Immune organoids: Emerging platforms for modeling and analyzing human adaptive immunity

Tianlong Li^1,2Dingkun Peng¹Meng Yao^1,2Meilin Li¹Yijing Wang¹Su Li¹Ding Zhang²Hua-Ji Qiu^1*Lian-Feng Li^1*

• ¹Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
• ²College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, Shanxi Province, China

The rapid advancement of vaccines and immunotherapies has significantly improved public health.However, a significant translational gap remains between basic research and clinical application, largely driven by the disconnect between in vitro studies and in vivo models. To bridge this gap, in vitro models of immune organs, including bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils, have emerged as a promising solution. By integrating cutting-edge technologies such as ex vivo culture, microfluidic chips, engineered tissues, and organoid models, researchers have successfully established a new-generation in vitro immune simulation platform. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in immune organ-based in vitro models, outlines the current technological landscape and highlights the unique advantages of immune organoids within this field. Notably, we classify immune organoids into strictly defined and broadly defined categories based on their origin and construction methodology, while emphasizing the importance of multi-model integration. This platform provides a novel framework for advancing translational immunology research, particularly in the fields of adaptive immunity and vaccine development.