Vegetable crop residues: an opportunity to bridge dry-season feed gaps in sub-Saharan Africa

In Burkina Faso, livestock feeding during the dry season is constrained by recurrent quantitative and qualitative deficits of available fodder biomass, a challenge further exacerbated by climate change. One promising strategy to mitigate these shortages is the use of vegetable crop residues (VCR) as supplementary fodder, particularly in areas with intensive vegetable production. This study aimed to characterize the practices of VCR utilization in the vegetable-growing region of Guiriko, in western Burkina Faso. A survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire among 243 farmers in the locality. Principal component analysis followed by hierarchical clustering was used to classify farmers according to their agricultural and livestock practices. This analysis revealed three distinct groups: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers. VCR were widely used across all groups as animal feed, with green bean haulms (GBL: 100%) and sweet potato vines (100%) being preferred by nearly all producers. Cucumber residues were also commonly used, particularly by market gardeners (p < 0.05). Most VCR were offered through open grazing, while GBL and cabbage leaves were more frequently dried prior to be stored and fed in barns, especially by agro-pastoralists. Sweet potato vines were often sold and transported to Bobo-Dioulasso for use in urban livestock systems. VCR were primarily allocated to weak livestock, lactating cows, draft animals, and calves, underscoring their functional importance in smallholder systems. These findings highlight the potential of VCR recycling as a means to alleviate dry-season fodder shortages and to support integrated crop-livestock management. Further laboratory analyses are recommended to determine the chemical composition and nutritional value of these residues, which would inform better feeding strategies, improve animal productivity, and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of livestock product.

1 Introduction

Livestock farming constitutes a significant sector in the economies of West African countries, particularly those in the Sahel, like Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali. Contributing 44% to the regional agricultural gross domestic product (GDP), livestock plays a crucial role in poverty alleviation (Molina-Flores et al., 2020). In Burkina Faso, more than 80% of households (with 92% located in rural areas) are engaged in livestock farming, deriving all or part of their income from this activity (FAO, 2019). Livestock farming makes a substantial contribution to the national economy, accounting for 20% of the GDP and over 30% of export revenues (FAO, 2019). Livestock feed mainly depends on fodder from natural rangelands and crop residues (Hiernaux and Assouma, 2020). The use of crop residues as animal feed has been well documented in the literature, with comprehensive accounts of feeding strategies, nutritional values, and management practices across various cropping systems (Ouattara et al., 2024). Additionally, the recycling of crop residues as animal feed and manure is a key driver in the agroecological transition of agro-silvo-pastoral systems (Vall et al., 2023). Every year, livestock faces a forage resource deficit, especially during the dry season when natural pastures are reduced and provide limited nutritional value for livestock (Koutou et al., 2016; Millogo et al., 2019; Zampaligre et al., 2019; Tensaba et al., 2022). Consequently, livestock performance during this season remains low due to the poor quality of the available fodder resources (Gbenou et al., 2024a). Improving such a production system requires effective management of feeding practices, which are a crucial factor in successful livestock farming (Dimon et al., 2018). In this context, using vegetable crop residues as livestock feed could help partially address the forage deficit during this period (Fall et al., 2006; Arbouche and Arbouche, 2007; Gbenou et al., 2024b).

In Burkina Faso, particularly in the Guiriko region, vegetable farming is becoming increasingly widespread, with crops such as onions, cabbage, tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, green beans, lettuce, and potatoes (Drabo, 2016; Sebego, 2016; Ouédraogo et al., 2019). Vegetable farming is thus a key component of food security in rapidly growing urban areas and a factor regulating of endemic unemployment, which is exacerbated by rural exodus. In addition to producing fruits, vegetables, and leaves for human consumption, these crops generate residues or co-products (straw, haulms, leaves, etc.) that are used as livestock feed, especially during the dry season. The incorporation of vegetable co-products into livestock feed provides an innovative approach to diversifying feeding practices, reducing reliance on pasture resources, and lowering feed costs (El Otmani et al., 2022; Sib et al., 2018). Identifying affordable and nutritionally valuable fodder sources remains a major challenge in the livestock production systems. Agricultural waste, traditionally regarded as a by-product, offers a promising solution by improving the sustainability and efficiency of livestock production. Incorporating these by-products into ruminant diets can reduce feed costs by 10-30% and enhance performance indicators such as weight gain and milk yield by 5-20% (Kazemi, 2021, 2025). Although crop-livestock integration and the use of crop residues are well documented, substantial knowledge gaps remain regarding the specific utilization patterns of vegetable crop residues (VCR) within mixed farming systems. In Senegal, for instance, onion leaves are collected by farmers to feed sheep (Fall et al., 2006). In Burkina Faso, studies by Sib et al. (2018) and Millogo et al. (2019) revealed the use of cabbage leaves, sweet potato vines, and zucchini residues in dairy cow feeding in the Guiriko region. Additionally, Bindelle and Buldgen (2004) reported that sweet potato vines could be incorporated into the rations of cattle, pigs, and poultry. Similarly, research conducted in Colombia demonstrated a notable increase in voluntary intake of taro leaves by pigs (Leterme et al., 2005). According to El Otmani et al. (2022), VCR constitute a promising resource for diversifying livestock feed and addressing the forage shortage during the dry season.

Despite this existing research on crop-livestock systems and alternative feed sources, important research gaps remain in understanding how different farm types within mixed vegetable-livestock systems utilize VCR. Specifically, there is limited documentation on the management practices, utilization patterns, and farmer perceptions regarding VCR across diverse farm typologies within intensively cultivated mixed systems. Furthermore, the spatial and temporal variability of VCR availability and utilization patterns remains poorly characterized, requiring systematic documentation to inform targeted extension strategies and policy interventions. The motivation for this study stems from the need to address these specific knowledge gaps within the well-documented broader context of crop-livestock integration. While general principles of crop residue utilization are established, the heterogeneity in farming systems necessitates farm-specific understanding of VCR management practices. This is particularly important given the increasing intensification of vegetable production systems and the growing recognition of VCR as valuable feed resources that require optimized management strategies.

Therefore, this study was initiated to provide specific references on the utilization of VCR across different farm types in mixed vegetable-livestock systems of the Houet province, Burkina Faso. The general objective of this study is to characterize farm typologies and to document their specific management practices related to VCR utilization, thereby providing targeted knowledge to inform extension recommendations and sustainable intensification strategies within these mixed farming systems.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Location and biophysical characteristics of the study area

The study was conducted in the municipality of Bama (11°23’48”N, 4°25’37”W), a peri-urban area located 25 km northwest of Bobo-Dioulasso on National Road No. 9 in the Hauts-Bassins region of western Burkina Faso (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Map of the study area.

This region falls within the southern Sudanese climate zone, characterized by two distinct seasons: a rainy season from mid-May to October, during which humid monsoon winds prevail; and a dry season (approximately 7 months) from November to mid-May, which includes a cold dry period (mid-November to February) and a hot dry period (March to mid-May) (M’Bodj, 2009).

Hydrologically, the commune lies within the Kou watershed, which plays a critical role in supplying potable water to Bobo-Dioulasso. The municipality of Bama boasts one of Burkina Faso’s largest freshwater reserves, the Kou Basin. This basin is crucial for various economic activities, including irrigated agriculture, vegetable farming, livestock farming, and fishing. It originates in the Péni area, south of Bobo-Dioulasso. The commune also hosts one of the country’s largest dams, the Samandéni Dam, with a capacity of 1.5 billion cubic meters of water per year.

The region’s vegetation reflects the less arid climatic conditions characteristic of the southern Sudanese sector. It is home to diverse savanna types varying in size, density, and species composition. The area features shrub savannas, tree savannas, wooded savannas, open forests, gallery forests, and rupicolous formations (Fontès and Guinko, 1995).

2.2 Sampling and survey method

For the surveys, from an exhaustive list of vegetable farming sites within a 50 km radius around the city of Bobo-Dioulasso, where the primary vocation is vegetable farming, eight vegetable production sites within the commune of Bama were selected for this study. The selection of the commune of Bama was guided by the following criteria: its proximity to the city of Bobo-Dioulasso for security purposes, its status as a high vegetable production area due to favourable hydrological conditions (Drabo, 2016; Ouédraogo et al., 2019), and the presence of settled Fulani pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Zampaligre et al., 2019). Data were collected from villages within the commune of Bama where vegetable farming is widespread.

The sample size for the study survey was determined using the formula of Dagnelie (1998):

$$\begin{array}{l}\text{n}=[(\text{U}1-\text{ α}/2)2\times \text{ p}(1-\text{p})]/({\text{d}}^2)\\ \text{n}=26\end{array}$$

Where:

-n is the sample size per village;

-U1- α/2 = 1,96 is the value of the standard normal variable for a probability, α = 0.05;

-d = 0.03 is the margin of error, fixed considering the desired precision;

-p = 5.1% (RGA, 2011) is the proportion of vegetable farmers in the commune of Bama

Referring to the methodology adopted by Dahouda et al. (2019), a range of representative samples was estimated by multiplying the minimum sample size by 2, then adding 3% to this value to account for unforeseen circumstances. The resulting number (N = 2n+3%(2n)) obtained is the adjusted sample size, which was N = 54. Therefore, any sample chosen between the minimum size of 26 farmers and the adjusted size of 54 per village will yield significant results.

A sample of 243 agro-pastoral vegetable farmers was interviewed across the eight villages: 29 in Badara, 28 in Bama, 33 in Banakeledaga, 27 in Banaorodougou, 32 in Diaradougou, 30 in Natema, 29 in Samandeni, and 35 in Sangoulema. The target population was exclusively active vegetable producers and livestock farmers.

2.3 Data collection

Data were collected from vegetable producers and livestock farmers using a digitalised questionnaire administered via smartphones. The questionnaire was initially prepared in DOCX format using Microsoft Word, then digitised on the KoboToolbox platform and deployed. After deployment, the digitised questionnaire was downloaded onto the smartphones through the KoboCollect application for field data collection (Nampa et al., 2020; Chrysostome et al., 2024). The questionnaire was designed to characterize the structure, operation, and performance of the farms over a complete agricultural cycle (with 2022 as the reference year). A detailed enumerator manual was developed to ensure full comprehension of the questionnaire items and to guide the collectors in accurately identifying and recording the information required for each response.

On the day of the survey, after obtaining informed consent from each respondent regarding the use and publication of the data, the enumerators began by collecting information on the general characteristics of the farms (farm manager’s ID and contact details, information about dependants and staff, equipment, tools, and buildings for farming and livestock). This was followed by the collection of detailed data on:

-Crops (plot size, production, consumption, use of organic manure and mineral fertilisers, use of herbicides, soil coverage with crop residues or mulch in the dry season),;

-Storage of agricultural by-products (quantities and storage methods for straw, tops, stalks);

-Livestock management in draft cattle, dairy cows, suckling cattle, donkeys, pigs, poultry, sheep and goat production units (number of heads/farm, grazing/zero grazing livestock, fodder distribution and feed supplementation, milk production per cow, births, sales, deaths);

-Organic fertilizer production (production method - pit manure, pen manure - location, type of biomass, and production);

-Residue distribution practices (livestock receiving VCR, distribution period);

-Perceived quality and value of residues.

The surveys were conducted individually during the day, depending on the availability of the vegetable producers and livestock farmers.

2.4 Data analysis

The collected data were extracted from the Kobotoolbox platform and used to create a database in Microsoft Excel 2016. After cleaning and coding, the database was imported into the R 4.2.3 software environment (R Core Team, 2023) for statistical analysis. A typology of the farms was developed by performing a principal component analysis using the FactoMineR package (Lê et al., 2008) after identifying 16 relevant variables (Table 1). These variables were used to identify three types of farmers: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers. The structural variables included the total farm area, as well as the areas allocated to vegetable, and food crops, and the number of cattle, small ruminants, and other animals expressed in Tropical Livestock Units.

Table 1

Table 1. Variables used for principal component analysis.

The operational variables included agroecological (e.g., draft animal power tools and animals, manure pits, fodder sheds, biodigester, bicycle) and non-agroecological (e.g., motorbike, tricycle, car, etc.) tools and equipment, the quantity of organic fertilizer used, the quantity of stored VCR such as green bean haulms and cabbage leaves, and the quantity of other crop residues (CR), including cowpea haulms and maize stover. The performance variables included milk production across the three seasons of the year. Agroecological tools and equipment refer to all tools and equipment that are socially acceptable, economically profitable, and are beneficial to the ecosystem.

A Hierarchical Ascendant Classification (HAC) was performed using the coordinates of the individuals on the first two factorial axes of the principal component analysis, allowing us to characterize homogeneous groups of farms. The means of the quantitative parameters were compared through an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the Kruskal-Wallis test at the 5% threshold.

3 Results

3.1 Farm typology

Among the 16 variables analyzed, the area of food crops exhibited the highest explanatory power for data distribution, followed by total cultivated area, type of agricultural equipment, dairy production, and cattle numbers (Figure 2a). The proximity of these variables to the axes indicated that agroecological and non-agroecological agricultural equipment and the number of cattle was linked to Axis 1 (Figure 2b). The total cultivated area and the area of food crops are associated with Axis 2. The quantity of stored green bean haulms (GBL) and dairy production during the cold dry season are more strongly correlated with Axis 3.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Correlation between variables in the principal component analysis.

The quantity of milk produced is highly influenced by the number of cattle and the quantity of stored vegetable crop residues. The strong negative correlation of non-agroecological equipment with Axis 1 shows that farms with a large number of such equipment have fewer animals and do not produce much milk. The typology of farms revealed three main types: market gardeners, agro-pastoralists, and livestock farmers (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Distribution of individuals on the factorial plans of principal component analysis.

HAC was used to project individual coordinates onto the first two principal axes. This analysis differentiated three distinct farm types: market-gardener-oriented, crop-livestock-oriented, and livestock-oriented (Figure 3). The characteristics of the different types of farmers were as follows (Table 2).

Table 2

Table 2. Characteristics of the three producer types.

3.1.1 Type 1: Market gardeners

Type 1 comprises 39.91% of the surveyed individuals (Table 2). These farms are characterized by small total land areas (4.43 ± 2.7 ha) with large areas dedicated to market gardening (p < 0.05). They maintain a small bovine herd (4.41 ± 2.91 TLU) and a modest number of small ruminants (1.63 ± 1.04 TLU). They store few crop residues, including vegetable crop residues. Additionally, they use fewer agroecological equipment (52.09 ± 13.47%) compared to other farm types. However, they use the highest amount of non-agroecological equipment (48.98 ± 15.26%), without a significant difference (p > 0.05). They also apply the largest quantity of organic manure (11360.92 ± 11773.68 kg). Market gardeners store 1074.54 kg of cabbage leave residues.

3.1.2 Type 2: Agro-pastoralists

Individuals in this group represent 47.77% of the surveyed population and are characterised by operating on large total land areas (9.47 ± 9.88 ha), including substantial areas dedicated to staple crops (4.41 ± 2.88 ha) (Table 2). They have average areas of market gardening (0.95 ± 0.66 ha) and maintain an average of 3.22 ± 3.02 TLU of small ruminants and 1.058 ± 2.24 TLU of other animals. Their bovine herd averages 5.37 ± 5.15 TLU, primarily draft cattle. They use more agroecological agricultural equipment (77.20%) compared to other farm types (p < 0.05). Agro-pastoralist farmers store 515.78 kg of cabbage leaf residues.

3.1.3 Type 3: Livestock farmers

Livestock farmers represent only 12% of the surveyed population and have a large herd of small ruminants (3.66 ± 2.75 TLU) and cattle (16.015 ± 11.20 TLU) (Table 2). They cultivate small areas of market gardening (0.79 ± 0.4 ha) and staple crops (2.92 ± 1.29 ha), mainly for family subsistence. Livestock farmers used agroecological agricultural equipment most frequently (79.47%; p < 0.05). Moreover, they store larger quantities of cabbage leaf residues (1600 kg; p < 0.05).

3.2 Disposition and use of vegetable crop residues

Green bean haulms, and sweet potato vines were exclusively used as fodder by farm managers in all three groups (Figure 4d). Market gardeners predominantly recycled cucumber residues to a significantly greater extent (p < 0.05; Figure 4a). Additionally, cabbage and onion leaves, along with residues from zucchini and tomatoes, were recycled by both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. After animals have grazed on the residues, the remaining eggplant, pepper, and chili stalks are cut and burned prior to planting the next crop.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Becoming of vegetable crop residues. (a) Market gardeners; (b) Agropastoralists; (c) Livestock farmers; (d) Overall. Cab_lea, Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea, Green bean haulms; Oni_lea, Onion leaves; Zuc_res, Zucchini residues; Cuc_res, Cucumber residues; Tom_res, Tomato residues; Pep_ste, Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste, Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste, Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin, Sweet potato vines; Egg_ste, Eggplant stems.

3.3 Residue types and preparation methods

Eggplant stalks are primarily used in their raw state (56.5%) by market gardeners (Figure 5a). Green bean haulms are dried prior to being fed to animals by both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Other vegetable crop residues were used in their raw (fresh) state by all groups.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Practices of using vegetable crop residues as fodder. (a) Market gardeners; (b) Agropastoralists; (c) Livestock farmers; (d) Overall. Cab_lea, Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea, Green bean haulms; Oni_lea, Onion leaves; Zuc_res, Zucchini residues; Cuc_res, Cucumber residues; Tom_res, Tomato residues; Pep_ste, Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste, Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste, Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin, Sweet potato vines; Egg_ste, Eggplant stems.

3.4 Residue distribution practices

Onion leaves, cucumber residues, tomato residues, and zucchini residues are distributed in the barn by some market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Cabbage leaves are used as feed during grazing and also distributed in barns by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists (Figures 6a, b). Green bean haulms were most commonly distributed in the barn by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Sweet potato vines were exclusively distributed in barns by market gardeners and agro-pastoralists. Livestock farmers distributed only cabbage leaves and green bean haulms in the barn. The remaining VCR were grazed directly by livestock (Figure 6c).

Figure 6

Figure 6. Forms of utilization of vegetable crop residues in animal feeding. (a) Market gardeners; (b) Agropastoralists; (c) Livestock farmers; (d) Overall. Cab_lea, Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea, Green bean haulms; Oni_lea, Onion leaves; Zuc_res, Zucchini residues; Cuc_res, Cucumber residues; Tom_res, Tomato residues; Pep_ste, Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste, Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste, Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin, Sweet potato vines; Egg_ste, Eggplant stems.

3.5 Farmer perceptions and management practices

VCR were more valued as fodder by agro-pastoralists (50%; p < 0.05). Both market gardeners and agro-pastoralists used VCR, when stored, to feed draft cattle and weakened animals. In contrast, livestock farmers fed lactating cows, calves, and heifers with stored VCR (Table 3). The collected, transported, and stored VCR were preferably distributed in the morning (65.9%) before grazing and in the evening (61.6%) upon return from grazing by agro-pastoralists (p < 0.05). According to them, this helps livestock cope with poor grazing paths. When served in the evening, the reasons were as follows: to encourage the livestock quick return from grazing, to compensate for the limited quantity and quality of dry-season forage, and to improve night-time rumination. Market gardeners and agro-pastoralists primarily used VCR to maintain their draft animals for the upcoming rainy season.

Table 3

Table 3. Practices of distributing vegetable crop residues to animals.

3.6 Perceived quality and value of residues

Vegetable crop residues such as GBL, cabbage leaves, and sweet potato vines have received significant attention among the majority of respondents. More than 50% of respondents, particularly market gardeners and agro-pastoralists, consider these residues to be of very high quality (Figures 7a, b). Sweet potato vines are highly regarded by market gardeners and livestock farmers (Figures 7a, c). Cucumber residues are well appreciated by market gardeners (Figure 7a). Cabbage leaves and GBL are highly valued by agro-pastoralists and livestock farmers, especially for enhancing milk yield in cows. Additionally, agro-pastoralists have a favourable view of onion leaves, particularly for poultry and ruminant feeding.

Figure 7

Figure 7. Appreciation of vegetable crop residues. (a) Market gardeners; (b) Agropastoralists; (c) Livestock farmers; (d) Overall. Cab_lea, Cabbage leaves; Gre_bea_lea, Green bean haulms; Oni_lea, Onion leaves; Zuc_res, Zucchini residues; Cuc_res, Cucumber residues; Tom_res, Tomato residues; Pep_ste, Pepper stems; Loc_egg_ste, Local eggplant stems; Chi_ste, Chili pepper stems; Swe_pot_vin, Sweet potato vines; Egg_ste, Eggplant stems.

4 Discussion

4.1 Market gardening-livestock farmer types in the peri-urban areas

The selected variables for the typology revealed three distinct farmer types. The market gardeners have larger areas dedicated to vegetable crops and relatively few livestock, while the agro-pastoralists are characterised by moderate areas of both crops and livestock. As for the livestock farmers, they maintain large herds and cultivate small crop areas. Regardless of the type of farmer considered, the integration of market gardening and livestock farming offers multiple advantages. It allows for the diversification of income sources, efficient resource use, and rational management of waste. This combination can be seen as a strategy to minimise economic losses in an environment marked by economic uncertainties (such as the volatility of agricultural prices) and significant climatic risks. Primarily, it serves as a strategy to mitigate risks and offset losses in one activity through gains or savings (particularly in the form of livestock) derived from another production line. The typology observed in this study is consistent with that of Orounladji et al. (2024). However, their study examined farmers in a broader agro-silvo-pastoral context, whereas our research specifically focuses on market gardeners.

4.2 Feeding strategies in the peri-urban farms

The availability and utilization of VCR in market gardening-livestock production systems offer potential benefits, such as reduced livestock feeding costs, agricultural waste management, and adaptation to seasonal constraints. Thus, harvested and stored VCR are selectively distributed to certain livestock categories (milk-producing, fattening, draft, or weakened animals), with distribution times strategically chosen. In the Bama municipality, the level of VCR utilization in animal feed depends on crop type and farming type. Crops like eggplant, bell pepper, and chili stems are grazed directly in the fields. Indeed, Bangala Mada et al. (2015) emphasized the importance of understanding the vegetative cycle to determine when specific crops are likely to produce residues, typically towards the end of the vegetative cycle, during harvest. According to the interviewed farmers, the vegetative cycle of eggplants, peppers, and chili peppers ranges from six months to over a year, provided they are adequately watered and fertilized. Consequently, water scarcity leads farmers to leave these crops for direct grazing, which explains the low proportion of fiber-rich VCR used as fodder.

Cabbage emerges as the most cultivated crop in the study area, a finding corroborated by Ouédraogo et al. (2019) across urban, semi-urban, and rural settings in the Hauts Bassins region. This suggests that cabbage residues generated at harvest may be quantitatively significant. Hence, cabbage leaves are predominantly used as fodder in the study area, consistent with findings by Sib et al. (2018), who highlighted the use of cabbage leaves as high-quality fodder in dairy cattle feeding among dairy farmers around Bobo-Dioulasso. Millogo et al. (2019) further revealed that cabbage leaves are highly valued by animals due to their high nitrogen content and good nutritional quality, forming a common component of all rations. The crude protein, ether extract, total ash, acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber contents were 11.9, 1.9, 8.8, 23.1 and 25.6%; 10.3, 0.5, 7.0, 16.1 and 19.6% (DM basis) in green cabbage and red cabbage, respectively. Gross energy (MJ/kg DM) in green cabbage (16.6) was higher than that observed in red cabbage (14.1). The red and green cabbage waste had higher net gas production (73 and 71 ml/g DM/12h) compared to the lettuce and cauliflower vegetable waste (51 and 48 ml/g DM/12h respectively). Similarly, metabolizable energy values were significantly higher for cabbage wastes (≈12 MJ/kg DM) compared with lettuce and cauliflower (≈9 MJ/kg DM). I. In vitro DM and OM digestibility of green and red cabbage waste was significantly higher than in lettuce and cauliflower. Leafy vegetable waste (green cabbage, red cabbage) is an excellent source of nutrients which can potentially be used after drying as an animal feed to reduce animal feeding costs and consequently increase farmers’ profits. This would also help in waste management and the reduction of environmental pollution (Mahgoub et al., 2018). Mustafa and Baurhoo (2018) further reported that dried cabbage leaf residues (DCLR) contained 12.1% ash, 14.0% crude protein, 18.9%NDF, 16.9%ADF, 2.0% fat and 4.0 Mcal/kg gross energy. The authors also observed that DCLR were rich in minerals (Ca, P, Mg, Na), fatty acids and amino acids.

Green bean haulms, on the other hand, are primarily used to feed animals. In Senegal, they are entirely recovered and constitute a national market commodity. Furthermore, Fall et al. (2006) indicated that green bean haulms quantities produced in the Senegal River Valley are transported to Dakar for urban livestock feeding. According to various farmer perceptions, VCR are either valued as animal feed or recycled into soil for parcel fertilization. Green bean haulms were highly regarded due to their high nitrogen content and popularity among animals.

In the study area, few market gardening residues were stored. The quantity of stored VCR depended on their valuation rather than the number of animals. Similar results were reported by Erenstein et al. (2011) in India, who found that the quantity of cereal straws used by farmers depended on their preferences, household labor, crop production levels, access to alternative biomass resources, livestock management practices, and biomass demand. In this study, appreciation also conditioned the quantity of certain VCR stored. Notably, the most appreciated VCR (GBL) was the most stored by farm managers across different classes without significant differences. This occurred because farmers lacked the time or resources in terms of equipment to collect all VCR. Consequently, they harvested only a portion, leaving the remainder in the fields for grazing. When animals were entrusted to Fulani herders, these residues were used as pasture. In contrast, most of the produced sweet potato vines were sold and transported to Bobo-Dioulasso for use in urban livestock systems.

4.3 Challenges and adaptive strategies in feeding

Although the availability and utilization of VCR in market gardening-livestock production systems offer potential benefits, it requires proper planning, efficient management, and technical knowledge to maximize benefits and overcome associated challenges.

The use of non-agroecological equipment can be justified by the need to ensure irrigation and maintenance of large cultivated plots and transportation of highly perishable market garden products due to inadequate storage facilities. The harvest period for VCR may coincide with the establishment of market garden plots, leading to a shortage of labor and time needed to manage both activities.

Agro-pastoralists predominantly own small ruminants and other animals (poultry, pigs, donkeys) in addition to cattle. They often sell animals to finance seed expenses for market gardening and the establishment of market garden plots. Small ruminants, which multiply rapidly, are easily sold to meet such expenses. Studies by Vall et al. (2011) and Koutou et al. (2016) confirm this finding, indicating that livestock serves as a standing savings and provides draft animals among agro-pastoralists. Furthermore, animal manure’s role as an organic fertilizer is increasingly prominent due to rising chemical fertilizer prices.

Livestock farmers, with smaller areas of both staple and market gardening, utilize minimal animal fodder and rely on manure sales. They do not own land and lack the workforce to manage both livestock and market gardening activities. However, they possess a large number of cattle and small ruminants, utilizing all VCR for animal feed. Studies by Koutou et al. (2017) have revealed that the number of animals determines their social status among livestock farmers, providing milk for both market and household consumption.

However, some market gardeners and agro-pastoralist farmers believe that cabbage leaves may be unsuitable for animals. They argue that intensive fertilizer and pesticide applications in cabbage cultivation make the leaves unsuitable for animal feed. Studies by Son et al. (2017) and Soko et al. (2018) have highlighted low levels of farmer education resulting in misunderstanding of pesticide usage instructions on packaging, leading to excessive and sometimes inappropriate use of phytosanitary products. Conversely, some farmers reported that fresh green bean haulms and cabbage leaves can cause diarrhea in animals.

4.4 Study limitations and contributions

This study did not estimate the overall quantity, availability, or potential contribution of vegetable wastes and by-products to the national feed balance. A national-scale estimation would enhance the accuracy of the country’s feed balance assessment, following the methodology proposed by Mottet and Assouma (2024), and thereby provide stronger support to the agricultural early-warning system. It also did not evaluate the nutritional quality of these fodders, which constrains the depth and practical applicability of the results; this represents a key limitation. Accordingly, the present work should be viewed as an initial exploratory analysis that offers a broad overview of current practices in the utilisation of vegetable crop residues within the study area. A subsequent study will assess the nutritional value of these residues and will propose and test appropriate feeding rations.

Some vegetable wastes and by-products are highly perishable due to their high moisture content. Although the study indicates that certain by-products are stored prior to feeding, it does not document the storage methods or the duration of storage. We recognise this lack of detailed information on storage practices as an additional limitation.

Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the use of vegetable crop residues as animal feed resources in mixed crop-livestock systems in Burkina Faso. It addresses a timely and relevant issue, as feed availability in quantity and quality during the dry season remain major constraints to livestock production across sub-Saharan Africa. The study also identifies three distinct farm types and documents their management practices for vegetable crop residues, highlighting that residues such as green bean haulms, cabbage leaves, and sweet potato vines are particularly valued for feeding key animal groups.

5 Conclusion

This study establishes a clear typology of mixed market gardening-livestock farms in the Bama municipality, identifying three distinct operational profiles: (i) market gardeners with extensive vegetable plots and relatively few animals, (ii) agro-pastoralists combining diverse livestock with both staple and vegetable crop production, and (iii) livestock farmers with large herds but minimal crop cultivation.

Across all farm types, vegetable crop residues (VCR) were systematically used as fodder, though their modes of utilization varied. Green bean haulms emerged as the most valued and widely used residue across all systems, particularly in barn feeding. Sweet potato vines were also highly appreciated, especially by market gardeners and livestock farmers. Eggplant stems were typically grazed fresh in the field. Cabbage leaves and green bean haulms were the most frequently stored residues and were notably used to support lactating cows.

The findings underscore the significant role of VCR in alleviating dry-season fodder shortages and improving nutrient cycling in mixed farming systems. They also reveal strong complementarities between vegetable production and livestock feeding strategies. Understanding these dynamics offers new opportunities for promoting circular resource use and enhancing the resilience and productivity of crop-livestock systems in West Africa. Further research on the nutritional composition of these residues would help optimize their use in livestock diets while contributing to climate-smart agriculture.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants [OR participants legal guardian/next of kin] provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

BO: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SO: Data curation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. PP: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. SS: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. DD: Validation, Writing – review & editing. OS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. HA: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This project has received funding from the ‘Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in (Agro-)Sylvopastoral Ecosystems in the Sahelian CILSS States’ (CaSSECS) project, funded by the European Union (DeSIRA programme, Grant Agreement No. FOOD/2019/410-169). Additional funding was provided by the ‘Projet de Recherche et Innovation pour des Systèmes agro-pastoraux productifs, résilients et sains en Afrique de l'Ouest’ (PRISMA) project, funded by LuxDev as part of the European Union’s DeSIRA initiative (Agreement BKF/801.222807-CIRAD).

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the valuable contributions of the data collectors and participating farmers. This study was made possible through the support of the “Carbon Sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions in (agro) Sylvopastoral Ecosystems in the sahelian CILSS States” (CaSSECS) regional project funded by the European Union.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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