ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Behav. Neurosci.
Sec. Learning and Memory
Volume 19 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1653783
Effectiveness of a Virtual Reality-Based Cognitive Training Program on Memory, Executive Functioning, and Processing Speed in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders: A quasi-experimental study
Provisionally accepted
- 1University of Coimbra, Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioural Intervention (CINEICC), Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- 2Center for Innovative Care and Health Technology (ciTechcare), Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal
- 3VillaRamadas International Treatment Centre, Research and Innovation Department, Leiria, Portugal
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Background: Cognitive deficits are frequently observed in individuals with Substance Use Disorders (SUD) and have been linked to poorer treatment outcomes and a heightened risk of relapse. We aim to study the effectiveness of a six-week virtual reality-based cognitive training Program (VRainSUD-VR) on neuropsychological outcomes, specifically memory, executive functioning, and processing speed, as well as on treatment dropout rates in individuals with SUD. We hypothesized that adding VRainSUD-VR to treatment as usual (TAU) would lead to greater cognitive improvements compared to TAU alone. As a secondary hypothesis, we expected VRainSUD-VR to reduce false memories relative to TAU. Methods: A non-randomized design with a control group, pre-and posttest assessments, and convenience sampling was employed. Patients (N = 47) were assigned to either the control group (CG), which received TAU (n = 22), or the experimental group (EG), which received VRainSUD-VR in addition to TAU (n = 25). Cognitive and treatment outcomes (e.g., dropout rates) were assessed at pre-and posttest. Results: Statistically significant time × group interactions were found for overall executive functioning (F(1, 75) = 20.05, p < .001) and global memory (F(1, 75) = 36.42, p < .001), indicating the effectiveness of VRainSUD-VR. No significant time × group interactions were found for most processing speed outcomes (p > .05). Conclusion: VRainSUD-VR could be integrated into residential programs to improve general executive functioning, perceptual reasoning, working memory including visual working memory, as well as different aspects of global memory such as visual, auditory, immediate, and delayed recall. Future studies should investigate the long-term effects of this intervention and consider additional potential mediating factors to understand better the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.
Keywords: substance use disorders, cogniEve training, virtual reality, VRrainSUD-VR, effecEveness, Memory, execuEve funcEons
Received: 25 Jun 2025; Accepted: 15 Aug 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Caetano, Pinho, Ramadas, Freire-Santos and Dixe. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Tânia Caetano, University of Coimbra, Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioural Intervention (CINEICC), Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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