ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Sustain. Cities
Sec. Sustainable Infrastructure
Volume 7 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/frsc.2025.1592987
This article is part of the Research TopicAdvances In Circular Construction: Integrating Green Materials And Emerging Technologies For Sustainable Construction EngineeringView all articles
Life Cycle Assessment of Tetrapod Concrete Armour Units
Provisionally accepted- American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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Concrete is widely used in coastal construction, including tetrapod armour units as the top layer of breakwaters, which protect rear-side developments by dissipating wave energy. However, concrete poses environmental impacts across its life cycle. There is a remarkable gap in the literature on the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of concrete armour units, despite their widespread usage in the coastal engineering. To address this, this study evaluates the environmental impact of tetrapod armour over its life cycle. An LCA is undertaken using SimaPro software, applying a cradle-to-gate approach that focuses on production, transportation, and placement stages of tetrapods, concrete and steel for casting. The functional unit (FU) is "5-meter of breakwater". Due to limited data in the literature, the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) is mainly obtained from the ecoinvent database available on SimaPro. Energy data for the unit processes is gathered from literature and manufacturers. The Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is undertaken using a mid-point approach in the CML-IA method. Additionally, the nonrenewable fossil impact category under the Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) method is evaluated, since non-renewable resources are major contributors in tetrapod production. The CML-IA results show that cast production emerged as the predominant contributor, comprising over 80% of the total impacts across all categories. Notably, cast production has the highest influence on non-renewable fossil impacts under CED, with a value of 2.62E+06 MJ per FU. This highlights the significant energy burden of steel in tetrapods and underscores the importance of decision-making during the production stage. Additionally, sensitivity analysis revealed that the system has low sensitivity to changes in transportation distance. The study confirms cast production dominates the total environmental impacts and fossil energy use. Further research is needed to analyse large quarry rocks use for the armour layers, while accounting for regional variables to obtain more reliable results. The findings emphasize the need to explore alternative materials and production methods to reduce the environmental footprint of tetrapods while maintaining their productive effectiveness in coastal construction.
Keywords: Life Cycle Assessment, Tetrapod, concrete armour, sustainability, Ecoinvent, SimaPro
Received: 13 Mar 2025; Accepted: 29 May 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Mikhail, Younes, Al Adab, Tarnini, ATABAY and Mortula. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: SERTER ATABAY, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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