REVIEW article
Front. Neurol.
Sec. Experimental Therapeutics
Volume 16 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fneur.2025.1661049
This article is part of the Research TopicNon-Invasive Brain Stimulation: From Basic Science to Clinical ApplicationView all articles
Beyond the Surface: A Review of Transcranial Temporal Interference Stimulation for Deep Brain Modulation
Provisionally accepted
- 1The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- 2University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- 3Perspectum Ltd, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Temporal Interference (TI) stimulation has emerged as a novel, non-invasive technique for selectively modulating deep brain regions while minimising stimulation of superficial cortical layers, addressing key limitations of traditional transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) methods. This review systematically examines advancements in TI research from June 2017 to December 2024, encompassing safety evaluations, computational modelling (including Finite Element Method simulations), and stimulation-parameter optimisation. The paper synthesises 63 publications on the efficacy of TI in deep brain neuromodulation, its optimisation strategies, and emerging methodologies aimed at improving stimulation precision and reducing off-target effects. Furthermore, the review explores the clinical applications of TI, particularly its potential in treating neurological disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and cognitive impairments. Despite its promise, challenges remain, including variability in stimulation outcomes, the need for individualised treatment protocols, and gaps in understanding the long-term effects of TI. By consolidating current knowledge and identifying future research priorities, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the transformative potential of TI stimulation in neuroscience and clinical neurotherapeutics.
Keywords: Non-invasive deep brain stimulation, Temporal Interference Stimulation, Interferential stimulation, interfering electric fields, temporal interference stimulation (TIS), interferential current stimulation, transcranial temporal interference stimulation (tTIS)
Received: 07 Jul 2025; Accepted: 15 Aug 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Ivanov, Toth, Mandali, Salvati and Arvaneh. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Boyan Ivanov, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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