Applications and prospects of biomaterials in diabetes management

Abstract

Diabetes is a widespread metabolic disorder that presents considerable challenges in its management. Recent advancements in biomaterial research have shed light on innovative approaches for the treatment of diabetes. This review examines the role of biomaterials in diabetes diagnosis and treatment, as well as their application in managing diabetic wounds. By evaluating recent research developments alongside future obstacles, the review highlights the promising potential of biomaterials in diabetes care, underscoring their importance in enhancing patient outcomes and refining treatment methodologies.

1 Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease marked by prolonged hyperglycemia, which arises from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or a combination of both (American Diabetes Association, 2014; Chaudhury et al., 2017; Defronzo, 2009). The primary types of diabetes include Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). T1DM is mainly an autoimmune condition leading to the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas (Khaiz et al., 2025; Nyaga et al., 2018a; Nyaga et al., 2018b). In contrast, T2DM is often linked to insulin resistance, influenced by lifestyle factors and genetic predispositions (Dariya et al., 2019; Ghasemi and Norouzirad, 2019; Memon et al., 2022). The incidence of diabetes worldwide has been on a steady rise, resulting in significant public health implications, particularly as demographic trends lean towards aging populations and lifestyle changes, including increased obesity rates (Cano-Ibanez and Bueno-Cavanillas, 2024). The International Diabetes Federation reported that approximately 537 million adults were diagnosed with diabetes in 2021, with projections indicating a rise to 783 million individuals by 2045 (Klangjareonchai et al., 2021).

Conventional diabetes management approaches include pharmacological treatments such as insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents, as well as lifestyle changes encompassing diet and exercise (Deng et al., 2018). Nonetheless, achieving optimal glycemic control remains a challenge for numerous patients, often due to factors like medication adherence, the complexity of treatment protocols, and the psychosocial burdens associated with the disease (Al-Qerem et al., 2022; Summers-Gibson, 2021). These challenges highlight the urgent need for innovative strategies in diabetes management (Kalra et al., 2022).

In recent times, the application of biomaterials has surfaced as a promising pathway for the enhancement of diabetes treatment and management (Aldahish et al., 2024; Emad et al., 2024; Nemati et al., 2023). This review seeks to investigate the diverse applications of biomaterials within the realm of diabetes management, addressing their potential to mitigate the limitations of existing treatment methodologies while improving the quality of life for individuals with diabetes. The evolving role of biomaterials in diabetes management marks a significant advancement in addressing the complexities inherent to this chronic condition (Iqbal et al., 2023).

2 Diagnosis of diabetes using biomaterial-mediated strategies

Biosensors have become essential instruments across various domains, particularly in healthcare. Within this sector, they provide rapid and precise monitoring of biological parameters (Kim et al., 2019; Li et al., 2023; Yoon et al., 2020). These sensors possess the capability to detect specific biological markers molecules, delivering crucial real-time information essential for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of diseases (Kong et al., 2024; Xing et al., 2024).

Conventional diagnostic approaches for diabetes, which largely rely on fasting plasma glucose (FPG), oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT), and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) assessments, exhibit several shortcomings. These techniques are susceptible to various influences, such as stress, illness, and inconsistencies in laboratory procedures, which may result in misdiagnosis or delays in diagnosis (Young et al., 2023). For instance, HbA1c levels may not provide an accurate representation of glycemic control in specific populations, including those with hemoglobinopathies or individuals who have recently received blood transfusions (Bhatti et al., 2024). Traditional glucose testing methods, primarily based on blood glucose meters, encounter numerous challenges that hinder patient adherence and effective diabetes management. Ahmadian et al. conducted a comprehensive review of current technologies, comparing the benefits and drawbacks of both invasive and non-invasive glucose monitoring techniques (Ahmadian et al., 2023). Many of these methods necessitate finger-pricking, which can be painful and inconvenient, resulting in many patients opting to forgo regular testing (Burge, 2001). Furthermore, the precision of blood glucose meters can be influenced by several factors, including user error, calibration discrepancies, and environmental conditions, leading to variable readings (Tankasala and Linnes, 2019). Additionally, conventional testing methods typically offer only a snapshot of glucose levels at a single moment, failing to account for fluctuations that occur throughout the day. The psychological strain associated with diabetes management, including the stress from frequent monitoring and apprehension regarding complications, highlights the demand for reliable and minimally invasive glucose testing methods (Xie et al., 2023).

The significance of glucose monitoring sensors in diabetes management cannot be overstated. Recent advancements in biosensor technology have facilitated the development of non-invasive and continuous glucose monitoring systems that enhance patient adherence and improve health outcomes (Dua et al., 2024; Hina and Saadeh, 2020; Teymourian et al., 2020). The integration of biosensors with mobile technology and data analytics platforms has further increased their utility, allowing for continuous monitoring and remote health management (Arun et al., 2024; Bent et al., 2020).

2.1 Detection by sensors composed of nanomaterials in conjunction with Raman spectroscopy

Biomedical nanomaterials, particularly those engineered for glucose sensing, have demonstrated promising advancements in improving the sensitivity and specificity of diabetes diagnostics. For example, electrospun nanofibers have emerged as a novel category of functional nanocomposites exhibiting remarkable biosensing capabilities (Du et al., 2022). The incorporation of nanomaterials, such as gold nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes, has further enhanced the efficacy of biosensors, enabled the simultaneous detection of multiple analytes and accelerated response times (Nisar et al., 2024; Otero and Magner, 2020; Putzbach and Ronkainen, 2013). Moreover, when combined with organometallic compounds, these nanomaterials can significantly augment the performance of Raman spectroscopy, allowing for the detection of subtle spectral variations related to diabetes biomarkers. This synergistic approach not only improves detection sensitivity but also extends the range of potential applications in clinical diagnostics (Jagannathan et al., 2023).

The high surface area of these nanomaterials promotes increased loading of recognition elements, leading to enhanced detection capabilities. Enhanced performance of biosensors has been documented (Mousavi et al., 2022). Furthermore, nanomaterials can be tailored to respond to specific stimuli, facilitating the creation of intelligent biosensors capable of real-time monitoring of physiological variations (Scandurra et al., 2023). Recent innovations utilizing DNA nanostructures have demonstrated significant potential in biosensing applications, where they can be engineered for the selective binding of target molecules, thus improving detection specificity (Mohammad, 2024). Ongoing investigations in this field continue to reveal novel opportunities for the application of nanomaterials in biosensing, which may lead to the development of groundbreaking diagnostic tools for clinical use.

Raman spectroscopy operates on the principle of inelastic scattering of monochromatic light, typically emitted by a laser. When light interacts with the vibrations of molecules, it can scatter with a shift in energy that corresponds to the vibrational modes of those molecules. This characteristic renders Raman spectroscopy a versatile instrument for both qualitative and quantitative analyses across various applications, including the identification of biomarkers for diseases such as diabetes (Xie et al., 2023). A prominent example of this technique’s efficacy is its application in measuring urinary albumin levels, a critical biomarker for diabetic kidney disease. Research has illustrated that Raman spectroscopy can effectively identify specific spectral peaks linked to albumin concentrations in urine samples from individuals diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, indicating its potential for non-invasive monitoring of renal complications related to diabetes (Flores-Guerrero et al., 2020). Moreover, Raman spectroscopy has been employed to investigate retinal tissue for early indicators of diabetic retinopathy, offering insights into the biochemical alterations occurring in the retina due to prolonged hyperglycemia. The capacity of this technique to distinguish between healthy and diseased tissues through spectral analysis renders it an invaluable tool for early diagnosis and timely intervention in diabetic patients (Chen et al., 2021). Furthermore, advancements in machine learning algorithms applied to Raman spectral data have bolstered the precision of diabetes detection, highlighting the technology’s potential to transform diabetes management and enhance patient outcomes (Chen et al., 2024e).

The amalgamation of biomedical nanomaterials with Raman spectroscopy presents numerous advantages while also posing significant challenges (Oliveira et al., 2022). A primary advantage of this integration lies in the enhancement of diagnostic accuracy and sensitivity. For instance, a core-shell structure of Au nanorods@Raman tags@SiO2@Ag nanocomposite has been synthesized and employed for the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection of insulin and C-peptide in trace serum (Zhang et al., 2024b). This is illustrated in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1

2.2 Detection via gas sensors composed of biomedical metal oxides

Exhalation detection technology has attracted notable interest due to its non-invasive and convenient nature, particularly in the regulation of glucose levels, which is essential for managing conditions such as diabetes. In breath analysis, glucose is often detected indirectly through its metabolic byproducts, including acetone, which is produced during the metabolism of fatty acids when glucose levels are diminished (Galassetti et al., 2005; Hwang et al., 2021; Li et al., 2015). The well-established relationship between breath acetone and blood glucose levels provides a foundation for the development of sensors capable of measuring glucose levels via breath analysis (Kalidoss and Umapathy, 2019; Righettoni et al., 2013; Tanda et al., 2014). The accurate and prompt identification of acetone is vital for maintaining safety in industrial production and for the clinical assessment of diabetes. Consequently, the advancement of high-performance acetone sensors has become increasingly significant (Guan et al., 2025) (Table 1). Analyzing breath can facilitate real-time observation of metabolic alterations, enabling timely interventions to avert conditions such as hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia (Xie et al., 2023). Moreover, breath testing is characterized by its convenience and discretion, which enhances patient adherence and promotes ongoing monitoring during daily activities (Vajhadin et al., 2021).

However, environmental factors substantially influence the detection of glucose and its metabolites in exhaled breath, impacting both the collection and analytical processes. Elements such as humidity and the presence of competing volatile compounds can hinder gas sensor performance (Esteves et al., 2022; Xie et al., 2018). Therefore, it is essential to optimize the operating conditions of sensors to mitigate these environmental effects. Zhou et al. developed a self-designed condensation device for exhaled breath, which allowed for the condensation and collection of human exhaled breath, enabling the analysis of glucose in the collected condensate via ion chromatography using a pulsed amperometric instrument (Zhou et al., 2022). For instance, custom-built exhaled breath collection devices that regulate temperature and humidity have demonstrated potential for enhancing the reproducibility of glucose measurements in breath samples (Desai et al., 2025). A noninvasive blood glucose detection apparatus that utilizes acetone sensing in exhaled breath employs an α-Fe2O3-multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) nanocomposite to accurately measure acetone levels, even in high humidity conditions (Ansari et al., 2024). Furthermore, the incorporation of nanostructured materials and composite sensors has been shown to improve sensitivity and selectivity, enabling more precise glucose detection in the presence of interfering substances found in exhaled breath (K et al., 2025). Notably, an ultrasensitive acetone gas sensor based on a K/Sn-Co3O4 porous microsphere can accurately differentiate between diabetic patients and healthy individuals based on variations in acetone concentrations without the need to eliminate water vapor from exhaled breath, highlighting its substantial potential for diabetes diagnosis (Na et al., 2024).

2.3 Detected by wearable sensors made of biomaterials

Wearable sensors made from biomaterials designed for sweat glucose detection have garnered significant interest due to their capacity for continuous monitoring without the discomfort of finger-prick tests. Zhou et al. conducted a thorough review of the principles and advancements in electrochemical glucose sensors, compiling findings on various innovative nanomaterials suitable for continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) (Zhou et al., 2024b). The work illustrated the applications and construction strategies of diverse nanomaterials, including precious metals, nanometals, their compounds, and nonmetallic nanomaterials. Figure 2 in their study encapsulates these insights on CGM technology, while Figure 3 traces the evolution of biosensor development for wearables up to 2021.

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

These sensors utilize cutting-edge materials and designs to enhance sensitivity and selectivity, thereby enabling precise real-time glucose detection (Dervisevic et al., 2022; Zafar et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2023). The hyaluronate (HA)-modified Au@Pt bimetallic electrodes have been validated through animal trials for their capacity to provide long-term, accurate, and robust CGMs in smart contact lenses, paving the way for continuous blood glucose monitoring (Han et al., 2023). In 2023, Zhang et al. summarized the metallic nanomaterials employed in wearable non-invasive glucose sensors, encompassing zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), and two-dimensional (2D) monometallic nanomaterials, as well as bimetallic configurations (Zhang et al., 2023b). In addition, Govindaraj et al. provided a thorough summary of various categories of non-enzymatic glucose sensor materials, which encompass composites, non-precious transition metals along with their respective metal oxides and hydroxides, precious metals and their alloys, carbon-based materials, conducting polymers, metal-organic framework (MOF)-based electrocatalysts, as well as glucose sensors designed for wearable devices (Govindaraj et al., 2023). Furthermore, enzyme-free nanoparticle-based glucose sensors signify a noteworthy advancement, presenting a more straightforward and cost-efficient alternative for glucose monitoring (Boucheta et al., 2024). Additionally, microfluidic devices have been engineered to assess the performance of these sensors, thereby ensuring their reliability in clinical environments (Yunos et al., 2021). Zhang et al. introduced a handheld biosensor capable of detecting acetone through fluorescence, utilizing the enzymatic reaction of secondary alcohol dehydrogenase (S-ADH) in conjunction with β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH, λex = 340 nm, λem = 490 nm). This device, characterized by its portability and high sensitivity and selectivity, is anticipated to see extensive application in clinical diagnostics as well as in the realm of wearable biochemical sensors in the forthcoming years (Zhang G. et al., 2025). As advancements in these technologies continue, they hold the potential to revolutionize diabetes management, enabling patients to achieve optimal glucose levels with enhanced convenience.

3 Treatment of diabetes through biomaterial-mediated strategies

Insulin plays a pivotal role in the management of diabetes, necessitating effective delivery mechanisms. The utilization of biomaterials, known for their exceptional biocompatibility, degradability, and distinctive functional properties, is essential in this context. Such materials significantly enhance insulin stability, modulate its release kinetics, and facilitate targeted delivery, thereby offering a safer and more efficient therapeutic option for individuals with diabetes. Novel biomaterial carriers can transport antidiabetic drugs to address different types of diabetes (Table 2).

3.1 Delivery via nanoparticles

Insulin is indispensable for managing T1DM and is often required in numerous instances of T2DM. The engineered characteristics of nanoparticles, such as toxicity control, stability, and drug release mechanisms, allow for the delivery of higher drug concentrations to targeted sites (Zaric et al., 2019). The capacity of nanoparticle systems to improve insulin delivery through targeted and controlled release mechanisms has attracted significant attention (Cheng et al., 2021; Karimi et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2022). Nanocarriers present an innovative strategy by offering advantages such as enhanced drug stability and absorption, targeted delivery to specific tissues or cells, controlled or stimuli-responsive drug release, increased bioavailability, minimized side effects, and improved patient compliance (Figure 4). Sarkhel et al. have encapsulated the diverse applications of nanomaterials in diabetes management, emphasizing the distinctive attributes of nano-based drug delivery systems and intelligent drug delivery techniques (Sarkhel et al., 2024). These nanoparticles can be customized to react to physiological conditions, such as fluctuating glucose levels, thereby permitting a more personalized approach to insulin administration (Karimi et al., 2016; Sharmah et al., 2024). MSN-based nanocomposites have been used to deliver therapeutic molecules like insulin, GLP-1, exenatide, DPP-4 inhibitor and plasmid-containing GLP-1 genes for managing diabetes mellitus for the last decade (Sarkar et al., 2023). For instance, innovative systems have emerged that leverage glucose-responsive nanoparticles to release insulin during hyperglycemic episodes, thereby effectively imitating the pancreas’s physiological insulin secretion mechanism (Jeong et al., 2022; Volpatti et al., 2021).

FIGURE 4

Moreover, the inclusion of biocompatible materials in the formulation of nanoparticles ensures safety and efficacy in clinical applications (Tutty et al., 2022). Research has illustrated that nanoparticles can successfully encapsulate insulin, providing protection against degradation within the gastrointestinal tract during oral administration (Ren et al., 2023). This pioneering strategy not only enhances the stability of insulin but also promotes its absorption, yielding improved glycemic control in diabetic individuals. The integration of nanoparticles into insulin delivery systems indicates substantial potential for the development of more effective and patient-friendly diabetes treatments.

3.2 Delivery via transplantation of tissue-engineered islets

Tissue engineering has emerged as a groundbreaking technique in diabetes management, particularly in addressing the complications associated with the disease (Kaviani and Azarpira, 2016; Woo et al., 2023). This interdisciplinary domain merges biological, mechanical, and engineering principles to restore or enhance the functionality of damaged tissues and organs. Considering the increasing prevalence of diabetes and its complications, innovative strategies such as tissue engineering provide promising avenues for regeneration and repair, particularly in pancreatic and cellular contexts. Advancements within this field possess the potential to significantly enhance patient outcomes and offer alternatives to traditional therapies like insulin administration and organ transplantation.

3.2.1 Pancreatic tissue engineering

The domain of pancreatic tissue engineering is primarily focused on the creation of functional pancreatic tissues or bioartificial organs designed to restore insulin secretion in diabetic patients (Figure 5). Recent investigations have underscored the encouraging role of decellularized pancreatic scaffolds, which maintain the extracellular matrix (ECM) architecture and critical biochemical signals necessary for cell attachment and functionality. The application of decellularized pig pancreas has shown promise in establishing an optimal environment for insulin-producing cells, thereby addressing the impairment of beta-cell function in T1DM (Hao L. et al., 2024; Lim et al., 2023). Research indicates that these bioengineered tissues can effectively replicate the intrinsic architecture of the pancreas, which may enhance both the survival rates and functionality of transplanted islet cells (Lim et al., 2023). Furthermore, advancements in 3D bioprinting technology have enabled the fabrication of complex pancreatic structures, thereby improved vascularization and facilitating the delivery of essential nutrients required for maintaining cell viability (Soetedjo et al., 2021). Additionally, the incorporation of bioactive materials, such as silver nanoparticles, has demonstrated improved biocompatibility of these scaffolds, further supporting their clinical application (Qiu et al., 2022). In summary, pancreatic tissue engineering holds significant promise in the advancement of regenerative therapies for diabetes.

FIGURE 5

Cell transplantation, particularly the transplantation of islet cells, remains a fundamental aspect of T1DM management, with the primary objective of reinstating endogenous insulin production (Loretelli et al., 2020; Ramesh et al., 2013). However, barriers such as a limited supply of donors and the risk of immune rejection have hindered broader implementation. Recent advancements in tissue engineering have introduced innovative strategies aimed at enhancing the success rates of cell transplantation. For example, the application of interconnected toroidal hydrogels for islet encapsulation has proven effective in protecting transplanted cells from immune attacks. While still facilitating nutrient exchange (Ernst et al., 2019).

Additionally, the engineering of pluripotent stem cells into insulin-producing cells stands as a groundbreaking approach to generate a continual supply of functional cells for transplantation (Carvalho et al., 2022; Kasputis et al., 2018; Pagliuca et al., 2014). Further research has examined the potential of regulatory T cells that have been modified with insulin-specific chimeric antigen receptors to promote tolerance and reduce the risk of rejection during islet transplantation (Azad et al., 2024). These advancements in cell transplantation methodologies, when integrated with the principles of tissue engineering, hold the promise of significantly enhancing both the effectiveness and accessibility of diabetes treatments.

3.2.2 Development of biomaterial scaffolds

The fabrication of biomaterial scaffolds constitutes a crucial aspect of tissue engineering within the framework of diabetes therapy, as they provide vital structural support for cellular growth and tissue regeneration. These scaffolds emulate the ECM and promote a three-dimensional structure that is conducive to cell proliferation, differentiation, and development. They may also be employed in the management of diabetic wounds, a common complication associated with diabetes (Tallapaneni et al., 2021). Scaffolds can be categorized into two main types based on their origin: natural and synthetic polymer-based scaffolds.

3.2.2.1 Natural biomaterial scaffolds

Natural biomaterials have garnered substantial interest in the field of tissue engineering because of their intrinsic biocompatibility and their capacity to facilitate cellular activities that are crucial for tissue regeneration (Bagheri et al., 2020; Mei et al., 2023). These materials, sourced from biological origins, include collagen, gelatine, chitosan, and alginate, which replicate the ECM of native tissues, thus fostering cellular interactions and enhancing healing processes (Naranda et al., 2021; Sonmezer et al., 2023). This is illustrated in Figure 6. For instance, collagen scaffolds are particularly recognized for their excellent properties regarding cell adhesion and biodegradability, rendering them suitable for applications in wound healing and regenerative medicine (Chu et al., 2018; Larijani et al., 2024). Chitosan, a natural polysaccharide, exhibits remarkable biocompatibility, biodegradability, and antimicrobial capabilities, positioning it as a promising candidate for wound healing and tissue engineering applications (Wang J. et al., 2024).

FIGURE 6

Moreover, the incorporation of bioactive molecules, such as growth factors and peptides, into natural materials can significantly enhance their regenerative capacity, leading to improved results in tissue repair and regeneration (Ravoor et al., 2021). Additionally, natural scaffolds can undergo modifications to improve their mechanical strength and degradation rates, thus allowing for customization tailored to specific applications. The inherent bioactive characteristics of natural biomaterials are further validated by their capacity to promote angiogenesis and facilitate tissue integration, both of which are essential for achieving favourable outcomes in tissue engineering (Goonoo, 2022).

The degradation behavior of these natural materials serves as a pivotal aspect concerning their application in biomedical contexts, significantly affecting their longevity, biocompatibility, and overall efficacy in tissue regeneration (Hu T. et al., 2024). Generally, natural materials are preferred due to their ability to undergo in vivo degradation, which permits a gradual replacement by newly synthesized tissue. Specifically, chitosan-based hydrogels have demonstrated a degradation process primarily governed by hydrolytic mechanisms, with degradation rates that can be modulated by varying the degree of crosslinking and the molecular weight (Lv et al., 2023). This characteristic proves particularly beneficial in scenarios such as drug delivery, where the establishment of controlled release profiles is vital for achieving therapeutic effectiveness.

The degradation byproducts of natural materials are frequently non-toxic and can be metabolically processed by the body, thereby minimizing the likelihood of adverse reactions (Xu et al., 2022). The capacity to engineer natural materials with specific degradation kinetics enhances their applicability across a range of uses, including bone regeneration, where it is optimal for scaffolds to degrade in synchrony with the formation of new bone (Koh et al., 2022). In summary, the degradation characteristics of natural materials not only contribute to their biocompatibility but also are integral to their functionality and efficacy in the field of regenerative medicine.

3.2.2.2 Synthetic biomaterial scaffolds

Synthetic biomaterials, such as polycaprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), have been engineered to address certain limitations associated with their natural counterparts (Deng et al., 2022). Research indicates that PCL scaffolds can effectively support the proliferation of mesenchymal stem cells and promote wound healing in models of diabetes (Abdollahi et al., 2024b). These synthetic materials provide customizable mechanical properties, controllable degradation rates, and can be fabricated into various forms, including fibers, films, and hydrogels (Lim et al., 2023; Li et al., 2020). This flexibility enables the optimization of material properties to better align with the mechanical characteristics of natural tissues, which is critical for applications involving implants and wound dressings. Investigations have shown that by adjusting the cross-linking density and the composition of the polymer network, researchers can develop hydrogels with tailored mechanical properties that are conducive to enhancing cell adhesion and proliferation in tissue engineering (Huang et al., 2023).

The adaptability of synthetic biomaterials facilitates the integration of bioactive agents, including growth factors or therapeutic drugs, allowing for their controlled release to foster healing and tissue regeneration (Guo et al., 2022b). Furthermore, the incorporation of nanomaterials into synthetic polymers has significantly improved their mechanical attributes, yielding materials that not only exhibit enhanced strength and durability but also demonstrate bioactivity that supports healing and integration with surrounding tissues (Abdollahi et al., 2024b). The integration of conductive materials within scaffolds has been explored to enhance the functional capacity of engineered tissues through improved electrical signalling, which is particularly important for insulin secretion in pancreatic cells (Wang and Jin, 2024). Moreover, advancements in three-dimensional printing technologies have facilitated the creation of intricate scaffold architectures that accurately replicate the structure of native tissues, thereby further augmenting the effectiveness of these biomaterials. The enhancement of integration and functionality in biomaterials has been highlighted by (Metwally et al., 2023). The adaptability of these mechanical properties is crucial for the effective incorporation of synthetic materials in clinical applications, as it enables the design of substances capable of enduring physiological stresses while supporting biological activities.

By amalgamating various functionalities within a single biomaterial, researchers are equipped to tackle diverse therapeutic challenges simultaneously. Such biomaterials can facilitate the controlled release of therapeutic agents, thereby promoting localized healing and reducing systemic side effects (Heidari et al., 2023). Additionally, these multifunctional materials can embed antibacterial characteristics to mitigate infections, which commonly arise in chronic wounds (Renuka et al., 2022).

Despite the considerable benefits offered by synthetic materials, significant concerns regarding their degradation and biocompatibility persist as critical hurdles in their utilization. For instance, materials engineered for temporary implants must degrade in synchronization with tissue healing to prevent complications linked to either premature breakdown or prolonged presence in the organism (Li et al., 2022). Moreover, ensuring the biocompatibility of synthetic materials is vital, as those that provoke adverse immune responses can incite chronic inflammation and result in implant failure (Ciatti et al., 2024; Kzhyshkowska et al., 2015). Recent progress has concentrated on the creation of biodegradable polymers that preserve their mechanical strength while systematically decomposing into non-toxic byproducts (Guo et al., 2022b). Addressing these concerns surrounding degradation and biocompatibility is essential for the successful transition of synthetic materials from laboratory settings to clinical implementations, guaranteeing that they offer safe and effective solutions for patients.

3.3 Delivery by transdermal delivery

Microneedle technology has emerged as a groundbreaking approach for insulin delivery, providing a minimally invasive alternative to conventional injection techniques (Bigham et al., 2025; Hong et al., 2022; Zong et al., 2022). The mechanism of insulin release from microneedles is depicted in Figure 7. These micro-scaled needles, which typically range in length from 25 to 1,000 μm (Figure 8), can penetrate the outer layer of the skin while circumventing nerve endings, thus minimizing discomfort and pain for patients (Chen et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2020). Recent advancements in the manufacturing technologies for microneedles, including 3D printing and mold-based methods, have enabled the creation of arrays capable of delivering precise dosages of insulin (Razzaghi et al., 2024). Evidence suggests that these microneedle arrays achieve bioavailability levels that are comparable to those obtained from traditional subcutaneous injections while significantly enhancing patient adherence due to their ease of use and reduced pain perception (Li et al., 2022; Queiroz et al., 2020). Furthermore, the incorporation of biodegradable materials in microneedle design has allowed for sustained insulin release, presenting a viable solution for long-term diabetes management (Chakraborty et al., 2023; Rajput et al., 2021). A nanoparticle-loaded microneedle (MN) patch, designed for transdermal drug delivery, aims to achieve blood glucose control and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging for the synergistic treatment of diabetic nephropathy, thereby enhancing the efficiency of transdermal drug delivery while extending the duration of insulin action (Zheng et al., 2025). In summary, microneedle technology stands as a promising strategy for advancing insulin delivery systems and subsequently enhancing the quality of life for individuals with diabetes.

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 8

3.4 Smart delivery systems for diabetes management and treatment

The Smart delivery systems represent the cutting edge of insulin administration technology, merging innovative biomaterials with responsive mechanisms to develop dynamic delivery platforms. These systems are engineered to release insulin in a controlled manner, guided by real-time blood glucose monitoring, thereby providing a customized approach to managing T1DM (Condren et al., 2019; Latham, 2019; Moser et al., 2025; Renard, 2023). For example, hydrogels that expand or contract in response to changes in glucose concentrations have been developed, enabling on-demand insulin release as required (Ali et al., 2022; Annicchiarico et al., 2024). Furthermore, the incorporation of wearable technology within these smart delivery systems facilitates continuous glucose monitoring, which allows for automatic insulin administration in reaction to fluctuations in glucose levels (Renzu et al., 2024). This heightened level of responsiveness not only improves glycemic control but also reduces the risk of hypoglycemia, a prevalent issue in diabetes management. As research progresses, the potential for intelligent delivery systems to transform insulin therapy becomes increasingly evident, paving the way for more effective and user-friendly diabetes care solutions.

4 The role of biomaterials in diabetic wound healing

Current practices in managing diabetic wounds are based on four essential principles: (1) debridement, (2) infection control, (3) offloading, and (4) revascularization (Hu et al., 2022). In the context of diabetic wounds, particularly foot ulcers, the primary factor contributing to delayed healing is the diminished synthesis of collagen. This reduction adversely affects the solubility of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and provokes an exaggerated inflammatory response (Nirenjen et al., 2023). The inflammatory phase is marked by the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α. The subsequent proliferative phase is characterized by impaired angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, whereas in the remodeling phase, an increase in matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) results in further degradation of the ECM, thereby exacerbating the challenges associated with wound healing (Figure 9). These factors present considerable hurdles for clinical management. Although traditional dressings have historically been essential in wound care, their effectiveness in treating diabetic wounds is significantly limited (Saco et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2024).

FIGURE 9

4.1 Limitations of traditional dressings for diabetic wound treatment

Diabetic wounds exhibit a complex pathophysiological profile that includes impaired angiogenesis, a weakened immune response, and an increased vulnerability to infections (Rodriguez-Rodriguez et al., 2022). A significant limitation of conventional dressings, including gauze and hydrogels, is their singular functionality, which fails to adequately address the diverse challenges associated with diabetic wounds (Venkatesan and Rangasamy, 2023; Zhang et al., 2023a). These traditional dressings often lack the incorporation of bioactive agents that could facilitate healing, and their capacity to prevent bacterial proliferation is insufficient, leading to a heightened risk of infection (Zhou et al., 2024a). Furthermore, issues with adherence and retention of these dressings can necessitate frequent changes, which may disrupt the healing process and inflict additional pain and discomfort on patients (Jiang et al., 2023).

Moreover, the healing duration associated with conventional dressings can be extended, raising concerns for diabetic individuals who are predisposed to complications such as foot ulcers and potential amputations (Andrews et al., 2015; Sahu et al., 2018). The absence of advanced features in these dressings means they do not support critical physiological processes, such as angiogenesis and collagen deposition, which are essential for effective wound repair (Zhang et al., 2024). Consequently, there exists a pressing need for the formulation of more effective wound care solutions that integrate bioactive materials along with multifunctional attributes to enhance the healing of diabetic wounds (Cai F. et al., 2023). Various types of dressings, including conventional, bioactive, and interactive dressings, as well as skin substitutes, are being employed to treat wounds (Alven et al., 2020) (Figure 10).

FIGURE 10

In conclusion, while traditional dressings have played a crucial role in wound management, their inadequacies in addressing diabetic wounds underscore the necessity for a transition towards more innovative treatment strategies that can effectively tackle the distinct challenges they present. The diabetes patients can benefit significantly from the incorporation of sophisticated biomaterials and innovative technologies, which may prove instrumental in addressing existing challenges and enhancing patient outcomes in the management of diabetic wounds (refer to Table 3).

4.2 The utilization of innovative wound dressings in diabetic wound healing

Recent innovations in wound dressing technologies have culminated in the creation of multifunctional dressings that incorporate biocompatible materials along with bioactive agents (Figure 11). According to a systematic review conducted by Vargas et al., bioactive glass (BG)-based materials show promise in expediting all phases of diabetic wound healing and improving the overall quality of wound recovery (Vargas et al., 2024). For example, electrospun nanofibers and hydrogels are employed to fabricate dressings that not only provide a protective barrier but also deliver therapeutic agents directly to the wound site (Fahimirad and Ajalloueian, 2019; Hong et al., 2023; Yang and Xu, 2023). Furthermore, the integration of electrical stimulation within wound dressings has revealed potential for enhancing healing rates by fostering cellular activities and optimizing blood circulation to the affected regions (Asadi and Torkaman, 2014; Fan et al., 2024; Hu Y. W. et al., 2024). Additionally, the incorporation of antimicrobial additives into wound dressings is increasingly gaining traction, providing an additional layer of defense against infections, which are a common complication in diabetic wounds (Chen et al., 2024d; Firoozbahr et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024; Rozman et al., 2020). In summary, advancements in wound dressing technologies signify a considerable leap forward in the effective management of diabetic wounds, offering tailored solutions.

FIGURE 11

4.2.1 Biocompatible materials

The biocompatibility of materials is a crucial factor in the development of biomaterials for biomedical applications, particularly in the context of diabetic wound healing (Nandhakumar et al., 2022; Ren et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2023). These materials are specifically designed to interact positively with biological systems, thereby reducing adverse reactions while facilitating healing processes (Chan et al., 2023; Naahidi et al., 2017). Recent studies have underscored the promising potential of various biocompatible materials, such as chitosan, alginate, and hyaluronic acid, which have shown encouraging outcomes in promoting the healing of diabetic wounds (Peng et al., 2022). Although clinical trials remain limited, chitosan has emerged as a highly effective alternative for modulating local inflammatory responses and promoting wound healing, especially in patients with comorbid conditions that hinder typical skin healing processes, such as diabetes and vascular insufficiency (Maita et al., 2022). Chitosan-based biomaterials have gained recognition for their efficacy in wound healing, characterized by their antibacterial properties and ability to enhance cellular proliferation, rendering them suitable candidates for applications in wound care (Cai and Li, 2020; Rajinikanth et al., 2024). Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have established that, relative to the standard of care (SOC), patients receiving placenta-derived biomaterial treatments demonstrate a superior rate of complete wound healing in cases of diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) (Ruiz-Munoz et al., 2024). Chen et al. corroborated that placenta-based tissue products exhibited the highest likelihood of wound healing (p-score = 0.90), followed by living cell skin substitutes (p-score = 0.70), acellular skin substitutes (p-score = 0.56), and advanced topical dressings (p-score = 0.34) when measured against standard DFU care (Chen L. et al., 2024).

Angiogenesis and cellular migration are fundamental processes in wound healing, which are frequently disrupted in diabetic wounds (Yang et al., 2024). Consequently, an optimal biomaterial should facilitate the development of new blood vessels to enhance blood flow and oxygen supply at the wound site. Achieving these characteristics necessitates the engineering of physico-chemical properties at both chemical and molecular levels, ensuring alignment with the required bioactivity for wound healing in diabetic conditions (Sharma and Kishen, 2024) (Figure 12). This necessity highlights the importance of comprehending the structure–function relationship within biopolymers.

FIGURE 12

Moreover, integrating natural compounds into these materials can enhance their biocompatibility and therapeutic efficacy, as demonstrated by the incorporation of honey and plant extracts in wound dressings (Prasathkumar and Sadhasivam, 2021; Yasin et al., 2023). The advancement of nanomaterials also presents novel opportunities for improving biocompatibility and functionality (Barhoum et al., 2022). Research has shown that these materials can enhance cellular responses and tissue integration (Bai et al., 2020). Overall, the creation of biocompatible materials is crucial for developing effective treatments for diabetic wounds, ensuring that they not only promote healing but also seamlessly integrate with the body’s biological systems.

4.2.2 Bioactive molecules

Bioactive molecules play a critical role in the wound healing process, especially for individuals with diabetes, where natural healing mechanisms are often hindered (Moses et al., 2023; Oprita et al., 2023; Sultana et al., 2024). These molecules can be integrated into biomaterials to bolster their therapeutic effects. For instance, growth factors, cytokines, and antimicrobial peptides are currently being studied for their capacity to stimulate essential cellular activities, including migration, proliferation, and angiogenesis (Takahashi et al., 2021; Umehara et al., 2022; Yue et al., 2022). Recent research indicates that the incorporation of bioactive molecules into hydrogels and scaffolds can markedly improve healing outcomes for chronic wounds (Chen et al., 2024b; Rathna and Kulandhaivel, 2024; Yusuf and Adeleke, 2023). Figure 13 provides a schematic representation of various biomaterial dressings. Additionally, studies have highlighted the potential of metal nanoparticles as bioactive agents in diabetic wound therapy, offering antimicrobial properties while facilitating tissue regeneration (Zheng et al., 2024). The development of intelligent biomaterials capable of controlling the release of these bioactive molecules represents a promising research area, enabling targeted delivery and enhanced therapeutic effectiveness (Huang et al., 2023). Therefore, the strategic incorporation of bioactive molecules alongside biomaterials marks a significant advancement in diabetic wound treatment, fostering a more effective healing process.

FIGURE 13

5 Challenges and future directions

The utilization of biomaterials in diabetes management represents a promising Frontier with significant potential, particularly in the domains of diabetes treatment and wound healing. Nonetheless, the deployment of biomaterials for diabetes management, especially in the context of wound healing, embodies a dual-edged sword characterized by both benefits and drawbacks.

From a positive perspective, biomaterials such as hydrogels, nanoparticles, and scaffolds present enhanced characteristics that can markedly improve outcomes in wound healing (Fadilah et al., 2022; Leng et al., 2022; Zhang Z. et al., 2024). These biomaterials can be meticulously engineered to facilitate controlled drug release, encourage angiogenesis, and amplify cellular responses, effectively addressing the complex, multifactorial nature of diabetic wounds. The integration of bioactive agents, including growth factors and exosomes derived from stem cells, into these materials has the potential to further stimulate tissue regeneration and enhance healing rates (Jing et al., 2023). Furthermore, biomaterials can be customized to exhibit antibacterial properties, thereby diminishing the risk of infection, a frequent complication associated with diabetic wounds (Zheng et al., 2024).

Conversely, the application of biomaterials is not devoid of challenges. A notable concern is the risk of immune rejection or adverse reactions, particularly in relation to synthetic materials (Tripathi et al., 2023). The biocompatibility of these materials is a critical aspect that necessitates thorough evaluation to prevent complications that could impede rather than promote healing (Zhao et al., 2023). Additionally, the intricate environment of diabetic wounds may hinder the effective performance of biomaterials. Elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within diabetic wounds can undermine the efficacy of specific biomaterials, highlighting the need for the development of advanced formulations capable of alleviating oxidative stress (Cai et al., 2023a; He et al., 2023; Yao et al., 2019). Moreover, the cost and accessibility of sophisticated biomaterials may present an obstacle to their wide-scale adoption in clinical settings (Ansari and Darvishi, 2024; Chen and Liu, 2016). While these materials exhibit considerable promise, their incorporation into standard diabetes management requires a meticulous assessment of their long-term effects, potential complications, and overall cost-effectiveness.

In summary, although biomaterials present exciting prospects for improving diabetes management and wound healing, it remains imperative to weigh their benefits against potential drawbacks. Critical factors regarding biocompatibility, safety profiles, and long-term efficacy of biomaterials necessitate further exploration to guarantee their safe integration into clinical practice. Ongoing research and clinical trials will play a vital role in identifying the most effective and safe applications of biomaterials in this context, ultimately striving to enhance patient outcomes in diabetes care.

5.1 Safety and efficacy of biomaterials

The safety and efficacy of biomaterials are of paramount concern as their use in clinical applications continues to expand (Kantak and Bharate, 2022). These materials must engage positively with biological systems, facilitating healing while minimizing adverse reactions (Knopf-Marques et al., 2016). The challenge lies in ensuring that these biomaterials do not provoke toxic responses or incite chronic inflammation, which could compromise their intended function. Advances in the understanding of the interaction between biomaterials and the immune system have paved the way for the design of materials capable of favorably modulating immune responses, thereby enhancing their therapeutic potential (Salthouse et al., 2023). Furthermore, the advancement of nanotoxicity evaluations is essential, as nanoparticles employed in biomaterials may pose risks distinct from their bulk forms (Akcan et al., 2020). As this discipline progresses, it is imperative for researchers to prioritize the creation of standardized protocols for assessing the safety of biomaterials to streamline regulatory approval processes and enhance clinical translation (Josyula et al., 2021).

In the last decade, a significant concentration of clinical research on biomaterials has emerged, closely linked to advances in fundamental research. Nonetheless, the findings derived from basic research may not necessarily translate directly to human applications (Socci et al., 2023). As previously noted in this manuscript, the biocompatibility and efficacy of certain established biodegradable biomaterials have been validated through clinical trials (Arrizabalaga and Nollert, 2018). The academic community broadly recognizes the potential for biomaterials to be integrated with agents such as stem cells and bioactive factors (Wilems et al., 2019). However, challenges such as ethical considerations and the variability in source materials hinder seamless clinical translation. Moreover, most animal models utilized in fundamental research are rodents, which, while advantageous due to their availability and established modeling techniques, present a significant limitation: their wound-healing mechanisms differ from those in humans (Nuutila et al., 2016). Several clinical trials have yet to achieve the anticipated outcomes in human subjects, causing stagnation in clinical translation efforts (Shamshad et al., 2023).

Consequently, it is crucial for basic research teams to foster close collaboration with clinical departments. By aligning with genuine clinical needs, they should conduct focused basic research aimed at facilitating clinical translation, thereby identifying safer and more effective biomaterials for application in clinical settings.

5.2 Possibility of personalized treatments

The capacity for real-time monitoring and data analysis marks a significant evolution in the domain of biosensors. With the progression of data analytics and machine learning, the interpretation of biosensor data has become increasingly sophisticated, enabling predictive insights and tailored healthcare solutions (Childs et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2021; Schackart and Yoon, 2021). Real-time health monitoring systems can amalgamate data from various biosensors, offering a holistic view of a patient’s health status (Paganelli et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2023; Li et al., 2021). This integration allows for timely interventions and enhanced management of chronic ailments, including diabetes and cardiovascular conditions. Additionally, the emergence of mobile applications that connect with biosensors empowers patients to conveniently monitor their health metrics, thus promoting greater involvement in their own care (Gecili et al., 2020). The future of biosensors is poised to enhance patient outcomes and healthcare efficiency through the provision of actionable insights derived from real-time data analysis.

The shift towards personalized medicine signifies a groundbreaking approach within healthcare, particularly regarding biomaterials. Individual patients exhibit variability in their financial resources and a range of personal factors. A systematic analysis conducted by Maria et al. revealed no statistically significant differences in HbA1c values among patients with type 1, type 2, or gestational diabetes when utilizing different diabetes monitoring systems (DMS). Future endeavors in personalized medicine will necessitate more extensive research to assess the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and comparative efficacy of DMS, allowing for stratification into the most suitable subgroups of diabetic patients (Kamusheva et al., 2021). Table 4 lists some diabetes management systems that have obtained clinical approval. By customizing treatments to individual patient profiles, which include genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors, healthcare providers can enhance therapeutic outcomes and reduce adverse effects (Kalra et al., 2022). This concept is illustrated in Figure 14. The incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning into the analysis of patient data can substantially improve the accuracy of personalized treatment strategies (Clinton and Cross, 2023).

FIGURE 14

Nevertheless, challenges still exist in terms of the accessibility of personalized therapies and the need for solid clinical evidence to support their efficacy across diverse populations (Varela-Moreno et al., 2021). Future research must concentrate on developing scalable models for personalized interventions that can be effectively implemented in clinical practice, ensuring that all patients can benefit from these advancements (Chen et al., 2024c; Huckvale et al., 2019; Lydiard and Nemeroff, 2019).

5.3 Importance of multidisciplinary collaboration

Multidisciplinary collaboration is essential for tackling the intricate challenges associated with the development and execution of biomaterials and personalized treatments. By uniting expertise from various fields, including engineering, biology, medicine, and data science, researchers can foster innovation and accelerate the application of scientific breakthroughs in clinical settings. Effective collaboration not only enhances research quality but also addresses the complex dimensions of health issues, leading to more holistic solutions (Errecaborde et al., 2019). For instance, collaborative initiatives in bioimage analysis have demonstrated the potential to enhance diagnostic precision and treatment planning (Schlaeppi et al., 2022). Furthermore, establishing standards for interprofessional collaboration can improve communication and cooperation among healthcare providers, ultimately leading to better patient outcomes (Bowman et al., 2021). As the healthcare landscape evolves, nurturing a culture of collaboration will be critical in overcoming obstacles and advancing the disciplines of biomaterials and personalized medicine.

6 Conclusion

The prevalence of diabetes, a prevalent metabolic disorder, is escalating globally. Conventional treatment modalities, such as pharmacological interventions and lifestyle modifications, often fall short of achieving optimal glycemic control due to issues like poor patient adherence and complex treatment protocols. There is an urgent need for innovative approaches.

The integration of multidisciplinary strategies will be vital for advancing biomedical research in the future. By merging perspectives from materials science, biomedical engineering, and clinical medicine, researchers can devise innovative solutions to tackle the multifaceted challenges posed by diabetes. Biomaterials encounter hurdles such as immune rejection, biocompatibility, and high costs in diabetes management applications. It is imperative to synthesize these findings through systematic reviews and meta-analyses, which can elucidate which materials and delivery systems are most likely to yield favorable outcomes for patients. This collaborative effort can facilitate the design of biomaterials that not only enhance insulin delivery and foster tissue regeneration but also prioritize patient safety and comfort.

In the future, it is necessary to strengthen research on the safety and effectiveness of biomaterials and establish standardized evaluation protocols; promote personalized treatment and formulate precise treatment plans according to individual differences of patients; strengthen multidisciplinary cooperation and promote the transformation of biomaterials from laboratory to clinic to improve the treatment effect and quality of life of diabetic patients.

References

• 1

  AbozaidO.El-SonbatyS. M.HamamN.FarragM. A.KodousA. S. (2023). Chitosan-encapsulated nano-selenium targeting TCF7L2, PPARγ, and CAPN10 genes in diabetic rats. Biol. Trace Elem. Res.201, 306–323. 10.1007/s12011-022-03140-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 2

  AmiroucheF.ZhouY.JohnsonT. (2009). Current micropump technologies and their biomedical applications. Micro. Techno.15, 647–666. 10.1007/s00542-009-0804-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 3

  AbdollahiA.AghayanH.R.MousivandZ.MotasadizadehH.MaghsoudianS.AbdorashidiM.et al (2024b). Chitosan based extruded nanofibrous bioscaffold for local delivery of mesenchymal stem cells to improve diabetic wound healing. Stem Cell. Res. Ther.15, 262. 10.1186/s13287-024-03772-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 4

  AhmadianN.ManickavasaganA.AliA. (2023). Comparative assessment of blood glucose monitoring techniques: a review. J. Med. Eng. Technol.47, 121–130. 10.1080/03091902.2022.2100496

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 5

  AkcanR.AydoganH. C.YildirimM. S.TastekinB.SaglamN. (2020). Nanotoxicity: a challenge for future medicine. Turk J. Med. Sci.50, 1180–1196. 10.3906/sag-1912-209

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 6

  AldahishA.ShanmugasundaramN.VasudevanR.AlqahtaniT.AlqahtaniS.MohammadA. A.et al (2024). Silk fibroin nanofibers: advancements in bioactive dressings through electrospinning technology for diabetic wound healing. Pharm. (Basel)17, 1305. 10.3390/ph17101305

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 7

  AliA.NouseenS.SarojS.SheganeM.MajumderP.PuriA.et al (2022). Repurposing pinacol esters of boronic acids for tuning viscoelastic properties of glucose-responsive polymer hydrogels: effects on insulin release kinetics. J. Mater Chem. B10, 7591–7599. 10.1039/d2tb00603k

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 8

  AliA.SarojS.SahaS.GuptaS. K.RakshitT.PalS. (2023). Glucose-responsive chitosan nanoparticle/poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogels for sustained insulin release in vivo. Acs Appl. Mater Interfaces15, 32240–32250. 10.1021/acsami.3c05031

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 9

  AliH. S.YorkP.BlagdenN. (2009). Preparation of hydrocortisone nanosuspension through a bottom-up nanoprecipitation technique using microfluidic reactors. Int. J. Pharm.375, 107–113. 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.03.029

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 10

  AliY.LehmussaariK. (2006). Industrial perspective in ocular drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.58, 1258–1268. 10.1016/j.addr.2006.07.022

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 11

  Al-QeremW.JarabA. S.BadinjkiM.HammadA.LingJ.AlasmariF. (2022). Factors associated with glycemic control among patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci.26, 2415–2421. 10.26355/eurrev_202204_28475

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 12

  AlvenS.NqoroX.AderibigbeB. A. (2020). Polymer-based materials loaded with curcumin for wound healing applications. Polym. (Basel)12, 2286. 10.3390/polym12102286

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 13

  American Diabetes Association (2014). Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care37 (Suppl. 1), S81–S90. 10.2337/dc14-S081

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 14

  AndrewsK. L.HoudekM. T.KiemeleL. J. (2015). Wound management of chronic diabetic foot ulcers: from the basics to regenerative medicine. Prosthet. Orthot. Int.39, 29–39. 10.1177/0309364614534296

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 15

  AnnicchiaricoA.BarileB.BuccolieroC.NicchiaG. P.BrunettiG. (2024). Alternative therapeutic strategies in diabetes management. World J. Diabetes15, 1142–1161. 10.4239/wjd.v15.i6.1142

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 16

  AnsariH. R.KordrostamiZ.MirzaeiA.KraftM. (2024). Deep-learning-based blood glucose detection device using acetone exhaled breath sensing features of α-Fe₂O₃-MWCNT nanocomposites. Acs Appl. Mater Interfaces16, 47973–47987. 10.1021/acsami.4c06855

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 17

  AnsariM.DarvishiA. (2024). A review of the current state of natural biomaterials in wound healing applications. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol.12, 1309541. 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1309541

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 18

  ArrizabalagaJ. H.NollertM. U. (2018). Human amniotic membrane: a versatile scaffold for tissue engineering. Acs Biomater. Sci. Eng.4, 2226–2236. 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00015

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 19

  ArunS.SykesE. R.TanbeerS. (2024). Remotehealthconnect: innovating patient monitoring with wearable technology and custom visualization. Digit. Health10, 20552076241300748. 10.1177/20552076241300748

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 20

  AsadiM. R.TorkamanG. (2014). Bacterial inhibition by electrical stimulation. Adv. Wound Care (New Rochelle)3, 91–97. 10.1089/wound.2012.0410

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 21

  AzadA.AltunbasH. A.ManguogluA. E. (2024). From islet transplantation to beta-cell regeneration: an update on beta-cell-based therapeutic approaches in type 1 diabetes. Expert Rev. Endocrinol. Metab.19, 217–227. 10.1080/17446651.2024.2347263

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 22

  BaekJ. S.SoJ. W.ShinS. C.ChoC. W. (2012). Solid lipid nanoparticles of paclitaxel strengthened by hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin as an oral delivery system. Int. J. Mol. Med.30, 953–959. 10.3892/ijmm.2012.1086

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 23

  BaronN.PassaveJ.GuichardazB.CabodevilaG. (2008). Investigations of development process of high hollow beveled microneedles using a combination of icp rie and dicing saw. Micro. Techno.14, 1475–1480. 10.1007/s00542-008-0596-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 24

  BagheriB.ZarrintajP.SamadiA.ZarrintajR.GanjaliM. R.SaebM. R.et al (2020). Tissue engineering with electrospun electro-responsive chitosan-aniline oligomer/polyvinyl alcohol. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.147, 160–169. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.12.264

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 25

  BaiQ.HanK.DongK.ZhengC.ZhangY.LongQ.et al (2020). Potential applications of nanomaterials and technology for diabetic wound healing. Int. J. Nanomedicine15, 9717–9743. 10.2147/IJN.S276001

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 26

  BarhoumA.Garcia-BetancourtM. L.JeevanandamJ.HussienE. A.MekkawyS. A.MostafaM.et al (2022). Review on natural, incidental, bioinspired, and engineered nanomaterials: history, definitions, classifications, synthesis, properties, market, toxicities, risks, and regulations. Nanomater. (Basel)12, 177. 10.3390/nano12020177

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 27

  BentB.WangK.GrzesiakE.JiangC.QiY.JiangY.et al (2020). The digital biomarker discovery pipeline: an open-source software platform for the development of digital biomarkers using mhealth and wearables data. J. Clin. Transl. Sci.5, e19. 10.1017/cts.2020.511

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 28

  BhattiP. K.GhayR.SinghN. G.ThamanV.NarangS. (2024). Estimation of hba1c levels in transfusion-dependent thalassemia patients in comparison with normal healthy individuals. Cureus16, e73236. 10.7759/cureus.73236

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 29

  BighamA.ZarepourA.KhosraviA.IravaniS.ZarrabiA. (2025). Microneedle patches: a new vantage point for diabetic wound treatments. Biomater. Sci.13, 379–407. 10.1039/d4bm01229a

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 30

  BlagdenN.de MatasM.GavanP. T.YorkP. (2007). Crystal engineering of active pharmaceutical ingredients to improve solubility and dissolution rates. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.59, 617–630. 10.1016/j.addr.2007.05.011

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 31

  BouchetaH.ZouaouiE.FerkousH.MadaciA.YadavK. K.BenguerbaY. (2024). Advancing diabetes management: the future of enzyme-less nanoparticle-based glucose sensors-a review. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol.570845427, 19322968241236211. 10.1177/19322968241236211

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 32

  BoushraM.TousS.FetihG.XueH. Y.TranN. T.WongH. L. (2016). Methocel-lipid hybrid nanocarrier for efficient oral insulin delivery. J. Pharm. Sci.105, 1733–1740. 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.02.018

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 33

  BowmanK. S.SuarezV. D.WeissM. J. (2021). Standards for interprofessional collaboration in the treatment of individuals with autism. Behav. Anal. Pract.14, 1191–1208. 10.1007/s40617-021-00560-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 34

  BurgeM. R. (2001). Lack of compliance with home blood glucose monitoring predicts hospitalization in diabetes. Diabetes Care24, 1502–1503. 10.2337/diacare.24.8.1502

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 35

  CaiF.ChenW.ZhaoR.LiuY. (2023a). Mechanisms of Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways in diabetic wound and potential treatment strategies. Mol. Biol. Rep.50, 5355–5367. 10.1007/s11033-023-08392-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 36

  CaiH.LiG. (2020). Efficacy of alginate-and chitosan-based scaffolds on the healing of diabetic skin wounds in animal experimental models and cell studies: a systematic review. Wound Repair Regen.28, 751–771. 10.1111/wrr.12857

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 37

  CaiY.XuX.WuM.LiuJ.FengJ.ZhangJ. (2023b). Multifunctional zwitterionic microneedle dressings for accelerated healing of chronic infected wounds in diabetic rat models. Biomater. Sci.11, 2750–2758. 10.1039/d2bm02101c

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 38

  Cano-IbanezN.Bueno-CavanillasA. (2024). Lifestyle interventions in an aged population: challenges and opportunities from a public health perspective. Nutrients16, 173. 10.3390/nu16010173

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 39

  CarvalhoA. M.NunesR.SarmentoB. (2022). From pluripotent stem cells to bioengineered islets: a challenging journey to diabetes treatment. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci.172, 106148. 10.1016/j.ejps.2022.106148

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 40

  ChakrabortyC.BhattacharyaM.LeeS. S. (2023). Currentstatus of microneedle array technology for therapeutic delivery: from bench to clinic. Mol. Biotechnol.66, 3415–3437. 10.1007/s12033-023-00961-2

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 41

  ChanD.MaikawaC. L.D'AquinoA. I.RaghavanS. S.TroxellM. L.AppelE. A. (2023). Polyacrylamide-based hydrogel coatings improve biocompatibility of implanted pump devices. J. Biomed. Mater Res. A111, 910–920. 10.1002/jbm.a.37521

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 42

  ChaudhuryA.DuvoorC.ReddyD. V.KraletiS.ChadaA.RavillaR.et al (2017). Clinical review of antidiabetic drugs: implications for type 2 diabetes mellitus management. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)8, 6. 10.3389/fendo.2017.00006

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 43

  ChenA. C.LuY.HsiehC. Y.ChenY. S.ChangK. C.ChangD. H. (2024a). Advanced biomaterials and topical medications for treating diabetic foot ulcers: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Adv. Wound Care (New Rochelle)13, 97–113. 10.1089/wound.2023.0024

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 44

  CiattiC.ManiscalcoP.BosioS.PumaP.C.BianchiG.QuattriniF. (2024). Pseudotumor from ceramic-on-ceramic total hip arthroplasty. Int. J. Surg. Case. Rep.116, 109374. 10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109374

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 45

  ChenX.LiX.XiaoX.LongR.ChenB.LinY.et al (2024d). Photothermal and antibacterial pda@ag/serma microneedles for promoting diabetic wound repair. Acs. Appl. Bio. Mater.7, 6603–6616. 10.1021/acsabm.4c00793

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 46

  ChenF.WuP.ZhangH.SunG. (2024b). Signaling pathways triggering therapeutic hydrogels in promoting chronic wound healing. Macromol. Biosci.24, e2300217. 10.1002/mabi.202300217

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 47

  ChenF. M.LiuX. (2016). Advancing biomaterials of human origin for tissue engineering. Prog. Polym. Sci.53, 86–168. 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.02.004

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 48

  ChenL.SleemanK. E.BradshawA.SakharangW.MoY.Ellis-SmithC. (2024c). The use of person-centered outcome measures to support integrated palliative care for older people: a systematic review. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc.25, 105036. 10.1016/j.jamda.2024.105036

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 49

  ChenQ.BaoK.WangX.ChenJ. (2018). Recombinant fusion protein of lysozyme-antibacterial peptide for diabetic hand:clinical experience in one case. Chin. General Pract.5, 620–622. 10.3969/j.issn.1007-9572.2017.00.211

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 50

  ChenS.MatsumotoH.Moro-OkaY.TanakaM.MiyaharaY.SuganamiT.et al (2019). Smart microneedle fabricated with silk fibroin combined semi-interpenetrating network hydrogel for glucose-responsive insulin delivery. Acs Biomater. Sci. Eng.5, 5781–5789. 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b00532

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 51

  ChenX.LiX.XiaoX.LongR.ChenB.LinY.et al (2024d). Photothermal and antibacterial pda@ag/serma microneedles for promoting diabetic wound repair. Acs Appl. Bio Mater7, 6603–6616. 10.1021/acsabm.4c00793

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 52

  ChenX.ShenJ.LiuC.ShiX.FengW.SunH.et al (2024e). Applications of data characteristic ai-assisted Raman spectroscopy in pathological classification. Anal. Chem.96, 6158–6169. 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04930

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 53

  ChenY.XieT.YeM.LaiQ.WangY.XuY.et al (2021). Combination of pathological and spectroscopic characterization to promote diagnosis of retinal pigment epithelium-bruch's membrane complex in a diabetic rat model. Biomed. Opt. Express12, 2221–2235. 10.1364/BOE.419716

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 54

  ChengH.GuoS.CuiZ.ZhangX.HuoY.GuanJ.et al (2021). Design of folic acid decorated virus-mimicking nanoparticles for enhanced oral insulin delivery. Int. J. Pharm.596, 120297. 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120297

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 55

  Chinese Society of Endocrinology, China Endocrinology and Metabolism Specialist Alliance (2024). Expert consensus on wound treatment of diabetic foot ulcer. Chin. J. Endocrinol. Metabolism7, 565–569. 10.3760/cma.j.cn311282-20240625-00281

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 56

  ChuJ.ShiP.YanW.FuJ.YangZ.HeC.et al (2018). Pegylated graphene oxide-mediated quercetin-modified collagen hybrid scaffold for enhancement of mscs differentiation potential and diabetic wound healing. Nanoscale10, 9547–9560. 10.1039/c8nr02538j

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 57

  ChildsA.MayolB.Lasalde-RamirezJ.A.SongY.SempionattoJ.R.GaoW. (2024). Diving into sweat: advances, challenges, and future directions in wearable sweat sensing. Acs. Nano.18, 24605–24616. 10.1021/acsnano.4c10344

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 58

  ClintonJ. W.CrossR. K. (2023). Personalized treatment for crohn's disease: current approaches and future directions. Clin. Exp. Gastroenterol.16, 249–276. 10.2147/CEG.S360248

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 59

  CondrenM.SabetS.ChalmersL. J.SaleyT.HopwoodJ. (2019). Technology for augmenting type 1 diabetes mellitus management. J. Pediatr. Pharmacol. Ther.24, 99–106. 10.5863/1551-6776-24.2.99

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 60

  DariyaB.ChalikondaG.SrivaniG.AlamA.NagarajuG. P. (2019). Pathophysiology, etiology, epidemiology of type 1 diabetes and computational approaches for immune targets and therapy. Crit. Rev. Immunol.39, 239–265. 10.1615/CritRevImmunol.2019033126

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 61

  DasP.MannaS.RoyS.NandiS. K.BasakP. (2023). Polymeric biomaterials-based tissue engineering for wound healing: a systemic review. Burns Trauma11, tkac058. 10.1093/burnst/tkac058

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 62

  DefronzoR. A. (2009). From the triumvirate to the ominous octet: a new paradigm for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes58, 773–795. 10.2337/db09-9028

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 63

  DengZ.DavisJ.Muniz-RodriguezF.RichardsonF. (2018). Successful management of poorly controlled type 2 diabetes with multidisciplinary neurobehavioral rehabilitation: a case report and review. Diabetes Ther.9, 1713–1718. 10.1007/s13300-018-0448-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 64

  DengX.GouldM.AliM. A. (2022). A review of current advancements for wound healing: biomaterial applications and medical devices. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater110, 2542–2573. 10.1002/jbm.b.35086

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 65

  DervisevicM.AlbaM.EsserL.TabassumN.Prieto-SimonB.VoelckerN. H. (2022). Silicon micropillar array-based wearable sweat glucose sensor. Acs Appl. Mater Interfaces14, 2401–2410. 10.1021/acsami.1c22383

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 66

  DesaiA.TankasalaD.NgG. P.ThakkarP.HoilettO. S.MatherK. J.et al (2025). Selective collection of exhaled breath condensate for noninvasive screening of breath glucose. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol.19, 161–164. 10.1177/19322968231179728

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 67

  DuY.ZhangX.LiuP.YuD. G.GeR. (2022). Electrospun nanofiber-based glucose sensors for glucose detection. Front. Chem.10, 944428. 10.3389/fchem.2022.944428

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 68

  DuaA.DebnathA.KumarK.MazumderR.MazumderA.SinghR.et al (2024). Advancements of glucose monitoring biosensor: current state, generations of technological progress, and innovation dynamics. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol.25. 10.2174/0113892010305386240625072535

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 69

  EmadN. A.ZaiI.AhmadS.PanditJ.KhanM. A.SultanaY. (2024). Role of polyphenols, their nano-formulations, and biomaterials in diabetic wound healing. Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets24, 626–641. 10.2174/0118715303242310230927104709

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 70

  ErnstA.U.WangL.H.MaM. (2019). Interconnected toroidal hydrogels for islet encapsulation. Adv Healthc Mater8, e1900423. 10.1002/adhm.201900423

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 71

  ErrecabordeK. M.RistC.TravisD. A.RaganV.PotterT.PekolA.et al (2019). Evaluating one health: the role of team science in multisectoral collaboration. Rev. Sci. Tech.38, 279–289. 10.20506/rst.38.1.2960

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 72

  EsmaeiliA.BiazarE.EbrahimiM.HeidariK. S.KheilnezhadB.SaeediL. F. (2023). Acellular fish skin for wound healing. Int. Wound J.20, 2924–2941. 10.1111/iwj.14158

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 73

  EstevesC.PalmaS.CostaH.AlvesC.SantosG.RamouE.et al (2022). Tackling humidity with designer ionic liquid-based gas sensing soft materials. Adv. Mater34, e2107205. 10.1002/adma.202107205

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 74

  FadilahN.IsaI.ZamanW.TabataY.FauziM. B. (2022). The effect of nanoparticle-incorporated natural-based biomaterials towards cells on activated pathways: a systematic review. Polym. (Basel)14, 476. 10.3390/polym14030476

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 75

  FahimiradS.AjalloueianF. (2019). Naturally-derived electrospun wound dressings for target delivery of bio-active agents. Int. J. Pharm.566, 307–328. 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.05.053

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 76

  FanW.YangX.HuX.HuangR.ShiH.LiuG. (2024). A novel conductive microtubule hydrogel for electrical stimulation of chronic wounds based on biological electrical wires. J. Nanobiotechnology22, 258. 10.1186/s12951-024-02524-2

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 77

  FiroozbahrM.KingshottP.PalomboE. A.ZaferanlooB. (2023). Recent advances in using natural antibacterial additives in bioactive wound dressings. Pharmaceutics15, 644. 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020644

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 78

  Flores-GuerreroJ. L.Munoz-MoralesA.Narea-JimenezF.Perez-FuentesR.Torres-RasgadoE.Ruiz-VivancoG.et al (2020). Novel assessment of urinary albumin excretion in type 2 diabetes patients by Raman spectroscopy. Diagn. (Basel)10, 141. 10.3390/diagnostics10030141

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 79

  GuptaJ.FelnerE. I.PrausnitzM. R. (2009). Minimally invasive insulin delivery in subjects with type 1 diabetes using hollow microneedles. Diabetes Technol Ther11, 329–337. 10.1089/dia.2008.0103

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 80

  GeciliE.HuangR.KhouryJ.C.KingE.AltayeM.BowersK.et al (2020). Functional data analysis and prediction tools for continuous glucose-monitoring studies. J. Clin. Transl. Sci.5, e51. 10.1017/cts.2020.545

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 81

  GalassettiP. R.NovakB.NemetD.Rose-GottronC.CooperD. M.MeinardiS.et al (2005). Breath ethanol and acetone as indicators of serum glucose levels: an initial report. Diabetes Technol. Ther.7, 115–123. 10.1089/dia.2005.7.115

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 82

  GhasemiA.NorouziradR. (2019). Type 2 diabetes: an updated overview. Crit. Rev. Oncog.24, 213–222. 10.1615/CritRevOncog.2019030976

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 83

  GuoL.GuanN.MiaoW.ZhaoW.LiQ. (2022b). An electrospun scaffold loaded with an enteromorpha polysaccharide for accelerated wound healing in diabetic mice. Mar. Drugs.20, 95. 10.3390/md20020095

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 84

  GoonooN. (2022). Tunable biomaterials for myocardial tissue regeneration: promising new strategies for advanced biointerface control and improved therapeutic outcomes. Biomater. Sci.10, 1626–1646. 10.1039/d1bm01641e

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 85

  GovindarajM.SrivastavaA.MuthukumaranM. K.TsaiP. C.LinY. C.RajaB. K.et al (2023). Current advancements and prospects of enzymatic and non-enzymatic electrochemical glucose sensors. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.253, 126680. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126680

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 86

  GuanY.LiX.YangH.YangY.DuZ.HuaZ.et al (2025). Pore-edge high active sites of 2d wo (3) nanosheets enhancing acetone sensing performance. Talanta282, 127003. 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.127003

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 87

  HanH. H.KimS. K.KimS. J.ChoiI.MokJ. W.JooC. K.et al (2023). Long-term stable wireless smart contact lens for robust digital diabetes diagnosis. Biomaterials302, 122315. 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122315

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 88

  HaoL.KhajoueiF.RodriguezJ.KimS.LeeE. (2024a). Unlocking the promise of decellularized pancreatic tissue: a novel approach to support angiogenesis in engineered tissue. Bioeng. (Basel)11, 183. 10.3390/bioengineering11020183

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 89

  HaoX.YuT.MengX.WeiC.WangY.SunS.et al (2024b). Efficient mixed-potential acetone sensor with yttria-stabilized zirconia and porous co (3)o(4) nanofoam sensing electrode for hazardous gas monitoring and breath analysis. J. Hazard Mater478, 135462. 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135462

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 90

  HeY.LiuK.GuoS.ChangR.ZhangC.GuanF.et al (2023). Multifunctional hydrogel with reactive oxygen species scavenging and photothermal antibacterial activity accelerates infected diabetic wound healing. Acta Biomater.155, 199–217. 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.11.023

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 91

  HinaA.SaadehW. (2020). A noninvasive glucose monitoring soc based on single wavelength photoplethysmography. Ieee Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst.14, 504–515. 10.1109/TBCAS.2020.2979514

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 92

  HeidariF.YariA.TeimourianS.JoulaiV.S.NobakhtM. (2023). Effects of hair follicle stem cells coupled with polycaprolactone scaffold on cutaneous wound healing in diabetic male rats. J. Surg. Res.281, 200–213. 10.1016/j.jss.2022.08.008

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 93

  HongC.ChungH.LeeG.KimC.KimD.OhS. J.et al (2023). Hydrogel/nanofiber composite wound dressing optimized for skin layer regeneration through the mechanotransduction-based microcellular environment. Acs Appl. Bio Mater6, 1774–1786. 10.1021/acsabm.3c00014

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 94

  HongY.YuH.WangL.ChenX.HuangY.YangJ.et al (2022). Transdermal insulin delivery and microneedles-based minimally invasive delivery systems. Curr. Pharm. Des.28, 3175–3193. 10.2174/1381612828666220608130056

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 95

  HuT.FangJ.ShenY.LiM.WangB.XuZ.et al (2024a). Advances of naturally derived biomedical polymers in tissue engineering. Front. Chem.12, 1469183. 10.3389/fchem.2024.1469183

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 96

  HuY.XiongY.TaoR.XueH.ChenL.LinZ.et al (2022). Advances and perspective on animal models and hydrogel biomaterials for diabetic wound healing. Biomater. Transl.3, 188–200. 10.12336/biomatertransl.2022.03.003

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 97

  HuY. W.WangY. H.YangF.LiuD. X.LuG. H.LiS. T.et al (2024b). Flexible organic photovoltaic-powered hydrogel bioelectronic dressing with biomimetic electrical stimulation for healing infected diabetic wounds. Adv. Sci. (Weinh)11, e2307746. 10.1002/advs.202307746

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 98

  HuangC.YuanW.ChenJ.WuL. P.YouT. (2023). Construction of smart biomaterials for promoting diabetic wound healing. Molecules28, 1110. 10.3390/molecules28031110

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 99

  HuckvaleK.VenkateshS.ChristensenH. (2019). Toward clinical digital phenotyping: a timely opportunity to consider purpose, quality, and safety. Npj Digit. Med.2, 88. 10.1038/s41746-019-0166-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 100

  HwangS. I.ChenH. Y.FenkC.RothfussM. A.BocanK. N.FranconiN. G.et al (2021). Breath acetone sensing based on single-walled carbon nanotube-titanium dioxide hybrids enabled by a custom-built dehumidifier. Acs Sens.6, 871–880. 10.1021/acssensors.0c01973

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 101

  IitaniK.IshizukiN.MatsuhashiY.YokotaK.IchikawaK.TomaK.et al (2024). Biofluorometric acetone gas sensor of sub-ppbv level sensitivity. Anal. Chem.96, 20197–20203. 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03816

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 102

  IqbalS.SohailM.FangS.DingJ.ShenL.ChenM.et al (2023). Biomaterials evolution: from inert to instructive. Biomater. Sci.11, 6109–6115. 10.1039/d3bm00322a

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 103

  JagannathanM.DhinasekaranD.RajendranA. R.ChoS. (2023). A review of electroactive nanomaterials in the detection of nitrogen-containing organic compounds and future applications. Biosens. (Basel)13, 989. 10.3390/bios13110989

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 104

  JarosinskiM. A.DhayalanB.RegeN.ChatterjeeD.WeissM. A. (2021). 'smart' insulin-delivery technologies and intrinsic glucose-responsive insulin analogues. Diabetologia64, 1016–1029. 10.1007/s00125-021-05422-6

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 105

  JeongG. J.KhanS.TabassumN.KhanF.KimY. M. (2022). Marine-bioinspired nanoparticles as potential drugs for multiple biological roles. Mar. Drugs20, 527. 10.3390/md20080527

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 106

  JiangL.ShenY.LiuY.ZhangL.JiangW. (2022). Making human pancreatic islet organoids: progresses on the cell origins, biomaterials and three-dimensional technologies. Theranostics12, 1537–1556. 10.7150/thno.66670

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 107

  JiangL.WangC.FanT.LvS.PanS.SunP.et al (2024). Mixed potential type acetone sensor with ultralow detection limit for diabetic ketosis breath analysis. Acs Sens.9, 464–473. 10.1021/acssensors.3c02253

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 108

  JiangP.LiQ.LuoY.LuoF.CheQ.LuZ.et al (2023). Currentstatus and progress in research on dressing management for diabetic foot ulcer. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)14, 1221705. 10.3389/fendo.2023.1221705

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 109

  JinX.ZhuD. D.ChenB. Z.AshfaqM.GuoX. D. (2018). Insulin delivery systems combined with microneedle technology. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.127, 119–137. 10.1016/j.addr.2018.03.011

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 110

  JingS.LiH.XuH. (2023). Mesenchymal stem cell derived exosomes therapy in diabetic wound repair. Int. J. Nanomedicine18, 2707–2720. 10.2147/IJN.S411562

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 111

  JosyulaA.ParikhK. S.PithaI.EnsignL. M. (2021). Engineering biomaterials to prevent post-operative infection and fibrosis. Drug Deliv. Transl. Res.11, 1675–1688. 10.1007/s13346-021-00955-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 112

  KS. K.JothimaniD.ManoharanM.RelaM.SelvarajR.SeshadriS.et al (2025). Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy-based acetone and ammonia measurements from human breath near 8 μm wavelength band. Acs. Sens. 10.1021/acssensors.4c02336

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 113

  KalidossR.UmapathyS. (2019). An overview on the exponential growth of non-invasive diagnosis of diabetes mellitus from exhaled breath by nanostructured metal oxide chemi-resistive gas sensors and mu-preconcentrator. Biomed. Microdevices22, 2. 10.1007/s10544-019-0448-z

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 114

  KalraS.BantwalG.SahayR. K.BhattacharyaS.BaruahM. P.SheikhS.et al (2022). Incorporating integrated personalised diabetes management (ipdm) in treatment strategy: a pragmatic approach. Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab.26, 106–110. 10.4103/ijem.ijem_478_21

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 115

  KzhyshkowskaJ.GudimaA.RiabovV.DollingerC.LavalleP.VranaN.E. (2015). Macrophage responses to implants: prospects for personalized medicine. J. Leukoc. Biol.98, 953–962. 10.1189/jlb.5VMR0415-166R

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 116

  KamushevaM.TachkovK.DimitrovaM.MitkovaZ.Garcia-SaezG.HernandoM. E.et al (2021). A systematic review of collective evidences investigating the effect of diabetes monitoring systems and their application in health care. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)12, 636959. 10.3389/fendo.2021.636959

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 117

  KantakM. N.BharateS. S. (2022). Analysis of clinical trials on biomaterial and therapeutic applications of chitosan: a review. Carbohydr. Polym.278, 118999. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118999

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 118

  KarimiM.EslamiM.Sahandi-ZangabadP.MirabF.FarajisafilooN.ShafaeiZ.et al (2016). Ph-sensitive stimulus-responsive nanocarriers for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed Nanobiotechnol8, 696–716. 10.1002/wnan.1389

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 119

  KasputisT.CloughD.NotoF.RychelK.DyeB.SheaL. D. (2018). Microporous polymer scaffolds for the transplantation of embryonic stem cell derived pancreatic progenitors to a clinically translatable site for the treatment of type i diabetes. Acs Biomater. Sci. Eng.4, 1770–1778. 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.7b00912

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 120

  KassemM.AliA.AssalM.BadrawyA. (2017). Formulation, characterization and in vivo application of oral insulin nanotechnology using different biodegradable polymers: advanced drug delivery system. Int. J. Adv. Res. (Indore)5, 1028–1044. 10.21474/IJAR01/5863

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 121

  KavianiM.AzarpiraN. (2016). Insight into microenvironment remodeling in pancreatic endocrine tissue engineering: biological and biomaterial approaches. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med.13, 475–484. 10.1007/s13770-016-0014-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 122

  KhaizY.AlI. N.BakkaliM.AhidS. (2025). Association of the immunity genes with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Curr. Diabetes Rev.21, 38–46. 10.2174/0115733998275617231218101116

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 123

  KimJ.CampbellA. S.de AvilaB. E.WangJ. (2019). Wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring. Nat. Biotechnol.37, 389–406. 10.1038/s41587-019-0045-y

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 124

  KimY. C.ParkJ. H.PrausnitzM. R. (2012). Microneedles for drug and vaccine delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.64, 1547–1568. 10.1016/j.addr.2012.04.005

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 125

  KlangjareonchaiT.EguchiN.TantisattamoE.FerreyA. J.ReddyU.DafoeD. C.et al (2021). Current pharmacological intervention and medical management for diabetic kidney transplant recipients. Pharmaceutics13, 413. 10.3390/pharmaceutics13030413

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 126

  Knopf-MarquesH.PravdaM.WolfovaL.VelebnyV.SchaafP.VranaN. E.et al (2016). Hyaluronic acid and its derivatives in coating and delivery systems: applications in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine and immunomodulation. Adv. Healthc. Mater5, 2841–2855. 10.1002/adhm.201600316

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 127

  KohW. L.FosterT.MooranianA.Al-SalamiH. (2022). Applications of bile acids as biomaterials-based modulators, in biomedical science and microfluidics. Ther. Deliv.13, 591–604. 10.4155/tde-2022-0044

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 128

  KongC.GuoZ.TengT.YaoQ.YuJ.WangM.et al (2024). Electroactive nanomaterials for the prevention and treatment of heart failure: from materials and mechanisms to applications. Small20, e2406206. 10.1002/smll.202406206

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 129

  KraulandA. H.AlonsoM. J. (2007). Chitosan/cyclodextrin nanoparticles as macromolecular drug delivery system. Int. J. Pharm.340, 134–142. 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.03.005

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 130

  LarijaniG.ParivarK.HayatiR. N.YaghmaeiP.AminiN. (2024). Fortified electrospun collagen utilizing biocompatible poly glycerol sebacate prepolymer (pgsp) and zink oxide nanoparticles (zno nps) for diabetics wound healing: physical, biological and animal studies. Regen. Ther.26, 102–113. 10.1016/j.reth.2024.05.009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 131

  LathamJ. (2019). The artificial pancreas: what school nurses need to know. Nasn Sch. Nurse34, 86–89. 10.1177/1942602X18804491

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 132

  LengT.WangY.ChengW.WangW.QuX.LeiB. (2022). Bioactive anti-inflammatory antibacterial metformin-contained hydrogel dressing accelerating wound healing. Biomater. Adv.135, 212737. 10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.212737

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 133

  LiZ.HuJ.YangL.ZhangX.LiuX.WangZ.LiY. (2020). Integrated poss-dendrimer nanohybrid materials: current status and future perspective. Nanoscale12, 11395–11415. 10.1039/d0nr02394a

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 134

  LiR.WeiX.XuJ.ChenJ.LiB.WuZ.WangZ. L. (2021). Smart wearable sensors based on triboelectric nanogenerator for personal healthcare monitoring. Micromachines (Basel)12. 10.3390/mi12040352

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 135

  LiY.YangL.HouY.ZhangZ.ChenM.WangM.et al (2022). Polydopamine-mediated graphene oxide and nanohydroxyapatite-incorporated conductive scaffold with an immunomodulatory ability accelerates periodontal bone regeneration in diabetes. Bioact Mater18, 213–217. 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.03.021

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 136

  LiS.LiH.LuY.ZhouM.JiangS.DuX.et al (2023). Advanced textile-based wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring. Biosens. (Basel)13, 909. 10.3390/bios13100909

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 137

  LiW.LiuY.LuX.HuangY.LiuY.ChengS.et al (2015). A cross-sectional study of breath acetone based on diabetic metabolic disorders. J. Breath. Res.9, 016005. 10.1088/1752-7155/9/1/016005

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 138

  LiX.JiangX.GaoF.ZhouL.WangG.LiB.et al (2024). Study and evaluation of a gelatin-silver oxide nanoparticles releasing nitric oxide production of wound healing dressing for diabetic ulcer. Plos One19, e0298124. 10.1371/journal.pone.0298124

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 139

  LimJ.GohL.OtakeK. I.GohS. S.LohX. J.KitagawaS. (2023). Biomedically-relevant metal organic framework-hydrogel composites. Biomater Sci.11, 2661–2677. 10.1039/d2bm01906j

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 140

  LinH.LiuJ.HouY.YuZ.HongJ.YuJ.et al (2025a). Microneedle patch with pure drug tips for delivery of liraglutide: pharmacokinetics in rats and minipigs. Drug Deliv. Transl. Res.15, 216–230. 10.1007/s13346-024-01582-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 141

  LinL.PisanoA. P. (1999). Silicon-processed microneedles. J. Microelectromech. Syst8, 78–84. 10.1109/84.749406

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 142

  LinY.WuJ.ZhuangZ.GongX.JinZ.LinX.et al (2025b). A ph-responsive microneedle patch for the transdermal delivery of biomineralized insulin nanoparticles to diabetes treatment. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.284, 137955. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.137955

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 143

  LitraD.ChiriacM.AbabiiN.LupanO. (2024). Acetone sensors based on al-coated and ni-doped copper oxide nanocrystalline thin films. Sensors (Basel)24, 6550. 10.3390/s24206550

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 144

  LoretelliC.AssiE.SeelamA. J.BenN. M.FiorinaP. (2020). Cell therapy for type 1 diabetes. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther.20, 887–897. 10.1080/14712598.2020.1748596

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 145

  LuoX.YuQ.YangL.CuiY. (2023). Wearable, sensing-controlled, ultrasound-based microneedle smart system for diabetes management. Acs Sens.8, 1710–1722. 10.1021/acssensors.2c02863

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 146

  LupascuF. G.SavaA.TatarusanuS. M.IacobA. T.DascaluA.ProfireB. S.et al (2024). New chitosan-based co-delivery nanosystem for diabetes mellitus therapy. Polym. (Basel)16, 1825. 10.3390/polym16131825

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 147

  LvS.ZhangS.ZuoJ.LiangS.YangJ.WangJ.et al (2023). Progress in preparation and properties of chitosan-based hydrogels. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.242, 124915. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124915

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 148

  LydiardJ.NemeroffC. B. (2019). Biomarker-guided tailored therapy. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.1192, 199–224. 10.1007/978-981-32-9721-0_10

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 149

  MaitaK. C.AvilaF. R.Torres-GuzmanR. A.GarciaJ. P.EldalyA. S.PalmieriL.et al (2022). Local anti-inflammatory effect and immunomodulatory activity of chitosan-based dressing in skin wound healing: a systematic review. J. Clin. Transl. Res.8, 488–498.

  • Google Scholar

• 150

  MartantoW.MooreJ. S.KashlanO.KamathR.WangP. M.O'NealJ. M. (2006). Microinfusion using hollow microneedles. Pharm Res23, 104–113. 10.1007/s11095-005-8498-8

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 151

  MeiS.YangY.WangJ. (2023). Synthesis of decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix hydrogels. J. Vis. Exp.10.3791/64797

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 152

  MemonB.ElsayedA. K.BettahiI.SuleimanN.YounisI.WehedyE.et al (2022). Ipscs derived from insulin resistant offspring of type 2 diabetic patients show increased oxidative stress and lactate secretion. Stem Cell Res. Ther.13, 428. 10.1186/s13287-022-03123-4

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 153

  MirbagheriM. S.Akhavan-MahdaviS.HasanA.KharazmiM. S.JafariS. M. (2023). Chitosan-based electrospun nanofibers for diabetic foot ulcer management; Recent advances. Carbohydr. Polym.313, 120512. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120512

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 154

  MohamedA. A.KhaterS. I.HamedA. A.MetwallyM.Mostafa-HedeabG.El-ShetryE. S. (2021). Chitosan-stabilized selenium nanoparticles alleviate cardio-hepatic damage in type 2 diabetes mellitus model via regulation of caspase, bax/bcl-2, and fas/fasl-pathway. Gene768, 145288. 10.1016/j.gene.2020.145288

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 155

  MohammadK. A. (2024). Principles and biomedical applications of self-assembled peptides: potential treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmaceutics16, 1442. 10.3390/pharmaceutics16111442

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 156

  MorcolT.NagappanP.NerenbaumL.MitchellA.BellS. J. (2004). Calcium phosphate-peg-insulin-casein (capic) particles as oral delivery systems for insulin. Int. J. Pharm.277, 91–97. 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2003.07.015

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 157

  MoserO.ZaharievaD. P.AdolfssonP.BattelinoT.BrackenR. M.BuckinghamB. A.et al (2025). The use of automated insulin delivery around physical activity and exercise in type 1 diabetes: a position statement of the european association for the study of diabetes (easd) and the international society for pediatric and adolescent diabetes (ispad). Diabetologia68, 255–280. 10.1007/s00125-024-06308-z

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 158

  MosesR. L.PrescottT.Mas-ClaretE.SteadmanR.MoseleyR.SloanA. J. (2023). Evidence for natural products as alternative wound-healing therapies. Biomolecules13, 444. 10.3390/biom13030444

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 159

  MoonS. J.LeeS. S.LeeH. S.KwonT. H. (2005). Fabrication of microneedle array using liga and hot embossing process. Micro. Techn.11, 311–318. 10.1007/s00542-004-0446-8

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 160

  MetwallyW.M.El-HabashyS.E.El-HosseinyL.S.EssawyM.M.EltaherH.M.El-KhordaguiL.K.et al (2023). Bioinspired 3d-printed scaffold embedding ddab-nano zno/nanofibrous microspheres for regenerative diabetic wound healing. Biofabrication16, 015001. 10.1088/1758-5090/acfd60

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 161

  MukerjeeE.V.CollinsS.D.IsseroffR.R.SmithR.L. (2015). Microneedle array for transdermal biological fluid extraction and in situ analysis. Sensors & Actua. Phy.114, 267–275. 10.1016/j.sna.2003.11.008

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 162

  MaB.LiuS.GanZ.LiuG.CaiX.ZhangH.et al (2006). A pzt insulin pump integrated with a silicon microneedle array for transdermal drug delivery. Microf. Nanoflu.2, 417–423. 10.1007/s10404-006-0083-x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 163

  MousaviS. M.BehbudiG.GholamiA.HashemiS. A.NejadZ. M.BahraniS.et al (2022). Shape-controlled synthesis of zinc nanostructures mediating macromolecules for biomedical applications. Biomater. Res.26, 4. 10.1186/s40824-022-00252-y

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 164

  NaE.TaoS.WangW.LiJ.GuoY.GaoR.et al (2024). Ultrasensitive acetone gas sensor based on a k/sn-co (3)o(4) porous microsphere for noninvasive diabetes diagnosis. Acs Sens.9, 6148–6156. 10.1021/acssensors.4c02009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 165

  NaahidiS.JafariM.LoganM.WangY.YuanY.BaeH.et al (2017). Biocompatibility of hydrogel-based scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Biotechnol. Adv.35, 530–544. 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.05.006

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 166

  NandhakumarM.GosalaR.SubramanianB. (2022). Invigorating chronic wound healing by nanocomposites composed with bioactive materials: a comprehensive review. Biotechnol. Lett.44, 1243–1261. 10.1007/s10529-022-03303-5

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 167

  NarandaJ.BracicM.VogrinM.MaverU. (2021). Recent advancements in 3d printing of polysaccharide hydrogels in cartilage tissue engineering. Mater. (Basel)14, 3977. 10.3390/ma14143977

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 168

  NematiM.EbrahimiZ.KarbalaeiN.DastghaibS.KhakshourniaS.SargaziM. (2023). In vitro and in vivo improvement of islet quality and transplantation successes following islet treatment with biomaterials in diabetic rats. J. Diabetes Res.2023, 1–14. 10.1155/2023/1399917

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 169

  NiT.DongZ.XiK.LuY.ChangK.GeC.et al (2024). Nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots activated dandelion-like hierarchical wo (3) for highly sensitive and selective mems sensors in diabetes detection. Acs Sens.10.1021/acssensors.4c01840

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 170

  NirenjenS.NarayananJ.TamilanbanT.SubramaniyanV.ChitraV.FuloriaN. K.et al (2023). Exploring the contribution of pro-inflammatory cytokines to impaired wound healing in diabetes. Front. Immunol.14, 1216321. 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1216321

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 171

  NisarS.DastgeerG.ShazadZ. M.ZulfiqarM. W.RasheedA.IqbalM. Z.et al (2024). 2d materials in advanced electronic biosensors for point-of-care devices. Adv. Sci. (Weinh)11, e2401386. 10.1002/advs.202401386

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 172

  NuutilaK.SinghM.KruseC.PhilipJ.CatersonE. J.ErikssonE. (2016). Titanium wound chambers for wound healing research. Wound Repair Regen.24, 1097–1102. 10.1111/wrr.12472

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 173

  NyagaD. M.VickersM. H.JefferiesC.PerryJ. K.O'SullivanJ. M. (2018a). The genetic architecture of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Mol. Cell Endocrinol.477, 70–80. 10.1016/j.mce.2018.06.002

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 174

  NyagaD. M.VickersM. H.JefferiesC.PerryJ. K.O'SullivanJ. M. (2018b). Type 1 diabetes mellitus-associated genetic variants contribute to overlapping immune regulatory networks. Front. Genet.9, 535. 10.3389/fgene.2018.00535

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 175

  OliveiraM. J.DalotA.FortunatoE.MartinsR.ByrneH. J.FrancoR.et al (2022). Microfluidic sers devices: brightening the future of bioanalysis. Discov. Mater2, 12. 10.1007/s43939-022-00033-3

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 176

  OpritaE. I.IosageanuA.CraciunescuO. (2023). Natural polymeric hydrogels encapsulating small molecules for diabetic wound healing. Gels9, 867. 10.3390/gels9110867

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 177

  OteroF.MagnerE. (2020). Biosensors-recent advances and future challenges in electrode materials. Sensors (Basel)20, 3561. 10.3390/s20123561

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 178

  PagliucaF. W.MillmanJ. R.GurtlerM.SegelM.Van DervortA.RyuJ. H.et al (2014). Generation of functional human pancreatic β cells In Vitro. Cell159, 428–439. 10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.040

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 179

  PeiJ.PalanisamyC. P.AlugojuP.AnthikapalliN.NatarajanP. M.UmapathyV. R.et al (2023). A comprehensive review on bio-based materials for chronic diabetic wounds. Molecules28, 604. 10.3390/molecules28020604

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 180

  PengW.LiD.DaiK.WangY.SongP.LiH.et al (2022). Recent progress of collagen, chitosan, alginate and other hydrogels in skin repair and wound dressing applications. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.208, 400–408. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.03.002

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 181

  PaganelliA.I.MondejarA.G.DaS.A.Silva-CalpaG.TeixeiraM.F.CarvalhoF.et al (2022). Real-time data analysis in health monitoring systems: a comprehensive systematic literature review. J. Biomed. Inform.127, 104009. 10.1016/j.jbi.2022.104009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 182

  PrasathkumarM.SadhasivamS. (2021). Chitosan/hyaluronic acid/alginate and an assorted polymers loaded with honey, plant, and marine compounds for progressive wound healing-know-how. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.186, 656–685. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.07.067

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 183

  PutzbachW.RonkainenN. J. (2013). Immobilization techniques in the fabrication of nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors: a review. Sensors (Basel)13, 4811–4840. 10.3390/s130404811

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 184

  QinW.WuY.LiuJ.YuanX.GaoJ. (2022). A comprehensive review of the application of nanoparticles in diabetic wound healing: therapeutic potential and future perspectives. Int. J. Nanomedicine17, 6007–6029. 10.2147/IJN.S386585

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 185

  QiuH.ZhangL.WangD.MiaoH. (2022). Silver nanoparticles improve the biocompatibility and reduce the immunogenicity of xenogeneic scaffolds derived from decellularized pancreas. Cell Reprogr.24, 38–47. 10.1089/cell.2021.0071

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 186

  QueirozM.ShanmugamS.SantosL.CamposC. A.SantosA. M.BatistaM. S.et al (2020). Microneedles as an alternative technology for transdermal drug delivery systems: a patent review. Expert Opin. Ther. Pat.30, 433–452. 10.1080/13543776.2020.1742324

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 187

  RenukaR.R.JuliusA.YoganandhamS.T.UmapathyD.RamadossR.SamrotA.V.et al (2022). Diverse nanocomposites as a potential dressing for diabetic wound healing. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)13, 1074568. 10.3389/fendo.2022.1074568

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 188

  RajinikanthB. S.RajkumarD.KK.VijayaragavanV. (2024). Chitosan-based biomaterial in wound healing: a review. Cureus16, e55193. 10.7759/cureus.55193

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 189

  RajputA.KulkarniM.DeshmukhP.PingaleP.GarkalA.GandhiS.et al (2021). A key role by polymers in microneedle technology: a new era. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm.47, 1713–1732. 10.1080/03639045.2022.2058531

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 190

  RameshA.ChhabraP.BraymanK. L. (2013). Pancreatic islet transplantation in type 1 diabetes mellitus: an update on recent developments. Curr. Diabetes Rev.9, 294–311. 10.2174/15733998113099990063

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 191

  RathnaR. P.KulandhaivelM. (2024). Advancements in wound healing: integrating biomolecules, drug delivery carriers, and targeted therapeutics for enhanced tissue repair. Arch. Microbiol.206, 199. 10.1007/s00203-024-03910-y

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 192

  RavoorJ.ThangavelM.ElsenS. R. (2021). Comprehensive review on design and manufacturing of bio-scaffolds for bone reconstruction. Acs Appl. Bio Mater4, 8129–8158. 10.1021/acsabm.1c00949

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 193

  RazzaghiM.NinanJ. A.AzimzadehM.AskariE.NajafabadiA. H.KhademhosseiniA.et al (2024). Remote-controlled sensing and drug delivery via 3d-printed hollow microneedles. Adv. Healthc. Mater13, e2400881. 10.1002/adhm.202400881

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 194

  RenC.ZhongD.QiY.LiuC.LiuX.ChenS.et al (2023). Bioinspired ph-responsive microalgal hydrogels for oral insulin delivery with both hypoglycemic and insulin sensitizing effects. Acs Nano17, 14161–14175. 10.1021/acsnano.3c04897

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 195

  RenS.GuoS.YangL.WangC. (2022). Effect of composite biodegradable biomaterials on wound healing in diabetes. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol.10, 1060026. 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1060026

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 196

  RenardE. (2023). Automated insulin delivery systems: from early research to routine care of type 1 diabetes. Acta Diabetol.60, 151–161. 10.1007/s00592-022-01929-5

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 197

  RenzuM.HubersC.ConwayK.GibatovaV.MehtaV.TahaW. (2024). Emerging technologies in endocrine drug delivery: innovations for improved patient care. Cureus16, e62324. 10.7759/cureus.62324

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 198

  RighettoniM.SchmidA.AmannA.PratsinisS. E. (2013). Correlations between blood glucose and breath components from portable gas sensors and ptr-tof-ms. J. Breath. Res.7, 037110. 10.1088/1752-7155/7/3/037110

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 199

  Rodriguez-RodriguezN.Martinez-JimenezI.Garcia-OjalvoA.Mendoza-MariY.Guillen-NietoG.ArmstrongD. G.et al (2022). Wound chronicity, impaired immunity and infection in diabetic patients. Medicc Rev.24, 44–58. 10.37757/MR2021.V23.N3.8

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 200

  RozmanN.TongW. Y.LeongC. R.AnuarM. R.KarimS.OngS. K.et al (2020). Homalomena pineodora essential oil nanoparticle inhibits diabetic wound pathogens. Sci. Rep.10, 3307. 10.1038/s41598-020-60364-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 201

  Ruiz-MunozM.Martinez-BarriosF. J.Lopezosa-RecaE. (2024). Placenta-derived biomaterials vs. Standard care in chronic diabetic foot ulcer healing: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab. Syndr.19, 103170. 10.1016/j.dsx.2024.103170

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 202

  SacoM.HoweN.NathooR.CherpelisB. (2016). Comparing the efficacies of alginate, foam, hydrocolloid, hydrofiber, and hydrogel dressings in the management of diabetic foot ulcers and venous leg ulcers: a systematic review and meta-analysis examining how to dress for success. Dermatol Online J.22. 10.5070/d3228032089

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 203

  SahuB.PrustyA.TuduB. (2018). Total contact casting versus traditional dressing in diabetic foot ulcers. J. Orthop. Surg. Hong. Kong26, 2309499018802486. 10.1177/2309499018802486

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 204

  SalthouseD.NovakovicK.HilkensC.FerreiraA. M. (2023). Interplay between biomaterials and the immune system: challenges and opportunities in regenerative medicine. Acta Biomater.155, 1–18. 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.11.003

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 205

  SarkarS.EkbalK. M.KalitaJ.MannaP. (2023). Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: drug delivery vehicles for antidiabetic molecules. Chembiochem24, e202200672. 10.1002/cbic.202200672

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 206

  SarkhelS.ShuvoS. M.AnsariM. A.MondalS.KapatP.GhoshA.et al (2024). Nanotechnology-based approaches for the management of diabetes mellitus: an innovative solution to long-lasting challenges in antidiabetic drug delivery. Pharmaceutics16, 1572. 10.3390/pharmaceutics16121572

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 207

  ScandurraA.IaconoV.BoscarinoS.ScaleseS.GrimaldiM. G.RuffinoF. (2023). Model of chronoamperometric response towards glucose sensing by arrays of gold nanostructures obtained by laser, thermal and wet processes. Nanomater. (Basel)13, 1163. 10.3390/nano13071163

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 208

  SchlaeppiA.AdamsW.HaaseR.HuiskenJ.MacDonaldR. B.EliceiriK. W.et al (2022). Meeting in the middle: towards successful multidisciplinary bioimage analysis collaboration. Front. Bioinform2, 889755. 10.3389/fbinf.2022.889755

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 209

  SchackartK.R.YoonJ.Y. (2021). Machine learning enhances the performance of bioreceptor-free biosensors. Sensors (Basel)21, 5519. 10.3390/s21165519

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 210

  ShamshadA.KangC.JennyL. A.Persad-PaisleyE. M.TsangS. H. (2023). Translatability barriers between preclinical and clinical trials of aav gene therapy in inherited retinal diseases. Vis. Res.210, 108258. 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108258

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 211

  SharmaS.KishenA. (2024). Bioarchitectural design of bioactive biopolymers: structure-function paradigm for diabetic wound healing. Biomimetics (Basel)9, 275. 10.3390/biomimetics9050275

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 212

  SharmahB.AfzalN. U.LoyingR.RoyA.KalitaJ.DasJ.et al (2024). Glucose-responsive insulin delivery via surface-functionalized titanium dioxide nanoparticles: a promising theragnostic against diabetes mellitus. Acs Appl. Bio Mater8, 475–487. 10.1021/acsabm.4c01426

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 213

  SocciM. C.RodriguezG.OlivaE.FushimiS.TakabatakeK.NagatsukaH.et al (2023). Polymeric materials, advances and applications in tissue engineering: a review. Bioeng. (Basel)10, 218. 10.3390/bioengineering10020218

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 214

  SoetedjoA.LeeJ. M.LauH. H.GohG. L.AnJ.KohY.et al (2021). Tissue engineering and 3d printing of bioartificial pancreas for regenerative medicine in diabetes. Trends Endocrinol. Metab.32, 609–622. 10.1016/j.tem.2021.05.007

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 215

  SonmezerD.LatifogluF.ToprakG.BaranM. (2023). A native extracellular matrix material for tissue engineering applications: characterization of pericardial fluid. J. Biomed. Mater Res. B Appl. Biomater.111, 1629–1639. 10.1002/jbm.b.35260

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 216

  StarlinC. M.MahmoodS.MohamedS. Z.WanH. C.SundarapandianR.AhamedH. N.et al (2024). Biodegradable polymeric insulin microneedles - a design and materials perspective review. Drug Deliv.31, 2296350. 10.1080/10717544.2023.2296350

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 217

  SultanaA.BorgohainR.RayajiA.SahaD.KumarD. B. (2024). Promising phytoconstituents in diabetes-related wounds: mechanistic insights and implications. Curr. Diabetes Rev.21, e270224227477. 10.2174/0115733998279112240129074457

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 218

  Summers-GibsonL. (2021). The relationships between diabetes self-care, diabetes time management, and diabetes distress in women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Sci. Diabetes Self Manag. Care47, 245–254. 10.1177/26350106211014438

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 219

  TakahashiM.UmeharaY.YueH.Trujillo-PaezJ. V.PengG.NguyenH.et al (2021). The antimicrobial peptide human β-defensin-3 accelerates wound healing by promoting angiogenesis, cell migration, and proliferation through the FGFR/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. Front. Immunol.12, 712781. 10.3389/fimmu.2021.712781

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 220

  TallapaneniV.KalaivaniC.PamuD.MudeL.SinghS. K.KarriV. (2021). Acellular scaffolds as innovative biomaterial platforms for the management of diabetic wounds. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med.18, 713–734. 10.1007/s13770-021-00344-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 221

  TandaN.HinokioY.WashioJ.TakahashiN.KosekiT. (2014). Analysis of ketone bodies in exhaled breath and blood of ten healthy Japanese at ogtt using a portable gas chromatograph. J. Breath. Res.8, 046008. 10.1088/1752-7155/8/4/046008

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 222

  TankasalaD.LinnesJ. C. (2019). Noninvasive glucose detection in exhaled breath condensate. Transl. Res.213, 1–22. 10.1016/j.trsl.2019.05.006

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 223

  TeymourianH.BarfidokhtA.WangJ. (2020). Electrochemical glucose sensors in diabetes management: an updated review (2010-2020). Chem. Soc. Rev.49, 7671–7709. 10.1039/d0cs00304b

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 224

  TripathiA. S.ZakiM.Al-HussainS. A.DubeyB. K.SinghP.RindL.et al (2023). Material matters: exploring the interplay between natural biomaterials and host immune system. Front. Immunol.14, 1269960. 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1269960

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 225

  TuttyM. A.VellaG.Prina-MelloA. (2022). Pre-clinical 2d and 3d toxicity response to a panel of nanomaterials; Comparative assessment of nbm-induced liver toxicity. Drug Deliv. Transl. Res.12, 2157–2177. 10.1007/s13346-022-01170-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 226

  UmeharaY.TakahashiM.YueH.Trujillo-PaezJ. V.PengG.NguyenH.et al (2022). The antimicrobial peptides human β-defensins induce the secretion of angiogenin in human dermal fibroblasts. Int. J. Mol. Sci.23, 8800. 10.3390/ijms23158800

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 227

  VajhadinF.Mazloum-ArdakaniM.AminiA. (2021). Metal oxide-based gas sensors for the detection of exhaled breath markers. Med. Devices Sens.4, e10161. 10.1002/mds3.10161

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 228

  Varela-MorenoE.CarreiraS. M.Guzman-ParraJ.Jodar-SanchezF.Mayoral-CleriesF.Anarte-OrtizM. T. (2021). Effectiveness of ehealth-based psychological interventions for depression treatment in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. Front. Psychol.12, 746217. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.746217

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 229

  VargasG. M.AendekerkF.de BoerC.GeurtsJ.LucchesiJ.ArtsJ. (2024). Bioactive-glass-based materials with possible application in diabetic wound healing: a systematic review. Int. J. Mol. Sci.25, 1152. 10.3390/ijms25021152

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 230

  VerbaanF. J.BalS. M.van den BergD. J.DijksmanJ. A.van HeckeM.VerpoortenH.et al (2008). Improved piercing of microneedle arrays in dermatomed human skin by an impact insertion method. J. Control. Release.128, 80–88. 10.1016/j.jconrel.2008.02.009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 231

  VenkatesanV.RangasamyJ. (2023). Diabetic pedal osteomyelitis and its treatment. Chonnam Med. J.59, 109–114. 10.4068/cmj.2023.59.2.109

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 232

  VolpattiL. R.FacklamA. L.CortinasA. B.LuY. C.MatrangaM. A.MacIsaacC.et al (2021). Microgel encapsulated nanoparticles for glucose-responsive insulin delivery. Biomaterials267, 120458. 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120458

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 233

  WangJ.JinX. (2024). Strategies for decellularization, re-cellularization and crosslinking in liver bioengineering. Int J Artif Organs47, 129–139. 10.1177/03913988231218566

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 234

  WangJ.DuanX.ZhongD.ZhangM.LiJ.HuZ.et al (2024). Pharmaceutical applications of chitosan in skin regeneration: a review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.261, 129064. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.129064

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 235

  WangX.YangY.ZhaoW.ZhuZ.PeiX. (2024). Recent advances of hydrogels as smart dressings for diabetic wounds. J. Mater Chem. B12, 1126–1148. 10.1039/d3tb02355a

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 236

  WangY.WangH.ZhuX. X.GuanY.ZhangY. (2020). Smart microneedle patches for rapid, and painless transdermal insulin delivery. J. Mater Chem. B8, 9335–9342. 10.1039/d0tb01822h

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 237

  WilemsT.VardhanS.WuS.Sakiyama-ElbertS. (2019). The influence of microenvironment and extracellular matrix molecules in driving neural stem cell fate within biomaterials. Brain Res. Bull.148, 25–33. 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.03.004

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 238

  WooS. H.ChoiJ. H.MoY. J.LeeY. I.JeonW. B.LeeY. S. (2023). Engineered elastin-like polypeptide improves the efficiency of adipose-derived stem cell-mediated cutaneous wound healing in type ii diabetes mellitus. Heliyon9, e20201. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20201

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 239

  WilkeN.HibertC.BrienJ.O.MorrisseyA. (2005). Silicon microneedle electrode array with temperature monitoring for electroporation. Sensors & Actuators a Physical123, 319–325. 10.1016/j.sna.2005.05.017

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 240

  WuX.LiuC.WangL.BilalM. (2023). Internet of things-enabled real-time health monitoring system using deep learning. Neural. Comput. Appl.35, 14565–14576. 10.1007/s00521-021-06440-6

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 241

  XieB.WangK.LiB.HuangR.XuZ.LiX. (2023). Biomaterial-mediated strategies for accurate and convenient diagnosis, and effective treatment of diabetes: advantages, current progress and future perspectives. J. Mater Chem. B11, 3766–3786. 10.1039/d3tb00034f

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 242

  XieZ.RamakrishnamR. M.StewartA. C.NantzM. H.FuX. A. (2018). Imparting sensitivity and selectivity to a gold nanoparticle chemiresistor through thiol monolayer functionalization for sensing acetone. Rsc Adv.8, 35618–35624. 10.1039/c8ra06137h

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 243

  XingC.LuoM.ShengQ.ZhuZ.YuD.HuangJ.et al (2024). Silk fabric functionalized by nanosilver enabling the wearable sensing for biomechanics and biomolecules. Acs Appl. Mater Interfaces16, 51669–51678. 10.1021/acsami.4c10253

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 244

  XuB.LiuH.YangG.ZhangS.ZhouZ.GaoY. (2024). Novel double-layered plga microparticles-dissolving microneedle (mps-dmn) system for peptide drugs sustained release by transdermal delivery. Int. J. Pharm.670, 125128. 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.125128

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 245

  XuG.ZhangW.DuJ.YuanX.ZhangW.YanW.et al (2022). Biomass-derived porous carbon with high drug adsorption capacity undergoes enzymatic and chemical degradation. J. Colloid Interface Sci.622, 87–96. 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.04.064

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 246

  XuR.FangY.ZhangZ.CaoY.YanY.GanL.et al (2023). Recent advances in biodegradable and biocompatible synthetic polymers used in skin wound healing. Mater. (Basel)16, 5459. 10.3390/ma16155459

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 247

  YangJ.XuL. (2023). Electrospun nanofiber membranes with various structures for wound dressing. Mater. (Basel)16, 6021. 10.3390/ma16176021

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 248

  YangP.LiS.ZhangH.DingX.TanQ. (2024). LRG1 accelerates wound healing in diabetic rats by promoting angiogenesis via the wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Int. J. Low. Extrem Wounds23, 568–576. 10.1177/15347346221081610

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 249

  YaoY.ZhangH.WangZ.DingJ.WangS.HuangB.et al (2019). Reactive oxygen species (ros)-responsive biomaterials mediate tissue microenvironments and tissue regeneration. J. Mater Chem. B7, 5019–5037. 10.1039/c9tb00847k

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 250

  YasinS.SaidZ.HalibN.RahmanZ. A.MokhzaniN. I. (2023). Polymer-based hydrogel loaded with honey in drug delivery system for wound healing applications. Polym. (Basel)15, 3085. 10.3390/polym15143085

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 251

  YoonJ.ChoH. Y.ShinM.ChoiH. K.LeeT.ChoiJ. W. (2020). Flexible electrochemical biosensors for healthcare monitoring. J. Mater Chem. B8, 7303–7318. 10.1039/d0tb01325k

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 252

  YoungK. G.McGovernA. P.BarrosoI.HattersleyA. T.JonesA. G.ShieldsB. M.et al (2023). The impact of population-level hba(1c) screening on reducing diabetes diagnostic delay in middle-aged adults: a UK biobank analysis. Diabetologia66, 300–309. 10.1007/s00125-022-05824-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 253

  YueH.SongP.SutthammikornN.UmeharaY.Trujillo-PaezJ. V.NguyenH.et al (2022). Antimicrobial peptide derived from insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 5 improves diabetic wound healing. Wound Repair Regen.30, 232–244. 10.1111/wrr.12997

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 254

  YunosM.ManczakR.GuinesC.MansorA.MakW. C.KhanS.et al (2021). Rf remote blood glucose sensor and a microfluidic vascular phantom for sensor validation. Biosens. (Basel)11, 494. 10.3390/bios11120494

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 255

  YusufA. A.AdelekeO. A. (2023). Nanofibrous scaffolds for diabetic wound healing. Pharmaceutics15, 986. 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030986

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 256

  ZafarH.ChannaA.JeotiV.StojanovicG. M. (2022). Comprehensive review on wearable sweat-glucose sensors for continuous glucose monitoring. Sensors (Basel)22, 638. 10.3390/s22020638

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 257

  ZaricB. L.ObradovicM.Sudar-MilovanovicE.NedeljkovicJ.LazicV.IsenovicE. R. (2019). Drug delivery systems for diabetes treatment. Curr. Pharm. Des.25, 166–173. 10.2174/1381612825666190306153838

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 258

  ZhangF.PeiX.PengX.GouD.FanX.ZhengX.et al (2022). Dual crosslinking of folic acid-modified pectin nanoparticles for enhanced oral insulin delivery. Biomater. Adv.135, 212746. 10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.212746

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 259

  ZhangG.IchikawaK.IitaniK.IwasakiY.MitsubayashiK. (2025a). A handheld biofluorometric system for acetone detection in exhaled breath condensates. Analyst150, 505–512. 10.1039/d4an01281j

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 260

  ZhangK.ZhangC.ZhouH.YangY.WenY.JiaoX.et al (2024a). Elastic nanofibrous dressings with mesenchymal stem cell-recruiting and protecting characteristics for promoting diabetic wound healing. Acs Appl. Mater Interfaces16, 41869–41880. 10.1021/acsami.4c07369

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 261

  ZhangP.DaltonC.JullienG.A. (2009). Design and fabrication of mems-based microneedle arrays for medical applications. Micro. Techno.15, 1073–1082. 10.1007/s00542-009-0883-5

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 262

  ZhangS.GeG.QinY.LiW.DongJ.MeiJ.et al (2023a). Recent advances in responsive hydrogels for diabetic wound healing. Mater Today Bio18, 100508. 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100508

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 263

  ZhangS.ZhaoW.ZengJ.HeZ.WangX.ZhuZ.et al (2023b). Wearable non-invasive glucose sensors based on metallic nanomaterials. Mater Today Bio20, 100638. 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100638

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 264

  ZhangT.WuH.QiuC.WangM.WangH.ZhuS.et al (2024b). Ultrasensitive hierarchical aunrs@sio(2)@ag sers probes for enrichment and detection of insulin and c-peptide in serum. Int. J. Nanomedicine19, 6281–6293. 10.2147/IJN.S462601

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 265

  ZhangX.ZhangY.ZhengH.YangX.ZouS.ChenJ. (2025b). Design, fabrication, and evaluation of antimicrobial sponge microneedles for the transdermal delivery of insulin. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm.206, 114586. 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114586

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 266

  ZhangY.SunJ.LiuL.QiaoH. (2021). A review of biosensor technology and algorithms for glucose monitoring. J Diabetes Complications35, 107929. 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2021.107929

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 267

  ZhangZ.XueH.XiongY.GengY.PanayiA. C.KnoedlerS.et al (2024c). Copper incorporated biomaterial-based technologies for multifunctional wound repair. Theranostics14, 547–570. 10.7150/thno.87193

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 268

  ZhaoH.LiJ.SheX.ChenY.WangM.WangY.et al (2024a). Oxygen vacancy-rich bimetallic au@pt core-shell nanosphere-functionalized electrospun znfe(2)o(4) nanofibers for chemiresistive breath acetone detection. Acs Sens.9, 2183–2193. 10.1021/acssensors.4c00382

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 269

  ZhaoH.LiZ.WangY.ZhouK.LiH.BiS.et al (2023). Bioengineered msc-derived exosomes in skin wound repair and regeneration. Front. Cell Dev. Biol.11, 1029671. 10.3389/fcell.2023.1029671

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 270

  ZhaoS.LuZ.CaiR.WangH.GaoS.YangC.et al (2024b). A wearable osmotic microneedle patch provides high-capacity sustained drug delivery in animal models. Sci. Transl. Med.16, eadp3611. 10.1126/scitranslmed.adp3611

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 271

  ZhengQ.ChenC.LiuY.GaoJ.LiL.YinC.et al (2024). Metal nanoparticles: advanced and promising technology in diabetic wound therapy. Int. J. Nanomedicine19, 965–992. 10.2147/IJN.S434693

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 272

  ZhengY.MaY.HeP.YanL.CaoH.ShaoF. (2025). Phycocyanin/hyaluronic acid microneedle patches loaded with celastrol nanoparticles for synergistic treatment of diabetic nephropathy. Acs Biomater. Sci. Eng.11, 371–382. 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.4c01787

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 273

  ZhongY.SongB.HeD.XiaZ.WangP.WuJ.et al (2020). Galactose-based polymer-containing phenylboronic acid as carriers for insulin delivery. Nanotechnology31, 395601. 10.1088/1361-6528/ab9e26

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 274

  ZhouD.ZhangS.KhanA. U.ChenL.GeG. (2023). A wearable aunp enhanced metal-organic gel (au@mog) sensor for sweat glucose detection with ultrahigh sensitivity. Nanoscale16, 163–170. 10.1039/d3nr05179j

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 275

  ZhouY. Y.ChenJ. P.GanL.XuW.LiuY.ZhaoY. G.et al (2022). A non-invasive method for the detection of glucose in human exhaled breath by condensation collection coupled with ion chromatography. J. Chromatogr.1685, 463564. 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463564

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 276

  ZhouY.HuangH.ChenG.YuanQ.RenJ.WuJ.et al (2024a). Promoting the healing of diabetic wounds with an antimicrobial gel containing agnps with anti-infective and anti-inflammatory properties. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym.35, 1236–1257. 10.1080/09205063.2024.2324494

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 277

  ZhouY.LiL.TongJ.ChenX.DengW.ChenZ.et al (2024b). Advanced nanomaterials for electrochemical sensors: application in wearable tear glucose sensing technology. J. Mater Chem. B12, 6774–6804. 10.1039/d4tb00790e

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 278

  ZhuX.CaoP.LiP.YuY.GuoR.LiY.et al (2024). Bimetallic ptau-decorated sno (2) nanospheres exhibiting enhanced gas sensitivity for ppb-level acetone detection. Nanomater. (Basel)14, 1097. 10.3390/nano14131097

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 279

  ZongQ.GuoR.DongN.LingG.ZhangP. (2022). Design and development of insulin microneedles for diabetes treatment. Drug Deliv. Transl. Res.12, 973–980. 10.1007/s13346-021-00981-y

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar