REVIEW article
Front. Surg.
Sec. Reconstructive and Plastic Surgery
Volume 12 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fsurg.2025.1678935
This article is part of the Research TopicExploring Precision Medicine in Reconstructive and Aesthetic SurgeryView all 6 articles
Temporalis Muscle Flap in Craniofacial Reconstruction: Anatomy, Techniques, Outcomes, and Innovations
Provisionally accepted
- 1State School of Higher Professional Education in Płock, Płock, Poland
- 2Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Background: The temporalis muscle flap (TMF) remains an essential reconstructive option in contemporary craniofacial reconstructive surgery (CRS) owing to its reliable vascularity, anatomical proximity to common defect areas, and substantial soft tissue volume. Despite extensive historical use, evolving surgical approaches and novel adjunctive technologies necessitate an updated comprehensive review to guide current clinical practice. Objective: This review critically examines the TMF regarding its anatomical considerations, surgical innovations, clinical outcomes, and functional restoration capacities. Additional objectives include a detailed assessment of clinical complications, identification of existing gaps in knowledge, and evidence-based comparisons with alternative reconstructive techniques. Methods: An extensive literature review was conducted utilizing current high-quality publications, including systematic reviews, clinical series, cadaveric anatomical studies, and reports detailing innovative techniques from major surgical journals. Specific emphasis was placed on the latest minimally invasive, endoscopic, and robotic-assisted approaches, alongside novel tissue engineering methodologies and virtual surgical planning (VSP). Clinical outcomes, complication rates, patient satisfaction levels, and comparative analyses with alternative reconstructive flaps, including free tissue transfers and other regional flaps, were rigorously assessed. Conclusion: TMF remains a versatile, robust, and highly reliable reconstructive option within modern craniofacial surgery. Anatomical knowledge, meticulous surgical technique, and incorporation of emerging adjunctive technologies significantly enhance outcomes while minimizing morbidity. Continued research into minimally invasive techniques, regenerative medicine, functional restoration through advanced nerve transfers, and secondary refinement procedures is essential to further improve clinical efficacy, patient satisfaction, and overall quality of life.
Keywords: Temporalis muscle flap, Craniofacial reconstruction, vascular anatomy, Facial reanimation, Temporal hollowing, Surgical anatomy, virtual surgical planning, Dynamic muscle transfer
Received: 03 Aug 2025; Accepted: 18 Sep 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Landfald, Vazquez Osorio, Okoń and Olewnik. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Łukasz Olewnik, l.olewnik@mazowiecka.edu.pl
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