Salma Khatibu1*
Gasper Kissoka2*- 1Institute of Development Studies, University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania
- 2Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania
Introduction: The adoption of Climate Information Services (CIS) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is critical for enhancing agricultural resilience amid escalating climate variability, yet equitable access remains hindered by systemic gender disparities and insufficient attention to intersectional factors. This review examines the dynamics in gender-responsive CIS adoption and use, emphasizing the neglect of intersecting social dimensions, which exacerbate barriers for marginalized women.
Methodology: A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature was conducted, focusing on studies addressing CIS adoption in SSA from 2014 to 2024. Sources were drawn from databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, CABI Abstracts, and Africa Portal. Qualitative and quantitative studies were analyzed to assess methodological approaches.
Key findings: Although gender is widely addressed in the reviewed literature, only 4 of the 19 studies (21%) explicitly analyzed more than one intersecting identity category. This demonstrates a substantial gap in intersectional evidence within CIS research, limiting understanding of compounded barriers faced by women who are constrained by asset scarcity and social exclusion. Resource barriers, such as limited access to mobile phones and radios, are acknowledged, but cost-effectiveness evidence of interventions like subsidized technologies are scarce. The lack of gender-disaggregated data hinders tailored CIS design.
Recommendations: Future research should prioritize in-depth, qualitative studies to explore how intersecting identities shape CIS access, employing participatory methods to capture cultural and social dynamics. These strategies aim to bridge gender gaps, enhance climate resilience, formulate gender inclusive policies and foster sustainable agricultural development in Sub-Saharan Africa.
1 Introduction
Climate change is an urgent global issue, destabilizing agricultural systems globally due to increasing temperatures, extreme weather phenomena, and modified precipitation patterns (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2024; Yuan et al., 2024). In 2024, the global mean temperature was 1.55 °C (±0.13 °C) above the pre-industrial average, marking it as the warmest year on record propelled by unparalleled fossil fuel emissions (Kennedy et al., 2024; Copernicus Climate Change Service [C3S] and World Meteorological Organization [WMO], 2025). This necessitates transformative strategies to enhance resilience in agricultural systems and an urgent requirement for adaptation measures to protect food security and livelihoods (UNICEF, 2023). Climate Information Services (CIS) have become valuable interventions to reduce production risks and bolster farmers’ resilience. In this review, CIS refer to the generation, translation, and dissemination of climate-related information tailored to support agricultural decision-making. CIS typically include three distinct components: weather information, which provides short-term forecasts such as daily or weekly rainfall and temperature; seasonal climate forecasts, which offer medium-term predictions on rainfall onset, cessation, and seasonal totals; and agro-meteorological advisories, which translate weather and seasonal information into actionable recommendations on planting, crop selection, fertilizer application, and other farm management decisions (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014). This facilitates informed decisions regarding crop management, irrigation, and resource allocation [World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2015].
The implementation of CIS is profoundly influenced by gender inequities, with systemic inequalities increasing women’s vulnerability to climate threats (Mapedza et al., 2022). Women represent 39.6% of the global agricultural workforce; however, they encounter systemic gender-related obstacles in accessing climate adaptation technologies, such as restricted digital access (e.g., only 57% of women utilized mobile internet in 2023 compared to 63% of men) and time limitations due to unpaid caregiving duties (Singh et al., 2025; ITU, 2023). The Global Gender Gap Report 2024 emphasizes enduring inequalities, revealing that global gender parity in economic participation stands at 70.7%, hence limiting women’s involvement in climate-resilient practices (GSMA, 2024; World Economic Forum, 2024). In low and middle-income countries (LMICs), these issues are exacerbated by limited access to resources and decision-making power, heightening women’s susceptibility to climatic effects (Okesanya et al., 2024). Tall et al. (2014) highlight that these barriers are shaped by social norms and limited resource control, with women farmers facing lower CIS adoption due to exclusion from decision-making and lack of communication technology ownership.
Over recent decades, Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced a marked increase in extreme weather events, a trend intensifying within the 2014–2024 review period. In 2024, this was exemplified by significant floods in South Sudan affecting the majority of local populations and severe droughts in Zambia and Zimbabwe reducing cereal yields, reflecting broader climate variability noted since the early 2000s (Ncube et al., 2024; Igwe, 2024; Du and Xiong, 2024; Kidane and Makonnen, 2024). Smallholder farmers, responsible for up to 80% of the region’s food production, are pivotal to food security, with women accounting for up to 75% of agricultural labor in several countries (Kapari et al., 2023; Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations [FAO], 2018; Matthew et al., 2022; Edafe et al., 2023; Nchanji et al., 2025). The pivotal role of women in agriculture necessitates their involvement with CIS to bolster regional resilience and fulfill Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 5 (Gender Equality) and 13 (Climate Action) (Kolovich and Newiak, 2024). Gender disparities, exacerbated by socio-economic, cultural, and institutional issues, present substantial obstacles to women’s effective access to and utilization of CIS (Folarin et al., 2021; Edafe et al., 2023; UNDP, 2025). In 2021, merely 42% of women in Sub-Saharan Africa utilized digital payments, in contrast to 55% of men, highlighting significant disparities in access to technology essential for the delivery of Cash Incentive Schemes (International Monetary Fund, 2024). Likewise, merely 36 out of 106 countries benefiting from the Climate Promise incorporated gender considerations in energy sector mitigation strategies within their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by 2025, highlighting an absence of gender-responsive policy frameworks (UNDP, 2025).
Despite the growing body of research on CIS in Sub-Saharan Africa, a thorough synthesis of gender dynamics related to CIS adoption is lacking. Current researches like Warner et al. (2022) and Mapedza et al. (2022) examines overarching climate adaptation strategies without a specific gender lens while, Vercillo et al. (2022) and Moosa and Tuana (2014) analyze the extent and quality of gender integration but does not specifically target CIS or agricultural information services. Similarly, Gumucio et al. (2020) focus on rural contexts globally, with some emphasis on Africa while lacking intersectional analysis as a core framework. All of these studies are dated before 2020 limiting its inclusion of recent CIS developments or data. Intersectional perspectives examining the interplay between gender and intersectional factors remain inadequately investigated, despite their significance for formulating inclusive adaptation solutions (Shafik, 2025; Zabaniotou et al., 2020; UNDP, 2025; Diabate et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2023). Recent dialogs highlight the necessity for gender-disaggregated data to guide policy, programs, strategies and underline women’s leadership in grassroots adaptation as a vital yet underexploited asset (Adhikari and Ghimire, 2025; Smith, 2025; Khatibu and Ngowi, 2025; Wright et al., 2024; Swaiss, 2024).
This systematic analysis seeks to examine the gender dynamics affecting the uptake of CIS by smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Utilizing the PRISMA framework, the review examines the subsequent research inquiries: What is the gender differences on CIS adoption status? What gender-specific factors affect men’s and women’s engagement with the adoption of CIS in Sub-Saharan Africa? What are the research deficiencies, specifically with intersectionality and the execution of policy? This review synthesizes peer-reviewed literature to present a regional perspective within a global framework, delivering evidence-based insights for policymakers, academics, and practitioners to formulate inclusive, gender-responsive climate adaptation strategies.
2 Methodology
This systematic review adheres to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to ensure a transparent and reproducible methodology (Page et al., 2021). The review aims to synthesize evidence on the gender dynamics influencing the adoption of climate information services among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) focusing on intersectional influences.
2.1 Eligibility criteria
Studies were selected based on strict inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure relevance and quality. Inclusion criteria included: (i) peer-reviewed articles or high-quality gray literature (e.g., reports from UNDP, FAO, CGIAR, or UN Women) published between 2014 and 2024, to capture the latest developments in CIS and gender research up to the present date; (ii) studies focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa, either region-wide or country-specific; (iii) studies explicitly addressing gender dynamics in CIS adoption among smallholder farmers, including quantitative (e.g., adoption rates, factors) or qualitative (e.g., policy implications) data; (iv) studies employing qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods designs; and (v) studies published in English to ensure accessibility. Exclusion criteria comprised: (i) studies conducted outside Sub-Saharan Africa; (ii) studies lacking an explicit gender focus; (iii) non-empirical studies (e.g., opinion pieces, editorials); (iv) studies not addressing CIS or closely related climate adaptation strategies; and (v) studies published before 2014. These criteria ensured a focused dataset aligned with the study’s objectives, with the 2014–2024 timeframe. The 2014–2024 timeframe selected to reflect the maturation of CIS key milestones in Africa such as the Climate Services Partnership (CSP) establishment in 2011, the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) adaptation focus for Africa in 2012, and the Climate Services for Resilient Development (CSRD) Partnership launch in 2017 (Kijazi et al., 2021; Wilke and Wright, 2015; World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2015). This period, starting in 2014, captures the scaling of mobile-based CIS and the rise of gender-focused research, ensuring relevance to current trends and robust data availability.
2.2 Search strategy
A systematic literature search was conducted across multiple academic and gray literature databases to identify relevant studies, ensuring a robust evidence base. Academic databases included Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, CABI Abstracts, and Africa Portal, selected for their extensive coverage of agricultural, climate, and African regional research. Gray literature was sourced from authoritative repositories, including the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Gender and Environment Data Alliance (GEDA), UN Women, and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) registry. Search strings were constructed using Boolean operators to capture the intersection of gender, CIS, and Sub-Saharan African contexts. An example search string for Web of Science was: TS = (gender OR women OR female OR “gender dynamics”) AND TS = (“climate information services” OR “weather forecast” OR “climate adaptation” OR WCIS) AND TS = (“Sub-Saharan Africa” OR Africa OR Kenya OR Senegal OR Ethiopia OR Ghana OR Nigeria OR Tanzania OR Rwanda OR Uganda etc.). Filters restricted results to peer-reviewed articles, reports, and publications from 2014–2024. Search terms were adapted for each to maximize coverage. Hand-searching reference lists of included articles and relevant reviews identified additional studies. The search yielded 53,341 records, as detailed in the PRISMA flowchart (Figure 1), with 19 studies ultimately included. All searches were last run on 13th March, 2025.
Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram for study selection.
2.3 Study selection
The study selection process followed a two-stage screening approach, adhering to PRISMA guidelines to ensure objectivity and minimize bias. As illustrated in the PRISMA flowchart (Figure 1), the initial 53,341 records were reduced through systematic exclusions: 12,433 duplicates were removed, along with 18,231 records deemed ineligible by Endnote software automated filter on date or publication type and 22,403 for other reasons such as irrelevance to the core topic, review papers. Of the remaining 274 screened records, 213 were excluded primarily due to lack of focus on Sub-Saharan Africa, irrelevance to gender dynamics in CIS, non-peer-reviewed status, or non-English language. Full-text assessment of 61 articles led to further exclusions of 42 (27 outside the 2014–2024 range and 15 inaccessible due to due to paywall restrictions), lack of institutional access, or unavailability despite efforts (e.g., interlibrary loans, author contacts), resulting in 19 included studies that strictly met our eligibility criteria for addressing intersectional gender influences on CIS adoption among smallholder farmers. To enhance reliability, a second reviewer independently screened 20% of the titles and abstracts, achieving an inter-rater agreement rate of 95% and a Cohen’s kappa coefficient of 0.82, indicating strong inter-rater reliability. Any disagreements were resolved through structured discussion and consensus between the reviewers. Discrepancies were resolved through structured discussions, revisiting eligibility criteria to ensure consistency.
2.4 Data extraction and synthesis
Data extraction was conducted using a standardized template that was piloted on five studies to ensure consistency and thoroughness in capturing relevant information. The template encompassed several key components: (i) study characteristics, including author, publication year, country, study design, sample size, and methodology; (ii) gender-specific findings related to the adoption of CIS, categorized into five thematic areas: (a) access to information, (b) resource constraints, (c) socio-cultural (d) institutional and policy factors, and (e) intersectional influences; and (iii) study limitations and quality indicators, including methodological rigor and sample representativeness. Both quantitative data and qualitative insights from focus groups, interviews, and surveys were extracted. The pilot phase allowed for refinement of the template to ensure that intersectional factors were explicitly captured, enhancing the depth of data collection. To ensure accuracy, a second reviewer cross-checked 20% of the extracted data, resolving minor discrepancies through consensus to bolster reliability. For data synthesis, a narrative synthesis approach, as outlined by Popay et al. (2006), was employed due to the heterogeneity in study designs and outcomes, including adoption rates and intersectional factors. This method facilitated a structured integration of diverse findings while addressing the complexities of gender dynamics.
2.5 Quality assessment
The quality of the 19 included studies was critically assessed using established tools to ensure methodological rigor and reliability. Qualitative and mixed-methods studies were evaluated using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist, assessing clarity of objectives, appropriateness of methodology, rigor of data collection and depth of gender analysis (Casp, 2018). Quantitative studies were appraised using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS), focusing on selection, comparability, and outcome measures (Wells et al., 2014). Additional criteria assessed the depth of intersectional analysis and policy relevance. Studies were categorized as high (with robust gender-disaggregated data), moderate (with limited intersectional focus), or low quality, with all eligible studies included to ensure comprehensiveness. Quality scores informed the narrative synthesis, with high-quality studies weighted more heavily.
2.6 Ethical considerations
As no primary data collection involving human participants was conducted, ethical approval was not required. Ethical principles were upheld by ensuring transparency in the selection process, acknowledging study limitations, and accurately representing findings to avoid bias or misrepresentation. Gray literature from reputable sources (e.g., CGIAR, UN Women) was rigorously vetted for credibility to minimize publication bias. All sources were cited appropriately to maintain academic integrity and avoid plagiarism. Potential funding biases in gray literature were considered during quality assessment to ensure impartial synthesis.
2.7 Limitations
While the study effectively highlights several critical aspects, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations. The exclusive focus on English-language research may have overlooked valuable insights from studies in French or Portuguese, particularly relevant in West and Southern Africa. This linguistic restriction could hinder a comprehensive understanding of the context. Additionally, the emphasis on Sub-Saharan Africa, while aligned with the study’s goals, restricts the applicability of findings to other regions. The inclusion of gray literature introduced variability in methodological quality, although efforts were made to prioritize reputable sources and conduct rigorous quality assessments.
3 Results
This section highlights the key findings of the study, providing a concise overview of the evidence gathered. It focuses on the insights derived from the analysis of gender dynamics in CIS adoption. These findings serve as a foundation for informing future research and policy recommendations.
3.1 Publication trends on gender dynamics and climate information services
Based on the publication trend from 2014 to 2024, from 19 studies, the data suggests that research activity in the area under study has been inconsistent, with notable periods of both stagnation and growth. The initial years (2014–2016) show minimal output, implying either limited interest, resource constraints, or lack of established focus on the topic during that time. From 2017 to 2020, there was a gradual increase and stabilization in the number of studies, signaling a growing recognition of the subject’s importance. The sharp peak in 2021, with five publications, likely reflects heightened attention or external drivers such as policy reforms, global debates, or emerging challenges that made the subject more relevant. However, the subsequent decline in 2022 and the complete absence of publications in 2023 suggest challenges such as reduced funding, shifting priorities, or fatigue in sustaining interest. Encouragingly, the rebound in 2024 with three publications demonstrates renewed engagement, pointing to a potential resurgence of scholarly attention and opportunities for future research to build on prior momentum (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Publication trends on gender dynamics and climate information services (n = 19).
3.2 Adoption rates of climate information services in Sub-Saharan Africa
This section presents the results of studies from various countries comparing the adoption rates and extent of use of CIS between men and women smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis focuses on quantitative and qualitative differences in adoption rates, preferred CIS types and dissemination channels. Table 1 summarizes these findings explaining the differences in adoption and use. The findings demonstrate significant gender disparities in the adoption rates and extent of CIS use among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. The findings show that men consistently exhibit higher adoption rates. Women, however, face lower adoption rates. Preferred CIS types differ, with women prioritizing information relevant to their agricultural roles, such as rainy season onset or weather forecasts, while men seek early warning systems and advisory services. Dissemination channels reflect these disparities, with women favoring accessible, non-digital channels like rural radios and community networks, while men use diverse channels, including internet and public meetings. The extent of CIS use in decision-making is greater among men, who leverage CIS for sowing, crop selection, and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adoption, while women’s use is constrained by limited autonomy and access.
Table 1. Ten key studies on gender and climate information services in Sub-Saharan Africa.
3.3 Intersectional factors influencing CIS uptake among smallholder farmers in SSA
The adoption of CIS among women in various African countries is critically shaped by a complex interplay of factors, including access to information, resource availability, entrenched social norms, institutional biases, and socio-economic conditions. Research indicates that women frequently encounter significant barriers to accessing essential communication tools such as mobile phones, radio, and agricultural extension services, which are vital for obtaining CIS. Economic inequalities further complicate this issue, as women often grapple with financial limitations and restricted land ownership, impeding their ability to invest in necessary resources. In contrast, men typically enjoy greater financial control, resulting in a pronounced gender disparity in the acquisition of CIS tools. Moreover, institutional and policy shortcomings exacerbate these gender inequities. Extension services that favor male farmers and the lack of gender-sensitive CIS programs create additional obstacles for women, highlighting the urgent need for policy reforms that emphasize gender equity in the development and implementation of CIS. Additionally, factors such as ethnicity and age further contribute to the disparities in CIS access. Women from marginalized ethnic groups often face procedural inequalities, while younger men are more likely to adopt digital CIS due to their tech-savviness, leaving older women reliant on traditional knowledge brokers. These findings are presented in the Table 1.
4 Discussion
This section presents the discussion of key data collected from the studies, offering a detailed examination of the evidence on gender dynamics in Climate Information Services adoption. It focuses on quantitative and qualitative insights gathered across various Sub-Saharan African contexts. These data points provide a robust basis for shaping future research directions and policy interventions.
4.1 Adoption rates of climate information services among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa
The analysis of CIS adoption rates across SSA reveals a persistent trend of male predominance, largely attributed to structural advantages in resource access and decision-making power. For example, research by Diouf et al. (2019) in Senegal indicates a significant higher number of men utilizing CIS compared to women. In Ghana, Partey et al. (2018) found that while awareness of CIS was nearly equal among male (49.8%) and female (50.2%) farmers, men demonstrated markedly higher adoption rates, a disparity linked to their control over assets and greater interaction with formal information sources. Similarly, Onyeneke et al. (2022) reported that in Nigeria, 89% of farmers engaged with CIS, with men dominating this usage due to their superior financial resources and social networks. These findings reflect entrenched patriarchal systems that favor men’s access to technology and information, thereby marginalizing women who encounter economic barriers and restrictive gender norms. This disparity in CIS use not only limits women’s capacity to adapt to climate variability but also exacerbates their vulnerability, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions such as subsidized access to devices and women-centric extension services to promote equity.
Furthermore, the role of CIS in decision-making illustrates these gender disparities. Men tend to utilize CIS more effectively for crucial agricultural decisions. In Kenya, Ngigi and Muange (2022) noted that 38% of women and 30% of men felt that CIS met their needs, revealing an unusual gender pattern where women reported higher satisfaction. This 8% difference may reflect women’s greater perceived utility of CIS, potentially due to targeted interventions addressing their specific agricultural challenges. Despite this trend, this study reported that men were more likely to use services for adopting climate-smart agricultural practices, such as selecting resilient crop varieties (Ngigi and Muange, 2022). In Senegal, Ouedraogo et al. (2021) found that 80% of men used CIS for sowing decisions compared to 60% of women, reflecting men’s greater household authority. In Nigeria, Onyeneke et al. (2022) noted that 88% of farmers, predominantly men, applied CIS to crop selection, enabling more robust climate adaptation strategies.
Gender differences in preferred CIS types are closely tied to the gendered division of agricultural labor, with women prioritizing information relevant to their roles, such as planting decisions, while men seek broader risk management tools. In Senegal, Diouf et al. (2019) found that 95% of women prioritized rainy season onset information, essential for crop planning, compared to 90% of men, who favored early warning systems for managing climate risks. In Kenya, Ngigi and Muange (2022) reported that men accessed early warning systems at a rate of 38% compared to 30% for women, while women showed a stronger preference for weather forecasts aligned with their responsibilities. Similarly, in Malawi, Henriksson et al. (2021) observed that men sought advisory services for strategic planning, whereas women focused on seasonal forecasts critical for planting. This divergence highlights how gendered roles shape CIS preferences, with women’s focus on immediate, task-specific information reflecting their limited agency in broader decision-making.
Dissemination channels play a pivotal role in exacerbating gender disparities, as women’s limited access to digital technologies drives their reliance on non-digital platforms. In Senegal for example, Diouf et al. (2019) noted that 46% of women preferred rural radios compared to 39% of men, reflecting women’s restricted access to mobile phones and internet. In Malawi, Henriksson et al. (2021) found that women depended on knowledge brokers, such as community leaders, while men utilized digital channels like internet and cell phones. In Tanzania, Khatibu et al. (2021) reported that women relied on community radio and social groups, whereas men accessed CIS through community meetings, extension officers, and Short Massage Services (SMS). These differences stem from women’s limited mobility, time constraints due to domestic responsibilities, and lack of device ownership, which contrast with men’s greater access to diverse and often digital channels. Expanding accessible channels, such as community radio or women’s groups, is essential to ensure equitable dissemination and improve women’s CIS uptake.
Gendered barriers to Climate Information Service (CIS) uptake vary significantly across delivery channels, as demonstrated by multiple studies. Radio remains the most accessible channel for women, yet disparities persist; for example, Diouf et al. (2019) found that 46% of women in Senegal accessed radio-based CIS compared to 54% of men due to male control over radio ownership and listening time, while Sandstrom and Strapasson (2017) reported similar restrictions among pastoralist women in northern Tanzania. SMS-based CIS disproportionately benefits men because of higher male mobile phone ownership and digital literacy, with Partey et al. (2020) showing that 68% of men in Ghana owned mobile phones compared to only 32% of women. Diallo and Dossou-Yovo (2024) noting a wider gap in Mali where 70% of men accessed SMS advisories versus 30% of women. Voice-based IVR systems can reduce literacy barriers but remain inequitably accessed, as Ouya F. et al. (2024) observed in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, where younger men navigated IVR menus more easily while older and low-literacy women struggled due to limited phone ownership and airtime costs. Face-to-face extension services reveal the widest gender gap, with Henriksson et al. (2021) reporting that majority of Malawian men engaged with extension agents compared to women. Diouf et al. (2019) noting similar disparities in Senegal (65% men vs. 35% women). Even participatory approaches show unequal engagement; Ouedraogo et al. (2021) found that while such platforms increased women’s CIS awareness in Senegal, younger women and minority ethnic groups often remained silent due to cultural norms, and Khatibu et al. (2021) observed that Tanzanian women benefited from receiving CIS through women’s groups but continued to face mobility and time constraints.
4.2 Intersectional factors for CIS adoption among smallholder farmers in SSA
The adoption of CIS among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is profoundly shaped by different intersectional factors. These factors create significant disparities in access, utilization, and effectiveness of CIS, with critical implications for climate change adaptations and resilience to climate variability. Drawing on peer-reviewed evidence, this discussion analyzes these factors, highlighting their underlying mechanisms, interconnections, and the urgent need for targeted interventions to address inequities.
Access to information is a foundational determinant of CIS uptake, yet it is deeply gendered, reflecting systemic inequities in resource distribution and social structures. Studies such as Ngigi et al. (2017), Djido et al. (2021), and Diallo and Dossou-Yovo et al. (2024) demonstrate that women in SSA face significant barriers to accessing CIS due to limited ownership of mobile phones and radios, restricted engagement with extension services, and lower participation in community forecasting networks. For example, in Kenya, Ngigi and Muange (2022) and Tanzania, Khatibu et al. (2021) largely due to their exclusion from formal information channels like public meetings, which men dominate. Conversely, men leverage digital platforms such as the internet and cell phones, as noted in Ghana by Sarku et al. (2021) Partey et al. (2020). This disparity is compounded by women’s limited access to social media, which restricts their exposure to real-time CIS updates. These barriers reflect broader patriarchal structures that prioritize men’s access to technology and information, necessitating interventions like rural radio campaigns or community-based dissemination tailored to women’s preferences.
Resource constraints significantly hinder the adoption of CIS, particularly for women, who encounter economic disadvantages stemming from gendered asset distribution. Research by Ngigi et al. (2017), Onyeneke et al. (2022), and Carr and Onzere (2018) indicates that women’s restricted access to financial resources, credit, and land ownerships limits their ability to obtain essential CIS tools, such as mobile phones and radios, which are crucial for receiving weather forecasts and advisories. In Ghana, Partey et al. (2020) reveal that men’s control over financial assets allows them to invest in CIS technologies, while women, often economically dependent, must rely on shared or borrowed devices. This situation is further complicated in Mali, where women’s smaller farm sizes and lack of land ownership hinder their ability to implement CIS-informed practices (Carr and Onzere, 2018). Education also plays a critical role in adoption of CIS whereby, higher literacy rates among men enhance their understanding of CIS, whereas lower educational attainment among women restricts their adoption (Ngigi and Muange, 2022). Moreover, farmer groups play a crucial role in enhancing social capital, particularly for women in Tanzania and Senegal, who gain from peer support and training opportunities (Khatibu et al., 2021; Ouedraogo et al., 2021). However, participation in these groups is frequently constrained by prevailing gender norms.
Patriarchal social norms significantly hinder the adoption of CIS, demoting women to domestic roles and severely restricting their influence in agricultural decision-making. Research by Ngigi et al. (2017), Diouf et al. (2019), Mapedza et al. (2022) and Fikadu et al. (2024) highlight how cultural expectations in countries like Senegal and Ethiopia prioritize male farmers for training and access to CIS, effectively sidelining women from public forums where crucial information is shared. For example, Ouedraogo et al. (2021) reveal that women’s domestic responsibilities in Senegal curtail their mobility, preventing them from participating in public meetings, while men attend freely. This gender disparity is further reflected in the differing preferences for CIS; women tend to seek information about rainy season onset for crop planning, whereas men are more interested in early warning systems (Diouf et al., 2019). Such preferences stress the entrenched gender roles within agriculture, which not only limit women’s access to information but also erode their confidence and authority to act on it, as household dynamics often dictate their decision-making power. To address these entrenched gender inequities, there is a pressing need for gender-sensitive initiatives that confront patriarchal structures.
Institutional and policy gaps exacerbate gender disparities in CIS uptake by perpetuating male-biased delivery systems and neglecting women’s specific needs. Ngigi et al. (2017), Tall et al. (2014), and Onyeneke et al. (2022) highlight that extension services in countries like Kenya and Nigeria are often designed with male farmers in mind, limiting women’s access to CIS training and advisories. In Mali, Carr and Owusu-Daaku (2016) noted that institutional biases in CIS design favor men, with delivery methods like mobile apps or public workshops often inaccessible to women due to low digital literacy or mobility constraints. Furthermore, the absence of gender-responsive CIS programs, as observed in Senegal by Ouedraogo et al. (2021), fails to address women’s unique information needs, such as simplified formats or localized content. These institutional shortcomings reflect a broader failure to integrate gender equity into agricultural policy frameworks, allowing systemic biases to persist. Policy reforms that mandate gender-responsive CIS design, prioritize women’s training, and leverage accessible channels like radio are essential to rectify these gaps.
Women with marginalized identities, such as those with disabilities or displaced populations, face compounded barriers to CIS access, further entrenching their vulnerability. Ahmed and Eklund (2024) and Haworth et al. (2022) found that women with disabilities have minimal CIS access due to social exclusion, asset scarcity, and domestic constraints. Similarly, in Tanzania, marginalized women face barriers due to lack of resources and exclusion from community networks (Sandstrom and Strapasson, 2017; Khatibu et al., 2021). These findings emphasize the intersectional nature of marginalization, where gender, disability, and socio-economic status converge to create unique challenges. The failure to address these compounded barriers risks leaving the most vulnerable farmers without access to critical climate information.
4.3 Gender integration in CIS-related policies and programs in Sub-Saharan Africa
The reviewed studies provide an in-depth assessment of how gender considerations are integrated into CIS-related policies, programs, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and broader climate adaptation frameworks across Sub-Saharan Africa. This section synthesizes these findings, examining both progress and persistent challenges, while highlighting critical insights for achieving gender-responsive CIS delivery that enhances agricultural resilience and equity.
There is growing recognition among Sub-Saharan African countries of the importance of gender integration in climate change policy, particularly in relation to CIS. By 2023, several countries had updated their NDCs to include gender-responsive adaptation commitments, with varying degrees of specificity and implementation clarity (Herrera et al., 2025; Ouya T. O. et al., 2024; Khoza, 2022; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2024). For example, Nigeria’s National Action Plan on Gender and Climate Change and Malawi’s establishment of a National Technical Committee with gender representation signal a proactive policy shift toward gender mainstreaming (Khoza, 2022; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2024). These initiatives acknowledge the differentiated climate vulnerabilities experienced by women and recognize their pivotal roles in agriculture and community-based adaptation.
Practical CIS applications also show gender sensitivity in delivery channels and content. In Senegal, seasonal climate forecasts have been tailored to women’s information needs particularly regarding rainfall onset, which is crucial for planting decisions (Diouf et al., 2019). In Kenya and Tanzania, adaptation strategies deliberately promote community radio as a preferred medium for women, given its accessibility and ease of use in rural settings (Ngigi and Muange, 2022; Khatibu et al., 2021; Sandstrom and Strapasson, 2017). Meanwhile, Uganda’s inclusion of gender-disaggregated data in its NDC implementation framework enhances the ability to monitor and evaluate the differentiated impacts of CIS, providing a valuable model for other countries (Ouya T. O. et al., 2024). These initiatives reflect a growing understanding that gender-responsive CIS is not only equitable but also essential to increase effectiveness and uptake of climate services, as argued by Tall et al. (2014).
However, despite these encouraging developments, several limitations persist that constrain the transformative potential of gender integration in CIS-related policies. A common shortfall lies in the lack of actionable strategies within many NDCs and policy documents. While gender is often referenced, concrete mechanisms for implementation, monitoring, and resource allocation are frequently absent (Kayusi et al., 2024; Ngigi and Muange, 2022; Aura et al., 2017). For instance, although Nigeria’s NDC acknowledges women’s central role in agriculture, it lacks clear budgeting frameworks or operational plans to improve women’s access to CIS (Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2024).
Institutional capacity also remains a significant barrier. In Tanzania, for example, institutional structures tasked with CIS dissemination lack sufficient training and resources to design gender-specific programs, and generalized outreach often fails to reach or resonate with women (Sandstrom and Strapasson, 2017; Khatibu et al., 2021). Ghana’s policies similarly recognize the importance of women’s involvement but fall short in delivering tailored training or support to facilitate women’s effective use of CIS tools (Antwi-Agyei and Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2021). Moreover, gender-disaggregated data, critical for designing responsive and targeted interventions, remains largely absent in most SSA countries, with Uganda being a notable exception (Ouya T. O. et al., 2024; Yegbemey et al., 2024). In Benin, for example, persistent gaps in awareness and use of CIS among women stem from a failure to understand and incorporate their specific information needs (Yegbemey et al., 2024).
Additionally, structural barriers to access, such as limited ownership of mobile phones and radios among women, are rarely addressed within policy frameworks (Partey et al., 2018; Onyeneke et al., 2022). This oversight undermines the equity and effectiveness of CIS, especially in rural areas where digital and communication infrastructure is already weak. As Carr and Onzere (2018) argue, many African climate policies treat gender integration superficially, emphasizing rhetorical commitments without embedding enforceable, context-sensitive measures to challenge systemic inequalities.
The reviewed literature also emphasizes the intersectionality of gender with other axes of marginalization such as poverty, low education levels, and social exclusion. These overlapping vulnerabilities often result in compounded disadvantages for women, particularly those who are disabled, displaced, or belong to minority communities. Yet, CIS-related policies and programs frequently fail to account for these layered forms of marginalization. For instance, while women’s limited asset ownership (e.g., mobile phones, radios) constrains access to CIS, few policies incorporate budgeted interventions to bridge this gap (Khoza, 2022; Partey et al., 2018). Furthermore, lower literacy levels among women inhibit their ability to interpret technical climate data, yet there is minimal investment in simplified, context-specific communication or capacity-building (Ngigi and Muange, 2022; Henriksson et al., 2021).
Marginalized groups, such as displaced women and those with disabilities, remain particularly invisible in CIS planning, despite evidence of their heightened climate vulnerability (Khatibu et al., 2021; Ouya T. O. et al., 2024). This exclusion reflects a broader failure to adopt inclusive planning processes that are attuned to intersectional needs. Moreover, the persistent underrepresentation of women in decision-making positions within CIS initiatives, often shaped by cultural norms and inadequate training, further limits the ability of these services to reflect and serve women’s priorities (Sarku et al., 2025; Khatibu et al., 2021).
While there has been commendable progress in integrating gender into CIS-related policies and NDCs across Sub-Saharan Africa, these efforts remain constrained by implementation gaps, limited institutional capacity, and a lack of intersectional approaches. To move beyond symbolic inclusion, policies must embed concrete, measurable, and well-resourced gender strategies, strengthen data systems, and ensure that women, including those from marginalized groups, are not only recipients but co-designers and leaders in CIS delivery. Doing so is essential not just for equity, but for the overall effectiveness and sustainability of climate adaptation efforts in the region.
4.4 Opportunities for enhanced gender integration
The integration of gender considerations into Climate Information Services represents more than a technical improvement, it is a transformative approach with the potential to significantly enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers, particularly women, across Sub-Saharan Africa. Evidence from diverse studies reveals persistent gender-based disparities in access to and use of CIS, rooted in systemic social, economic, and institutional barriers. These findings underscore the urgent need for policymakers to adopt strategies that are not only gender-sensitive but also intersectional, data-driven, and community-centered. By doing so, CIS frameworks can become more equitable, inclusive, and effective in addressing the diverse needs of vulnerable populations.
A key opportunity for enhancing gender integration in CIS lies in the systematic collection and application of gender-disaggregated data. Such data allows policymakers to monitor the differentiated impacts of CIS on men and women and to tailor interventions accordingly. For example, in Uganda, gender-disaggregated data has revealed specific barriers such as women’s lower digital literacy that have hindered their access to climate information. In response, simplified forecasts tailored to women’s needs were developed, improving their ability to make informed farming decisions (Ouya T. O. et al., 2024). Uduji and Okolo-Obasi (2024) further argue that scaling such data-informed approaches across the region could significantly enhance the effectiveness of CIS policies. However, the success of this approach depends on institutional capacities for data management and the implementation of safeguards to protect privacy and prevent marginalization, particularly of rural women from ethnic minorities. Recent toolkits by organizations such as UN Women (2025) offer practical frameworks for integrating gender data into national climate strategies, particularly in agriculture where women are key contributors.
Another promising opportunity involves leveraging the potential of women’s organizations and community-based networks to improve the accessibility and relevance of CIS. These platforms can serve as vital channels for delivering localized training, disseminating climate information, and supporting peer-to-peer learning. In Tanzania, women’s farmer groups have played a crucial role in increasing CIS uptake by facilitating localized interpretations of climate forecasts (Khatibu et al., 2021). Similarly, in Senegal, community radio programs coordinated through women’s networks have proven effective in overcoming mobility-related constraints imposed by patriarchal norms (Ouedraogo et al., 2021). These networks not only provide access to information but also strengthen social capital and build collective agency.
The integration of indigenous knowledge systems with scientific CIS represents another culturally relevant and underutilized opportunity. Many women in SSA rely on traditional ecological knowledge such as changes in animal behavior, plant phenology, or local folklore to anticipate weather changes. By combining this experiential knowledge with scientific forecasts, more accessible and trusted CIS can be created. In Senegal, for instance, the integration of local folklore into seasonal forecasting has improved women’s decision-making around planting and harvesting (Diouf et al., 2019). This approach not only builds legitimacy and trust in CIS but also addresses the techno-centric biases that often exclude women. However, it is vital that this integration be approached respectfully to avoid the appropriation or dilution of indigenous practices. Co-design processes involving female elders and traditional knowledge holders are essential to ensure that such initiatives remain culturally grounded and community-owned.
Addressing resource disparities through targeted economic empowerment initiatives is also essential to facilitate women’s access to and use of CIS. As noted by Partey et al. (2018), women’s limited control over technology such as mobile phones and radios constrains their ability to receive timely climate information. Policy solutions may include community-shared technologies, device subsidies, or digital skills training. In Mali, for example, a pilot project providing subsidized radios to women’s cooperatives led to increased compliance with weather advisories and improved crop yields (Carr and Onzere, 2018). However, these interventions must be embedded in broader, long-term gender-responsive financing frameworks to ensure sustainability. Without consistent funding, subsidies may disproportionately benefit better-off farmers, exacerbating inequalities.
Furthermore, to address the persistent evidence gaps identified in this review, we recommend that all publicly funded or donor-supported CIS initiatives mandate the collection of gender- and intersectionality-disaggregated indicators from the design stage onward. Such indicators should capture not only sex, but also age, marital status, literacy level, household power relations, ethnicity, and disability status. Integrating these metrics into routine monitoring systems is low-cost, enhances accountability, and would rapidly strengthen the empirical evidence base needed for equitable and gender-responsive climate services.
4.5 Research gaps in intersectionality and gender-responsive policy implementation for CIS in Sub-Saharan Africa
A review of studies from SSA highlights a foundational understanding of gender dynamics in CIS, while revealing significant gaps in intersectional analysis and gender-responsive policy implementation. Although gender is recognized as crucial for CIS uptake, many studies overlook how it intersects with other social factors like ethnicity and disability, limiting insights into the barriers faced by marginalized groups. For instance, women with disabilities in East Africa face severe challenges accessing CIS due to social exclusion and asset scarcity. The literature also lacks depth in analyzing the long-term impacts of gender-responsive CIS on women’s resilience and agricultural productivity, often focusing on short-term indicators rather than sustainable improvements.
Moreover, the cost-effectiveness of gender-responsive CIS interventions is rarely evaluated, undermining the scalability of proposed solutions. The absence of gender-disaggregated data further hampers the development of effective policies, as all reviewed studies do not systematically analyze such data, limiting the ability to tailor services to women’s needs. Additionally, while some countries have included gender equity goals in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), weak enforcement and inadequate institutional support hinder meaningful implementation.
The integration of indigenous knowledge systems into scientific CIS, particularly regarding gender equity, is another underexplored area. Many rural women rely on traditional forecasting methods, yet the potential for combining these with scientific knowledge remains largely untapped. Lastly, the role of women’s leadership in CIS programs is insufficiently studied, despite evidence that their participation enhances access to services. Future research should focus on these gaps, employing qualitative methodologies and longitudinal studies to provide comprehensive insights that inform scalable, evidence-based policies.
5 Conclusion
The systematic review of gender dynamics in CIS adoption among smallholder farmers in SSA underscores the critical need for gender-responsive strategies to enhance agricultural resilience in the face of climate change. The findings reveal significant gender disparities in CIS adoption, with men consistently exhibiting higher usage rates due to systemic barriers that women face, including limited access to technology, financial resources, and decision-making power. Intersectional factors, such as socio-economic status, age, and marginalized identities, further complicate these disparities, highlighting the urgent need for tailored interventions that address the unique challenges faced by women, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds.
To bridge these gaps, future research should focus on qualitative studies that explore experiences of women in accessing CIS, employing participatory methods to capture the cultural and social dynamics at play. Policymakers must prioritize the integration of gender-disaggregated data into CIS design and implementation, ensuring that programs are responsive to the specific needs of women and marginalized groups. This includes developing accessible dissemination channels, providing targeted training, and fostering women’s leadership in agricultural decision-making processes.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Author contributions
SK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. GK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Keywords: climate adaptation, climate information services (CIS), gender dynamics, gender-responsive policies in CIS, intersectionality, smallholder farmers, Sub-Saharan Africa
Citation: Khatibu S and Kissoka G (2025) Gender dynamics in climate information services: a systematic review of intersectional influences and strategies for smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Front. Clim. 7:1681671. doi: 10.3389/fclim.2025.1681671
Edited by:
Diriba Korecha Dadi, University of California, Santa Barbara, United StatesReviewed by:
Maya Moore, Columbia University, United StatesEdwin Ngowi, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania
Copyright © 2025 Khatibu and Kissoka. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Salma Khatibu, c2FsbWEua2lmaWxlQHVkb20uYWMudHo=; Gasper Kissoka, Z2FzcGVyLm1pY2hhZWxAdWRvbS5hYy50eg==