous grazing on overgrazed areas impoverishes people by diminishing the land and water resources (Grazing management to reduce soil damage, 2021; What is erosion? Effects of soil erosion and land degradation; Rampai, 2017). Moreover, people living on communal land are at risk of food-borne diseases and zoonosis due to competition of interest with livestock because of poor infrastructure and inaccessibility to agricultural land. While livestock keeping is not a magic bullet, effective management can unlock its potential to alleviate poverty and stimulate economic development in developing nations (Moyo, S et al., 2010; Otte and FAO, 2012).

6.4 Lack of knowledge

The livestock industry’s knowledge transfer remains a significant bottleneck to efficient production (Jansen et al., 2022). Despite their significant contributions to local and international markets, these farmers face challenges due to limited education (Ngcobo et al., 2022; Sithole et al., 2025). In the SADC region, historical disparities in education access have resulted in many older farmers being unable to read or write (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Studies have shown that around 80% of communal farmers in Southern Africa lack access to education, hindering their progress and profitability. Specifically, in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, many sheep farmers are older (40–50 years) and lack formal education, making it difficult to disseminate conservation information (Kunene et al., 2011). This limitation also makes it challenging to introduce new technologies, as older farmers without qualifications or matric certificates struggle to understand complex information (Ngcobo et al., 2022; Sithole et al., 2025). The lack of access to quality training and education in rural areas may ultimately affect farmers’ motivation and enthusiasm for agriculture. To overcome this, stakeholders should develop innovative, socially acceptable methods to communicate modern farming practices and ensure a thriving market for animal-source food (Capper, 2013). This is particularly crucial for smallholder farmers in rural communities, who are vital to agricultural economies and global food security, aligning with SDGs for poverty alleviation and food security.

6.5 Stock theft

Stock theft is a major factor affecting small-scale farmers (Zantsi and Nkunjana, 2021). For instance, the survey conducted by (Mthi and Nyangiwe, 2018) revealed that 5.5% of the respondents cited stock theft as a significant challenge facing sheep farming. The soaring unemployment rate and a quest for fast cash, with rural communities, farmers, and farm workers being disproportionately affected, as they are seen as soft targets for criminal activity (Maluleke et al., 2016). Moreover, the state of living or working in remote farms high market value of property, large distances between farms and villages, difficulties in reaching the police, as well as basic infrastructure, such as roads, are some of the reasons for criminals target this group of farmers (Maluleke et al., 2016). Moreover, police stations in rural areas are mostly isolated from the community, and thus, the police should be responsible for policing different areas. Thus, stock theft is becoming a cumulating conundrum that threatens the lives of farmers directly and poses a serious economic risk. This issue not only evidences the diminishing of high-potential genetic material but also poses a threat to the country’s food security, making it difficult for the red meat industry to compete internationally and negatively impacting the wool industry.

6.6 Water-scarce and drought-resilient countries in the SADC region

A state of drought disaster was long ago declared in Botswana, Lesotho, and Namibia, with South Africa recently declared a water-scarce country (Migration Data in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)., ), and all these countries belong to the SADC region. Moreover, FAO (Otte and FAO, 2012), reported that the intensity, occurrence, and period of droughts could be elevated due to climate change factors. Such drought periods may have devastating effects on livestock, including decreased productivity, fertility issues, health problems, and higher mortality rates (Orimoloye, 2022). Water scarcity in the SADC countries, such as South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana, might affect food production and livelihoods. For instance, a study in 2016 reported that these countries might not be able to produce cereal crops in 2030 due to climate change and water scarcity (Khoza, 2025). Maltou and Bahta et al (Maltou and Bahta, 2019 ). reported that the 2015/2016 agricultural drought in South Africa, triggered by strong El Niño conditions, had severe consequences on the livelihoods of farmers and herders, given the region’s vulnerability to droughts linked to this climate phenomenon. Rural communities frequently rely on rivers and dams for water; however, these sources are vulnerable to depletion from increased demand due to livestock, crop irrigation, domestic use, human consumption, and further strained by climate change-induced rainfall shortages (Mthi and Nyangiwe, 2018).

6.7 Disease outbreaks and limited access to veterinary services

Small ruminant productivity is severely hampered by the outbreak of diseases and limited to veterinary services (Mthi and Nyangiwe, 2018). According to Ngcobo et al (Ngcobo et al., 2022), lamb mortality in South African indigenous sheep is attributed to diseases at a rate of about 69.4%. Diseases and parasites in humid regions were reported to have severe impact on animal health, welfare, and productivity (Fourie et al., 2018). The results of study revealed that 52% of farmers vaccinated their sheep against diseases like pulpy kidney, Rift Valley fever, blue tongue, and sheep scab. In addition, 58% of farmers specifically prioritized vaccinations against pulpy kidney, Rift Valley fever, blue tongue, and blue udder, although their vaccination choice was influenced by financial constraints. The study further revealed that many farmers cannot consistently afford these vaccines, which contributes to increased lamb mortality. Small-scale farmers are further characterized as having limited access to veterinary services; hence, some of them will use medicinal plants to cure their animals (Kunene et al., 2011). Due to the struggle with veterinary services and limited knowledge, these diseases wipe out their animals, resulting in a decline in the indigenous sheep population (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Moreover, a survey by (Kunene et al., 2011) revealed that rural farmers end up culling or castrating sick and deformed animals due to constraints such as lack of extension, theft, and parasites. This might be due to the high cost of drugs, long distance to health care centers, and visibility of animal health advisors (Mthi and Nyangiwe, 2018).

6.8 Lack of infrastructure and market for African indigenous sheep

Infrastructure can be defined as all infrastructure required in the farm for its optimum operation, including handling facilities, power source, fencing, buildings, dipping facilities, and fenced grazing areas, to mention a few ((PDF) What is infrastructure?). A market could be defined as a place where buyers (consumers) and sellers (farmers) exchange their goods for money (Pulina et al., 2018). Developing sustainable sheep markets in the SADC region has been reported as challenging despite its potential for livestock production [SADC. Food, agriculture & Natural resources (SADC)]. Among key challenges mentioned, the lack of appropriate policies, lack of infrastructure as well as border diseases such as foot and mouth disease are outstanding [SADC. Food, agriculture & Natural resources (SADC)].

The lack of infrastructure and market is part of the constraints that limit the successful performance and profitability of small-scale farmers, especially in rural areas where access to roads and market facilities is a challenge (Mthi and Nyangiwe, 2018). This is evidenced by the shortage of marketing resources, such as sale pens, loading and offloading ramps, and access to roads, which are major factors affecting the marketing of livestock by small-scale farmers in many parts of the world (Celliers and Khapayi, 2016). As a result, this will gradually lead to lower income, increased poverty, and hunger. It is due to these factors and more that (Mavule et al., 2013) reported that only a few rural farmers were aware and able to define the market system. This implies that these farmers were not selling their animals to the formal market and were unable to disclose the criteria they used to determine the value of their animals. Moreover, inadequate infrastructure and veterinary services can lead to poor health and reduced productivity of sheep, making them more susceptible to diseases which cause about 69.4% of lamb mortality in South African indigenous sheep (Zenda and Malan, 2021). This exacerbates the vulnerability of small-scale sheep farmers to poverty, as they are unable to optimize their production and income.

6.9 Urbanization leading to land competition

Urbanization refers to the movement of people from rural to urban areas, driven by social, economic, and political factors that lead to the growth of cities and changes in land use (Ngcobo et al., 2022). This phenomenon affects various aspects of human life in both rural and urban settings. In urban areas, it results in increased population density and expansion of non-agricultural businesses, while in rural areas, it puts pressure on farmers, making traditional farming more challenging and expensive (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Urbanization often leads to the conversion of agricultural land to urban uses, such as infrastructure, industry, and housing, which can compromise food security by reducing fertile land (Iheke, 2015). Notably, the impact of this land conversion on agricultural production can be disproportionate to the amount of land lost (Li et al., 2024). Research suggests that economic factors drive urban land expansion, creating a feedback loop between urban growth and economic development (Iheke, 2015).

6.10 Migration and women’s exclusiveness in farming practices

The migration of people away and into the SADC region is mainly due to political instabilities, economic opportunities, and certain environmental hazards (Migration Data in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)., ). Only a few countries serve as the economic pillars in this region. For instance, South Africa is reported to have about 2.9 million migrants attracted by the mining sector. These migrants abandon their land and livestock for economic opportunities, which can lead to the death of these animals. On the other hand, people from the Eastern part of SADC (Comoros, Madagascar, Malawi, and Mozambique are mostly affected by natural hazards such as cyclones and flooding (Migration Data in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)., ).

According to the Facts and Figures (UN WOMEN, 2012), women constitute about 60% of the world’s poor. Women contribute significantly to food production in the developing world, providing over half of the labor force. In Africa, they produce nearly 70% of staple foods. However, despite their crucial role in small-scale agriculture and family subsistence, women face greater challenges than men in accessing essential resources like land, credit, and productivity-enhancing inputs (Usman et al., 2022). This disparity shows up in stats where women experience higher rates of poverty than men (Usman et al., 2022). This is because of the earning imbalance between genders. Men control major earnings despite doing less labor compared to women. Considering that men spend more on household expenditures and personal needs, while women spend most on taking care of children and food. In tribal regions like KwaZulu-Natal, women are traditionally believed to have no access to the kraal. It is men who hold land titles with full access to farms. Whereas rural poverty not only affects women but also affects whole families. According to Zenda and Malan (2021), men comprise the majority (78%) of small-scale sheep farmers in the Hantam Karoo, with women representing a smaller proportion (22%). The imbalance between genders is arguable because it means there is less labor in agriculture, which results in famine and food shortages. Moreover, 6% of youth were reported to be part of Agriculture. This was foreseen as one of the pulling forces to alleviate poverty in the Hantam Karoo and other developing countries. Hence, intervention is needed; otherwise, economic growth will remain stagnant, increase unemployment, and increase poverty.

7 Opportunities for improving sheep production to achieve food security and poverty alleviation

7.1 Application of advanced reproductive biotechnologies

The adoption of ART has been prompted by the seasonal breeding nature of small ruminants, allowing researchers to address reproductive constraints and accelerate genetic gain (Amiridis and Cseh, 2012). Assisted Reproductive technologies have broadened the scope for studying and manipulating reproductive events, leading to better species via estrus synchronization, in vitro embryo production, artificial insemination and cryopreservation (Choudhary et al., 2016). Estrus synchronization technique involves bringing female animals into heat at the same time by manipulating their reproductive cycle using hormones. According to Maqhashu et al (Maqhashu et al., 2024), this technique offers an efficient means of reproduction, promoting productivity, ease of management, and uniformity in offspring, which can be leveraged to capture niche markets. It’s also a compatible technique to ensure feed supply stability, and benefit from favorable price trends. Distribution and exchange of rams (with known fertility performance) in different villages for hand mating purposes, post synchronization of ewes, can be another useful strategy to be used to avoid inbreeding in the absence of AI.

Sheep and goat AI have lagged swine and cattle AI in terms of research and application (Zuidema et al., 2021). Artificial insemination, as an ART, is defined as an act of depositing semen into the reproductive tract of a female using instruments other than natural mating (Patel et al., 2017). By integrating with technologies such as estrus and ovulation synchronization, this method can amplify the genetic potential of livestock by disseminating the genetic material of superior males (Alvares et al., 2015). This technology is one of the other technologies that allows for the use of injured, dead males’ sperm to be used and counteracts the transmission of diseases. The use of AI in sheep breeding has been instrumental in driving genetic progress in various countries. For instance, Australia, France, Spain, and Canada reported substantial annual insemination numbers, exceeding 50,000 in each country (Ovine and caprine artificial insemination market size report; Gibbons et al., 2019). Similarly, in South America, Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay have emerged as leaders in sheep AI adoption (Gibbons et al., 2019). Thus, this technique can also be applied in SADC countries to improve the genetics of rare breeds like indigenous sheep.

A need for meat and dairy products is anticipated to rise globally, particularly in developing regions such as SADC (Mishra, 2025). Meeting this demand will require the adoption of advanced technologies and enhanced agricultural practices, including improvements to AI techniques (Zuidema et al., 2021). Thus, the efficiency of AI can be well compensated with the use of sex sorted semen as seen in beef and dairy animals (Ruelle et al., 2021). Selection of semen based on the gender (X and/or Y-bearing chromosomes) is of high importance for getting the desired sex of offspring and minimizing animal waste (Ngcobo et al., 2024b). For the first time, gender-selected semen for small ruminants was made commercially available through a partnership between Animal Breeding Europe and Cogent, which was initiated in August 2020. Given the positive outcomes observed so far, this technology appears to be a worthwhile initiative for improving the breeding and reproductive performance of indigenous sheep breeds, ultimately contributing to their conservation (Zuidema et al., 2021).

7.2 Education and training of village people

Education and training programs for smallholder farmers are essential for improving their livelihoods and boosting food security, while also focusing on practical skills, business management, and sustainable farming practices. Generally, small scale farmers receive such training through strengthened farmer networks. These networks are there to build supportive networks to share knowledge, resources, and market opportunities. This is via association gatherings, community-level interactions (including social gatherings, study groups, meetings with local leaders and stakeholders like input suppliers, extension agents, NGOs), and attendance at agricultural exhibitions. These can help improve farmers skills. Moreover, the Agricultural Research Council (ARC), funded by the Department of Agriculture (DoA), has established a training scheme which is called Kaonafatso Ya Dikgomo (KYD), which aims at facilitating the participation of smallholder farmers in the mainstream livestock industries (Sithole et al., 2025). This scheme operates in hosting farmers’ days where experts on different farming practices get invited to share knowledge and train farmers for better farming practices, while emphasizing critical issues such as record keeping and its importance. Additionally, the Department of Agriculture (DoA) in provinces like Gauteng has initiated study group sessions, bringing in experts from research institutions such as the ARC to provide targeted training to farmers on specific modules for various species.

Such initiatives will help farmers adopt improved agricultural techniques, leading to higher yields and increased production, enhance productivity and market access which can lead to better incomes for smallholder farmers and their families. They will further empower farmers to produce more food locally, contributing to food security in their communities, equip farmers with the knowledge and skills needed to manage their farms as small businesses, including record keeping, budgeting, and marketing. Educated farmers are more likely to thrive in the face of adversity. To ensure long-term success, stakeholders should prioritize youth engagement in agriculture, providing training and support to help them build a sustainable legacy (Sithole et al., 2025). Research should also be focused on adopting training programs that are employed in other countries, to better understand and train farmers to be able to compete in international markets and standards as well.

7.3 Education on the use of natural remedies

The practice of using plants in natural remedies is a long-standing tradition worldwide (Masika et al., 2000). In the Eastern Cape, South Africa, this practice is integral to local healthcare (Masika et al., 2000). Yet, the risk of losing this knowledge necessitates prompt documentation of herbalists’ practices (Kigenyi, 2016). Moreover, there has been a growing interest in the cultivation of natural remedies to enhance the economic stability of farmers. This not only offers an opportunity to diversify agricultural practices but also provides a sustainable source of income for farmers (Singh et al., 2023). Hence, through policy makers such as the Department of Agriculture and stakeholders, farmers should be trained on the use of these remedies in the form of study groups, modules, farmers’ days, and workshops to help them maximize their productivity and farming effectively. Notably, natural remedies are a cheap source of medicine and improve reproductive efficiency in livestock e.g., the use of plant extracts and aloe vera. Plants and plant parts are recognized for their potential to enhance animal well-being and performance.

7.4 Women and youth empowerment in SADC

Women’s and youth empowerment is critical for achieving sustainable development [SADC. Food, agriculture & Natural resources (SADC)]. Gender equality is critical to reaching the SDGs identified by the United Nations and was adopted as a top global priority by the G7 and G20 countries (SADC SELECTED ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL INDICATORS, 2018). Sustainable Development Goal 5 addresses the importance of females having access to high quality education across various subjects. This includes higher education in innovative or non-traditional, regardless of their age or living conditions like pregnant or disability, to enable their participation in agriculture (Bhandari, 2024). They must attend training to enhance their skill and knowledge, young academics must be granted scholarships or bursaries to support their agricultural studies (Stats SA, 2023). Since the majority of women are unemployed, governmental resources such as seeds, animal feed, vouchers, land, irrigation, fertilizers, and technology are necessary to support both women and children growing crops and livestock for living (Agarwal, 2018). Agarwal et al (Agarwal, 2018 ). also highlighted the importance of women’s access to natural resources, including forests and fisheries, given their central role in gathering food and producing fish, which are crucial for nutritional diversity. Moreover, boosting women’s involvement in politics related to farming in SADC regions like KwaZulu Natal could include increasing women’s representations in agricultural leadership, providing training also on leadership and policymaking decisions.

Women must be given an access to resources and information, addressing cultural barriers, networking and advocating for gender-equality polices in agriculture. Securing land rights can boost the productivity of women farmers, who are increasingly dominating the agricultural sector due to the feminization of agriculture. This, in turn, can lead to better nutritional outcomes within households, as property ownership strengthens women’s bargaining power within families (Stats SA, 2023; Bhandari, 2024). The SADC region has committed to promoting economic empowerment initiatives that benefit both women and men, ensuring equal access to economic opportunities in trade, employment, and business [SADC. Food, agriculture & Natural resources (SADC)]. Furthermore, member states are encouraged to recognize and incorporate women’s unpaid labor into national accounting systems and budgetary decision-making processes. This is substantiated by SDG Goal 10, where there had to be a reduction of inequality within and among countries (Bhandari, 2024). Everyone must be granted the same opportunities to participate in the import and export of agricultural goods from and within South Africa and other countries. An increase in women’s access to markets, making decisions, involvement in international trade fairs, and specific women’s trade fairs to fight poverty together with men needs to be vocalized and implemented (Agarwal, 2018). Having both women and men in positions of power and decision-making is crucial, as it can bring diverse perspectives and experiences to the table, ultimately leading to more effective outcomes (SADC SELECTED ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL INDICATORS, 2018) in return, this could be a first shot at reducing poverty in SADC countries.

7.5 Approaches to enhance women’s participation in decision-making for indigenous sheep breeding

An alternative approach to empower women in contributing and making a difference would be to explore methods that enhance their engagement in decision-making related to indigenous sheep breeding. This idea involves creating the representation of women within livestock governance frameworks to guarantee their inclusion and enable them to occupy key roles, such as managing financial oversight, leading committees, and serving in advisory capacities (Galiè et al., 2025). Most women participate in or are part of cooperatives focused on indigenous sheep breeds within the SADC region. Therefore, these cooperatives ought to be formalized to acknowledge these women as official stakeholders in policy discussions (Galiè et al., 2025). This should be implemented in a way that enables women to negotiate directly for influence over breeding policies or market access while also providing them with the collective power to impact breed conservation initiatives. Additionally, apart from building their capacities, women need training and workshops focused on policy comprehension, public speaking skills aimed at leadership, and mentoring programs that connect rural women with female policymakers, veterinarians, and researchers (Pyburn et al., 2023). These efforts will contribute to creating avenues for women’s readiness to engage in political environments.

Additionally, women’s participation frequently centers on animal care rather than financial decision-making; therefore, opportunities should be designed to offer women-exclusive credit lines, grants, or rotating funds for the breeding of indigenous sheep (Galiè et al., 2025). This should be expanded to necessitate financial literacy as a requirement for membership in breeding initiatives, while also providing support for digital payment systems that give women direct control over livestock profits (Nene and Acharekar, 2025). With this empowerment, the influence of women will naturally increase as they gain access to resources (Nene and Acharekar, 2025). Women’s traditional expertise in areas such as lambing, ethnoveterinary practices, breed characteristics, and feeding practices can serve as a tool for economic empowerment, supporting claims to property rights and advocating for their inclusion in formal governance and policy-making processes (Gwandure and Lukhele-Olorunju, 2023). Therefore, documenting and incorporating their traditional knowledge into official breeding policies enhances their position as knowledge authorities, which, in turn, boosts their credibility in political spaces (Gwandure and Lukhele-Olorunju, 2023).

7.6 Adoption of climate-smart agriculture

Climate-smart agriculture is important because it addresses both food security and climate change simultaneously (Agyekum et al., 2024). It is there to optimize agricultural productivity, boost durability to climate change effects, and can serve as a tool that farmers can use to improve their livelihoods, increase food production, and ease the impact of climate change (Agyekum et al., 2024). Other strategies to be used to achieve climate-smart agriculture would be the use of adapted breeds, like indigenous breeds. According to Kunene et al (Kunene et al., 2011), indigenous sheep breeds often owned by rural farmers may not be as productive as exotic breeds, but they are a crucial lifeline for rural livelihoods.

These breeds in SADC are crucial for sustainable livestock production, providing a valuable resource for farmers and contributing to food security and resilience in the face of a changing climate. They can be used to address future concerns since they have proven to be adaptable to harsh climatic environments, vital for sustainable livestock production, especially in harsh environments, well adapted to local conditions, including droughts, nutritional shortages, and parasites, making them resilient and less reliant on expensive feed and medication. They are valuable for maintaining genetic diversity and can be used in crossbreeding programs to enhance productivity while preserving adaptation (Selepe et al., 2018). Thus, training and instilling knowledge to farmers on the importance of keeping these breeds would be a good initiation, especially because their management style tends to be more eco-friendly and better suited for marginal environments. The Agricultural Research Council, through KYD farmers’ days platforms and other events, has initiated this through the lessons given by experts on establishing a breeding objectives profile for small-scale farmers. The goal is to prioritize breeding objective traits, determine their relative importance, and develop a comprehensive genotype that informs a selection index. Thus, it is critical for policymakers to be involved in this initiative to assist farmers to have a better understanding of the indigenous sheep they keep and be able to gain from them effectively and productively.

7.7 Planting winter and smart forages for the productivity of farmers

Planting smart forages, especially during winter, can substantially assist small-scale farmers in many ways. This includes providing a consistent and reliable source of feed during the dry season. It also improves livestock productivity since forages provide a reliable and high-quality source of feed. This leads to better livestock health, growth, and milk production. Additionally, improve soil health by adding organic matter and reducing erosion (Oladele and Ngidi, 2025), resulting in increased crop yield and help improve the nutrient cycle by incorporating nutrients into the soil, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers (Xing et al., 2025). These may also assist in enhancing food security, especially because supplementing or replacing reliance on limited natural grazing and forages can contribute to more consistent food availability for both livestock and human consumption. This further plays a role in reducing environmental impact through strategically selecting and managing forage crops to provide nutritious feed during periods when natural grazing is scarce. For instance, planting forages such as aloe vera offers significant advantages for small-scale farmers, particularly in resource-scarce regions (CUKB and DrRB., 2024). This plant holds significant promise for environmental conservation and economic development through entrepreneurship, holding immense promise not only as a valuable resource in skincare and healthcare but also as a driver of green growth and economic progress (CUKB and DrRB., 2024). It is known to thrive in arid conditions, requiring minimal water and resources, to its diverse applications in industries such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food.

Plants like cactus pear can also contribute to improving the livelihoods of small-scale farmers. In South Africa, where droughts are a persistent threat, there are plants like cactus-pear, useful as a pivotal source of animal feeds, for animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats (Cactus pear as livestock feed - South Africa; Cactus pear in South Africa: A miracle plant for people, animals, and agriculture – turksvyfees, 2024). This plant can thrive in dry and harsh environmental conditions with less water due to extended droughts, making it an ideal option for farmers where water shortages and barren pastures are a concern. Cactus-pear is known to have high water, nutrients, and thus provides a vital source of hydration and energy for animals during drought. Nutrient composition of cactus attracted some interest from researchers to use it as an alternative freezing extender in some livestock animals (Ramírez-Chequer et al., 2025). Therefore, by planting cactus-pear, farmers can save on feed supplementation costs while ensuring the well-being of animals. Moreover, it also appears that, planting cactus-pear in the SADC region may offer a multitude of benefits, such as providing a steady source of income through sales, particularly as demand for cactus pear products continues to rise both locally and internationally (Cactus pear as livestock feed - South Africa). Thus, planting winter forages and adopting smart agriculture practices can be a powerful combination for supporting small-scale farmers, particularly in regions facing climate change challenges. These practices can improve feed security, enhance soil health, optimize resource use, and increase overall farm productivity and resilience.

8 Prospects to improve Southern African development communities’ indigenous sheep breeds

8.1 Incorporating smart agriculture practices

This may involve using technology and data-driven approaches to optimize farming operations and improve efficiency. Integrating technology and data-driven approaches in farming can lead to more sustainable and productive farming system. This will benefit farmers by increasing their resilience to climate change, improving their productivity, and diversifying their income sources (Omotoso and Omotayo, 2024). Precision livestock farming has been adapted to utilize animal sensors that track physiological conditions in real-time or through data loggers (Berckmans, 2017). These sensors collect data on animal movement, body position, temperature, and other factors, translating it into valuable insights on physiological status, such as ovulation or lameness, which inform farm management decisions (Berckmans, 2017). Notably, these sensors can also monitor grazing and resting behaviors, providing crucial information on feed intake, grazing patterns, and flock movement (Odintsov Vaintrub et al., 2021). Interestingly, sensors can track social behaviors in animals, including heat and mating patterns, which is crucial for managing seasonal breeders like sheep. By enabling out-of-season mating, Mediterranean producers can maintain steady milk production despite the natural fluctuations in sheep breeding cycles (Odintsov Vaintrub et al., 2021) (Pulina et al., 2018);.

Another tool that can be used to improve production and management would be the adoption of drone technology. The use of drones in African agriculture is a game-changer, offering a trio of benefits: enhanced resource efficiency, reduced operational costs, and improved environmental sustainability, ultimately transforming the way farming is done across the continent (PLK et al., 2024). Drones offer several advantages for livestock management on smallholder farms. This includes tracking health, monitoring resources, helping identify degraded land which needs restoration. Moreover, the advance configuration of the drones allows for swiftly coverage of vast areas to pinpoint the location of stolen animals in the event of animal theft, equipped with thermal cameras that can monitor body temperatures, helping to detect early signs of illness or disease (Are drones the future of dairy farming?, 2024). The use of this technology contributes immensely to sustainable practices by optimizing resource use and reducing environmental impact. However, the deployment of drones faces challenges such as high costs, a lack of technical expertise, and regulatory barriers, which call for initiatives such as the need for targeted training programs and policy reforms to enhance drone accessibility for smallholder farmers (PLK et al., 2024). In accordance with (Sithole et al., 2025), policymakers must promote and enforce the adoption of digital agriculture platforms, particularly mobile apps, to facilitate communication between farmers and experts and enhance knowledge sharing. A prime example is the ARC’s ARCHub app, which offers accessible manuals across various disciplines, providing valuable resources for farmers.

8.2 Strengthening breeding objectives using technologies

Strengthening breeding objectives in agriculture by enhancing genetic improvement, promoting precision livestock farming, and improving animal welfare using technological advancements is essential in assisting and improving smallholder farmers (Kobayashi, 2024). These technologies, including genomic selection and reproductive biotechnologies, which allow breeders to select animals with desirable traits, increase productivity and improve reproductive efficiency.

8.3 Application of assisted reproductive technologies

8.3.1 Semen cryopreservation

There are two methods used to collect semen, which include the electro-ejaculator (EE) and artificial vagina (AV). Semen collection is essential for the analysis of sperm parameters such as motility, morphology, and concentration, which are crucial aspects for concluding semen quality (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Semen parameters act as determinants for the success of semen cryopreservation. One of the challenges with semen cryopreservation technology is that it makes use of computers, expensive microscopes, and laboratory consumables for analysis, which prevent smallholder farmers from accessing research stations, which can be distant and unaffordable. Therefore, emphasizing the need for more flexible, cost-effective methods and equipment to accommodate smallholder farmers in the comfort of their farms.

8.3.2 Oocyte cryopreservation

Oocyte cryopreservation and in vitro embryo production to accelerate genetic improvement in indigenous sheep breeds is one of the useful strategies to conserve indigenous breeds. Amiridis et al (Amiridis and Cseh, 2012 ). reported that collecting oocytes from slaughtered donors with desirable genetics can reduce the generation interval by approximately 5–6 months. Moreover, in SADAC regions, the convenient and cheap source of ovaries for the retrieval of oocytes is via collection from slaughterhouses with donors having unknown reproductive and genetic history, which may hinder the success of conservation and breeding programs (Sithole et al., 2023).

8.3.3 In vitro embryo production

In vitro embryo production (IVEP) is a valuable tool for improving breeding objectives in livestock, enabling breeders to accelerate genetic progress and increase offspring numbers from valuable animals (Sithole et al., 2023). IVEP includes the collection of follicles from live animals through the ovum pick-up technique. It also includes slicing ovaries and aspiration of oocytes from ovaries collected at slaughterhouses (Sharma, 2023). The oocytes are then fertilized with sperm in a laboratory using microscopes, media, and incubators. The resulting embryos are transferred to donors. IVEP offers advantages like using oocytes from various sources, reducing transportation costs, and facilitating early genetic screening (Sharma, 2023). However, there has been a reported reduction in the number of embryos produced in vitro globally, despite the advantages of using ARTs to improve breeding objectives with non-reported embryos for sheep in Africa (Ngcobo et al., 2022). Traditional breeding cycles can be slow and unpredictable; thus, in vitro production speeds up the process, producing more offspring in a shorter time. Thus, the IVEP technology offers a pathway for small-scale farmers to improve livestock genetics, even if they lack large facilities or resources (Sharma, 2023).

8.4 Water conservation

Water is a vital component of life, supporting natural processes, communities, economies, and future generations (Kurunthachalam, 2014). However, the SADC region’s water resources are under significant threat due to rapid population growth, industrialization, urbanization, over-extraction, and climate change, leading to water scarcity, droughts, floods, and ecosystem degradation (Seyuba K and Garcia TF, 2022). To address these challenges, strategic water conservation planning is essential to sustainably manage freshwater resources, protect the hydrosphere, and meet current and future demands (Kurunthachalam, 2014). Effective water conservation strategies include rainwater harvesting, which involves collecting and storing rainwater for various functions, such as drinking, domestic purposes, livestock, irrigation, and groundwater recharge (Mwenge Kahinda and Taigbenu, 2011). This can be achieved through infrastructure development, like ponds, lakes, and canals, as well as installing rainwater catchment and filtration systems. Protecting groundwater resources is another crucial strategy, as contamination can render water supplies unusable for years, if not decades (Fagoyinbo, 2016). Therefore, communication and education outreach are fundamental components of water conservation, requiring the development of science-based messaging to inform land managers, policymakers, farmers, and the public (Delgado et al., 2011). By adopting these strategies, the SADC region can mitigate water scarcity, ensure sustainable water management, and protect this vital resource for future generations.

8.5 Comprehensive assessment need, monitoring, and evaluation

Conducting a comprehensive assessment to understand the specific requirements of farmers in terms of training, resources, and market opportunities can be a good initiative towards sustainable agriculture. This will ensure that training and teaching relevant modules and skills to farmers on modern techniques, productivity, and income is sustained by establishing a monitoring system to track progress, measure outcomes, and assess the impact (Kumar et al., 2023). This will help to reduce the risk of failure, increase methodical and professional management, ensure stakeholders understand what needs to be done, and track implementation progress. Moreover, establishing a strong assessment and tracking system to gauge progress of the implementation plan, measure the impact on agricultural livelihoods, and identify areas for continuous improvement will benefit the training program’s success in SADC regions for small-scale farmers (Kumar et al., 2023).

9 Key knowledge gaps

There is a huge gap in terms of livestock reporting in the SADC region. For instance, according to our knowledge, there are only few countries (Botswana, DRC, Mauritius, Namibia, and South Africa) in the SADC region that have reported the socio-economic characteristics of smallholder sheep farmers. Socio-economic characterization is pivotal in understanding smallholder livelihoods, challenges, and identifying areas of interest for potential development. Moreover, it can assist in guiding policymakers to avoid a blanket approach when addressing farmers’ needs. The lack of understanding of smallholder farmers’ needs may result in the lack of advanced reproductive biotechnology and genomics implications.

10 Conclusion

In the SADC region, indigenous sheep play a pivotal role in socio-economic development, contributing to food security and poverty alleviation, especially among smallholder farmers. However, challenges like climate change, limited resources, and genetic erosion threaten the long-term viability of these breeds. Thus, addressing factors contributing to food security and poverty alleviation goals is of current prodigious interest. Policymakers should intensify the use of mitigation strategies, such as the use of ex situ and in situ conservation, to combat the declining effective population size that will later compromise the dependency of rural farmers on these indigenous sheep. Moreover, to support and develop smallholder farmers, it is crucial to reinforce breeding objectives in agriculture by boosting genetic improvement, encouraging precision livestock farming, and utilizing technical advancements to promote animal welfare. The use of water is a factor that is overlooked when addressing challenges that contribute to poverty and hunger in livestock or rural areas. Reducing hunger, poverty, and conserving water are related objectives that call for an integrated strategy since the link between water, food production, and poverty is critical. Water scarcity can undermine food security and livelihoods, particularly for the vulnerable. Moreover, effective water management is key to sustainable agriculture and achieving food security. Hence, since the water, energy, and food systems are interdependent, policies and initiatives should consider the demands of all three at the same time. Moreover, along with programs to promote food security and poverty alleviation, governments must enact policies that place a high priority on water conservation and sustainable water management. Engaging local communities in water management and conservation efforts is essential for ensuring long-term sustainability. Noteworthy, to create and execute efficient solutions, cooperation between governments, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions, and the corporate sector is required. Lack of education has transpired as the central factor that limits or compromises rural farmers in making informed decisions and farming wisely, and this review has dwelled on solutions to be used in transferring skills and knowledge to farmers. For instance, study groups led by stakeholders such as the Department of Agriculture and research institutes have been one of the slow but adapted approaches that are used in provinces such as Gauteng (South Africa) to develop farmers. This initiative involve subject experts to workshops and farmers to share and farmers on different topics of their choice. This alone also enforces engagement of farmers in a broader spectrum and allows them to raise needs thereof to help in responding to hunger and farming sustainably and will allow for needs assessment and successful implementation.

Author contributions

JN: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology. SS: Methodology, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TM: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. KN: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was funded by the Tshwane University of Technology: TUT-SEED FUNDING.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the Tshwane University of Technology seed fund for their financial support and APC towards this research.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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