Abstract
Africa’s growing water stress and energy access challenges necessitate sustainable wastewater treatment solutions. This review critically examines three emerging approaches: solar-based, membrane-based, and hybrid solar-membrane systems, across the African continent. Solar technologies, including solar water disinfection, photocatalysis, and advanced oxidation processes, demonstrate significant potential in sun-rich regions, achieving more than 90% pathogen and contaminant removal in decentralized settings. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) and advanced filtration systems show robust performance in industrial applications, with 95%–99% pollutant rejection, though their energy demands remain a significant constraint. Hybrid solar-membrane systems synergize these advantages, as evidenced by case studies in Kenya (solar-MBR for aquaculture, 40% energy autonomy) and Namibia (solar-powered desalination, 99.7% salt rejection). Despite technological promise, adoption barriers persist, including high capital costs, technical capacity gaps, and policy fragmentation. This review analyze 32 implementations across 17 African countries, evaluating performance metrics, scalability, and socioeconomic viability. Key findings highlight the cost-effectiveness and sustainability gains from waste-derived membranes (e.g., geopolymers, recycled plastics, oasis waste), nanoparticle-enhanced photocatalysts (TiO2/MnO2), and modular system designs tailored to off-grid and resource-limited settings. The review concludes with policy recommendations to accelerate deployment. These include fostering decentralized systems in peri-urban and rural areas, promoting public-private partnerships to finance infrastructure, and supporting localized research to adapt technologies to diverse hydroclimatic and socio-economic conditions. Together, these approaches offer a viable pathway toward achieving SDG 6 and SDG 7 in Africa.
1 Introduction
Africa faces a dual challenge of water scarcity and energy poverty, with over 300 million people lacking access to clean water and 600 million without reliable electricity (Oluwasanya et al., 2022). In this context, sustainable wastewater treatment technologies leveraging Africa’s abundant solar resources (exceeding 2,000 kWh/m2/year in many regions (Rachid and Najmi, 2024)) and advanced membrane processes have emerged as transformative solutions. Solar-powered systems such as photocatalysis and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) demonstrate >90% pathogen removal in sun-rich regions like the Sahel (; ), while membrane bioreactors (MBRs) achieve 95%–99% contaminant removal in industrial applications across South Africa and North Africa (; ).
Despite significant advancements, the deployment of sustainable wastewater treatment technologies across Africa remains fragmented due to persistent technical, economic and policy barriers. While standalone solar technologies like solar water disinfection (SODIS) and waste stabilization ponds have achieved success in rural communities (Sansaniwal, 2022), they face inherent scalability limitations. Conversely, membrane systems exhibit robust performance in urban applications, though their substantial energy requirements (3–10 kWh/m3) limit viability in off-grid regions (Nadeem et al., 2025). Emerging hybrid solar-membrane systems are effectively bridging this gap, as evidenced by Kenya’s solar-MBR aquaculture systems achieving 40% energy autonomy () and Namibia’s PV-powered desalination plants attaining 99.7% salt rejection (). This review critically examines three categories of technologies: (1) standalone solar technologies, (2) membrane-based systems, and (3) integrated solar-membrane hybrids through analysis of 32 case studies across 17 African countries. Our assessment compares technical performance benchmarks (including Tanzania’s solar-UF/NF system meeting WHO standards at 1.5 kWh/m3 (Shen et al., 2016)), economic viability, and implementation challenges. Key innovations identified include waste-derived membranes [e.g., brick-based geopolymers ()], nanoparticle-enhanced photocatalysts (TiO2/MnO2), and modular hybrid designs (Mousa et al., 2025). By synthesizing these technological advances with scalable policy frameworks, this work presents a actionable pathway toward achieving SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) and SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) across Africa’s diverse hydroclimatic conditions.
2 Literature
2.1 Solar wastewater treatment in Africa
Amid the ongoing energy transition and the growing imperative for sustainable access to sanitation, solar technologies are emerging as a key component in wastewater treatment across Africa. A growing body of research underscores the increasing interest in these solutions, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas where access to conventional electricity infrastructure remains limited or absent (Organization, W. H., and Fund, U. N. C., 2021). Despite the continent’s substantial solar potential exceeding 2,000 kWh/m2/year in many regions (Taylor et al., 2022) the adoption and implementation of solar-powered treatment systems remain uneven and fragmented. Table 1 aims to shed light on current trends and to explore opportunities for scaling up the integration of solar energy in wastewater management throughout the African continent.
TABLE 1
| Technologies | Definition | Principle | Favorable conditions | Countries of application | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) | Point-of-use water treatment method that utilizes solar ultraviolet-A (UV-A, 320–400 nm) radiation and thermal energy to inactivate pathogenic microorganisms | Typically, water is poured into transparent PET (polyethylene terephthalate) plastic bottles and exposed to full sunlight for 6–48 h, depending on weather conditions. The combined effects of UV radiation and increased temperature effectively destroy bacteria, viruses, and some protozoa | Well-suited for sunny regions such as the Sahel. It performs best with clear water (turbidity <30 NTU) and under direct sunlight for a minimum of 6 h. SODIS is appropriate for low-income households and emergency situations | Zimbabwe, South Africa and Sahel regions | SODIS (2019) Limaye and Coakley (1998),Sobsey et al. (2008) |
| Waste stabilization ponds | Natural wastewater treatment technology that uses biological processes in a series of ponds (anaerobic, facultative, and maturation) to treat domestic or municipal sewage | Solar energy promotes the photosynthesis of algae and aquatic plants, which absorb nutrients and contaminants from the water. This natural process helps purify the water while requiring little energy and minimal complex infrastructure | These systems are effective in warm and sunny regions, where evaporation and biological decomposition are optimized, enhancing the performance of anaerobic, facultative, and maturation ponds. The optimal operation of WSPs depends on sustained temperatures above 20 °C and high solar radiation, which promote pathogen die-off and organic matter breakdown | Sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso, Kenya …) | (Ronteltap et al., 2014.) Mwamlima et al. (2025) |
| Solar sludge drying | Natural and cost-effective method for reducing the volume of wastewater sludge by utilizing the heat and radiation from the sun | This process involves spreading the sludge in thin layers on specially designed drying beds or in solar drying units, where it is exposed to direct sunlight for extended periods. The heat from the sun evaporates the water content in the sludge, while the sun’s UV radiation can also contribute to pathogen inactivation | Low-income regions with limited energy | Sub-Sahara and east Africa (Senegal, ghana, Benin, Ethiopia, and Malawi) and Egypt | Tun and Juchelková (2018) |
| Solar photocatalysis | Advanced oxidation process that uses solar light to activate a photocatalyst typically titanium dioxide (TiO2) to generate reactive species (e.g., hydroxyl radicals) capable of degrading organic pollutants and inactivating pathogens in water | When exposed to sunlight, the photocatalyst absorbs photons and generates electron-hole pairs. These charge carriers interact with water and oxygen at the surface of the catalyst, producing highly reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals (OH) and superoxide anions (O2−) | ≥6 h of direct sunlight, ideally >15–20 MJ/m2/day | South Africa | Mecha et al. (2016),Pichat (2016),Tetteh et al. (2020) |
| Solar Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) | Group of water treatment technologies that utilize solar radiation to activate chemical oxidants or photocatalysts, leading to the in situ production of highly reactive species primarily hydroxyl radicals (OH) | Solar AOPs work by harnessing solar radiation to activate certain chemicals (oxidants) or photocatalysts, which then generate highly reactive oxidative species, mainly hydroxyl radicals (OH) | More than 5–6 kWh/m2/day of solar energy | The Sahel, East Africa, Southern Africa, South Africa, Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia, and Nigeria | Malato et al. (2002),Maifadi et al. (2022),Tony (2023) |
| Solar distillation | Water purification process that uses solar energy to evaporate water, then condenses the vapor to collect purified water | Water is heated by solar energy, usually in a basin or container designed to capture sunlight. The heat causes the water to evaporate from the surface, the vapor is captured and condensed (often through a condensation system) to collect purified water | Effectively in sunny, arid regions and is particularly useful for producing fresh drinking water from brackish or polluted sources | Morocco, Kenya, Senegal, Algeria | Tiwari et al. (2016),Zlitni (2019), |
Overview of solar technologies Used in wastewater treatment in Africa.
While solar-based technologies such as SODIS and AOPs offer promising pathogen removal and are well suited for decentralized contexts, they often lack robustness under fluctuating weather conditions (Sansaniwal, 2022). Additionally, despite high treatment performance in lab-scale studies, few long-term or large-scale deployments have been documented in Africa (). There is also a lack of comparative life cycle assessments to evaluate environmental impact relative to conventional systems (Pichat, 2016).
2.2 Membrane wastewater treatment in Africa
Membrane processes have proven their effectiveness in treating both domestic and industrial wastewater around the world (Wintgens et al., 2005; Ulanicki et al., 2007; ; ; Nqombolo et al., 2018; Wouter et al., 2019; ; Othman et al., 2022; Mzahma et al., 2023; Shehata et al., 2023). In Africa, the use of membrane technologies for wastewater treatment has also been documented (Obotey Ezugbe and Rathilal, 2020; Yusuf et al., 2020; Nasir et al., 2022; Phungela et al., 2024). Membrane bioreactors have been used not only for wastewater treatment, but also in combination with post-treatment processes such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, or electrodialysis, to improve the quality of treated water and thus enable its reuse (; Tabraiz et al., 2023; ). In a context of increasing pressure on water resources, these studies open up promising prospects for more sustainable water management on a continent where water stress affects large portions of the population ().
South Africa stands out as one of the African countries where the use of membrane processes for wastewater treatment has been adopted by municipalities and industries, with several municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants using membrane technologies currently in operation (Phungela et al., 2024; Richards et al., 2025). Studies on the application of membrane processes for wastewater treatment have also been reported. For example, , achieved selective reuse levels of municipal wastewater treated by an MBR depending on the type of membrane used for post-treatment (ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, or reverse osmosis). Richards et al. (2025) evaluated the feasibility of reusing effluents from three decentralized membrane bioreactor (MBR) wastewater treatment facilities located in the Western Cape province of South Africa. The results showed that effluents from all facilities generally meet national irrigation standards, with only one facility requiring pH correction. The study emphasizes the importance of exploring alternative low-cost technologies for MBR effluent treatment, as well as the need for integrated managed aquifer recharge models to assess different groundwater replenishment scenarios. Meyo et al. (2021), for their part, investigated the use of an MBR as a post-treatment for poultry slaughterhouse wastewater in the city of Cape Town. Following treatment with an Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) reactor, the MBR provided additional contaminant reduction, achieving peak removal efficiencies greater than 95% for TSS and COD, and up to 80% for fats, oils, and grease.
In North Africa, several studies on the use of membrane processes for wastewater treatment have been reported in Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria (; ; ; Mzahma et al., 2023). In Tunisia, for example, the work of highlighted promising results in the treatment of textile industry wastewater using an immersed membrane bioreactor. A laboratory-scale pilot was used, consisting of a bioreactor (BR) equipped with a filtration unit containing polyester mesh with 30 µm pore diameter, operating at an influent flux of 30 LMH. The results showed a significant reduction in COD and DOC concentrations, reaching average values of 34 ± 10 mg/L and 32 ± 7 mg/L, respectively, corresponding to removal efficiencies of 96.0% ± 1.1% and 94% ± 1.05%. Removal rates of 96% for COD and 85% for color were also achieved. Ammonia (NH3) was removed at a rate exceeding 97%, sulfates at 41%, and phosphates at 37%. The final pollutant concentrations were well below regulatory limits, demonstrating the effectiveness and viability of this technology for treating textile wastewater. In addition, Recent studies highlight the potential of waste-derived membranes for sustainable oily wastewater treatment. Research demonstrates that geopolymer membranes fabricated from waste bricks achieve >90% oil rejection when cured at 60 °C–80 °C, with an optimal liquid-to-solid (L/S) ratio of 0.30–0.35 enhancing cross-linking density and mechanical strength (). Similarly, work shows that membranes produced via phase inversion using discarded plastics and oasis fibers exhibit >90% separation efficiency, with polymer composition and pore structure governing permeability and fouling resistance (Zrelli et al., 2023). Additionally, ceramic membranes derived from oasis waste remove >85% of oils and suspended solids from car wash wastewater, outperforming conventional polymeric membranes in chemical stability and fouling resistance (Zrelli et al., 2022). Collectively, these studies underscore the viability of repurposing industrial and agricultural waste into high-performance membranes, offering cost-effective, eco-friendly alternatives for wastewater remediation while addressing waste valorization challenges. In Egypt, also reported studies on the combined use of MF, UF, and NF for the extraction of valuable compounds from urine, as well as the use of MBRs for the treatment of blackwater and municipal wastewater. The organic loads in the MBR effluent consistently met the required standards. The results demonstrated high efficiency of the membrane bioreactor (MBR) for wastewater treatment. Applications of membrane technologies have also been reported in Burkina Faso, West Africa Sawadogo et al. (2018a), Nouhou Moussa et al. (2023), Nouhou Moussa et al. (2023) used a membrane bioreactor (MBR) for the treatment of brewery and sugar industry wastewater. These studies demonstrated chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal rates of up to 95%. The use of nanofiltration and reverse osmosis following the MBR led to organic matter and mineral removal rates reaching 99%, resulting in effluents suitable for reuse. Taking advantage of the favorable climatic conditions of the Sudano-Sahelian zone, anaerobic operation led to biogas production volumes of 0.21 L biogas/g COD removed for brewery wastewater (Sawadogo et al., 2018a; Sawadogo et al., 2018b; Sawadogo et al., 2022) and 0.32 L CH4/g COD removed for sugar industry wastewater (Nouhou Moussa et al., 2023; Sawadogo et al., 2024). The high temperatures typical of the Sahelian climate are therefore favorable for anaerobic operation of the membrane bioreactor.
In East Africa , studied the use of a membrane bioreactor (MBR) for the treatment of domestic wastewater as part of a sustainable water management approach in the Lake Victoria region. The MBR was used to treat domestic wastewater to provide make-up water for a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). They reported that the application of MBRs in wastewater treatment holds promising potential, not only for recirculating aquaculture systems, but also for the treatment of wastewater from fish processing in the Lake Victoria region.
While the performance of these waste-derived membranes is promising with oil rejection rates above 90% and strong chemical stability scalability remains a challenge. Most results stem from laboratory or pilot-scale studies. Furthermore, membrane fouling, mechanical durability, and variable composition of source waste materials could affect long-term reliability (Noureddine, 2021; Zrelli et al., 2023). There is a need for further field validation in diverse African conditions to assess lifecycle costs and maintenance requirements.
Membrane systems deliver excellent contaminant removal, especially in industrial settings; however, high energy requirements, membrane fouling, and costs of maintenance limit their accessibility in off-grid or rural areas. Moreover, although waste-derived membranes are an exciting innovation, their long-term durability and performance in real-world settings remain insufficiently explored (Obotey Ezugbe and Rathilal, 2020; Nasir et al., 2022).
2.3 Combined solar-membrane systems in Africa
Combined solar-membrane systems function as sustainable water treatment solutions in African areas because they address both the water scarcity problem and energy access issue. Membrane systems utilizing solar power combine RO with MBR and the joint UF-NF system to supply water throughout various parts of Africa.
The countries of Kenya Uganda and Tanzania together lead the way for decentralized solar-powered water treatment in East African regions. The Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) serving Kisumu Kenya’s tilapia farming receives daily 3–4 cubic meters of wastewater using a 14.3 kWp solar-powered system. A novel combination design obtains 40% self-power along with exceptional ammonium extraction capacities that guard fish health from toxicity and support thriving aquatic farming operations. The design’s ability to scale up leads to both environmentally sustainable fish farming alongside employment generation in the region thereby strengthening the area’s economic and environmental resistance (). In Kampala Uganda they operate an MBR-GAC system powered by 7 kWp solar energy which processes 7–8 cubic meters of wastewater daily for irrigation needs coupled with toilet flushing. An aquaculture wastewater treatment system combined filtration tanks with denitrification and nitrification tanks, yet it retrieved most materials from local suppliers except for the monitoring unit and membrane module. The PES membrane module operating at 125 mbar pressure had a 25 m2 flat surface area that delivered permeate flux between 10 and 15 L/m2/h while being measured periodically. The plant accomplished COD and TOC decreases of 50% while the nitrification reached an 80% level. The measured average rate of denitrification equaled 20%. Water quality significantly improved when the modified GAC installation managed to eliminate 90% of pharmaceutical residues. The acclimation of sludge in the system led to a remarkable 75% improvement in diclofenac removal efficiency because of increased hydraulic retention time and sludge retention time. The integration of supercapacitors with the system provides backup power for continued operation during blackouts and delivers 43% autonomous clean energy capabilities thus offering a sustainable and durable solution for hospital wastewater treatment ().
A team evaluated solar-powered membrane filtration for treating contaminated water in Tanzanian rural areas having limited access to electricity along with clean water. The system applies an ultrafiltration step followed by nanofiltration to reach World Health Organization drinking water requirements (fluoride <1.5 mg/L) when treating water with 50–60 mg/L fluoride and 255 mg/L TOC organic matter in the natural water sources.
Solar photovoltaic panels directly wired to the system make the system independent from both power grid connections and power storage systems while solar irradiance varies. The clean water production rate reached 1,200 L per day while the energy consumption rate amounted to 1.5 kWh for every cubic meter of water. The system faced both organic matter buildup in the membrane and user acceptance towards the final product since it was deemed contamination-free (Shen et al., 2016; Schäfer et al., 2018).
North Africa leverages solar-membrane systems for industrial and municipal wastewater treatment. Researchers in Tunisia operated two membrane bioreactors at pilot scale next to a typical activated sludge treatment system in order to analyze water quality standards and energy consumption. The evaluation of MBR system energy usage indicated results matching or outperforming conventional system efficiency levels which stood at 3 kWh/m3. A solar integration system maintains diesel generator independence and demonstrates equivalent specific energy requirements to conventional systems to generate high-quality treated water. Integrated solar-MBR technology presents a sustainable method for decentralized domestic water treatment throughout North African regions as it provides effective irrigation solutions (Skouteris et al., 2014). In addition, the integration of green-synthesized TiO2/MnO2 nanoparticles into solar-powered membrane systems for the treatment of pulp and paper industry wastewater, with a particular focus on applications in Africa, especially Egypt. The solar-membrane system delivered outstanding performance since it eliminated chemicals present in wastewater by 85%–90% of COD and color together with suspended solids (; Mousa et al., 2025). The introduction of TiO2/MnO2 nanoparticles into the system enhanced both photocatalytic under solar conditions and membrane flux and reduced fouling which increased membrane longevity. Operation of solar systems dramatically decreased running expenses making it an eco-friendly affordable method appropriate for Egypt’s water-scarce industrial regions.
Solar desalination combined with modular treatment has become a large-scale technology leader across Southern Africa. South African specialists have implemented solar energy into modular drinking water systems while integrating Combined Solar-Membrane Systems to solve water scarcity problems. The implemented systems demonstrated exceptional performance by reducing pathogens by 95% and attaining turbidity levels lower than 1 NTU while maintaining substantial total dissolved solids (TDS) elimination. The modular units leveraged solar energy while exploiting abundant sunlight for delivering sustainable and decentralized water solutions with energy efficiency. The results confirm that Combined Solar-Membrane Systems exhibit great potential for improving water access in distant South African areas which lack proper water services (). The Witsand facility in South Africa demonstrates an outstanding model of battery-independent solar desalination systems. The plant relies on Osmosun® specialized technology to support reverse osmosis performance by automatically integrating grid power when solar input decreases especially during nighttime (Richards and Lipnizki, 2023).
Namibia opened its initial solar-powered desalination plant at the University of Namibia’s Henties Bay campus after partnering with Finnish companies. Solar PV reverse-osmosis technology operates at the Henties Bay plant to generate 3,500 L/h of clean water with an energy requirement of 2.five to three kWh/m3 that outmatches diesel-based systems by 40%. This desalination system effectively gets rid of 99.7% salts as well as 99.9% bacteria and 99.5% viruses while meeting WHO requirements and lowering the TDS from 35,000 ppm to less than 500 ppm. This plant reduces annual CO2 emissions by 12 tons in addition to minimizing operational expenses through fossil fuel system reduction of 50–60 percent. This system combines modular convenience through which users can begin operations at 5 m3 per day for villages but can expand to 1,000 m3 per day for cities and features hybrid power backup that maintains system reliability beyond 95% standards. Treated water obtained through the filtration process helps increase crop production in experimental farms by 20%–30% as demonstrated through pilot projects. This model demonstrates solar desalination’s viability for arid regions, combining zero-emission operation, cost savings, and scalable water security—a blueprint for sustainable development in water-scarce areas (; ) (Table 3).
A successful implementation of large-scale solar-membrane wastewater treatment systems in Africa needs an organized multistakeholder collaboration. Key actions should include: creating enabling policy environments with targeted financial incentives to accelerate technology adoption; prioritizing context-specific research to adapt systems to local hydrological and climatic conditions; strengthening cross-sector collaboration through public-private partnerships to mobilize technical and financial resources; mainstreaming these solutions into national water security and climate resilience frameworks; and building local capacity through vocational training and community engagement programs to ensure sustainable operation and maintenance. A comprehensive approach tackles both technological implementation alongside sustainable operation to consolidate the technology’s potential benefits for enhancing water security throughout various African regions.
Despite their innovative design, some modular hybrid systems face limitations. For example, while energy autonomy is improved through PV integration and supercapacitors, performance can be inconsistent under fluctuating solar irradiance. Additionally, reliance on imported membrane modules or electronic monitoring systems may increase costs and reduce local ownership (Schäfer et al., 2018; Richards and Lipnizki, 2023). These factors should be carefully considered when scaling up in remote or resource-constrained areas.
A comparative Assessment of Technologies Based on Cost-Effectiveness, Environmental Sustainability, and Deployment Feasibility in Diverse African Contexts is given in table 2.
TABLE 2
| Technology type | Cost-effectiveness | Environmental sustainability | Deployment potential (Africa) |
|---|---|---|---|
| SODIS and Waste Stabilization Ponds | Very low capital and operational cost; limited maintenance | High passive solar energy, minimal chemicals | Ideal for rural and low-resource settings (e.g., Sahel, Sub-Saharan Africa) |
| Advanced Solar AOPs and Photocatalysis | Moderate cost; depends on catalyst reuse | High solar driven, but requires chemical inputs | Suitable for peri-urban regions; requires technical training |
| Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) | High initial cost; moderate O&M | Medium energy intensive, but enables reuse | Effective in urban/industrial settings (e.g., South Africa, Tunisia) |
| Waste-derived Membranes | Low to medium cost (if locally sourced) | High supports circular economy, low carbon footprint | Promising for decentralized use if scaled locally |
| Solar-Membrane Hybrids | High upfront cost; cost-saving over time via energy autonomy | Very high renewable energy + advanced treatment | Suitable for off-grid and peri-urban areas (e.g., Kenya, Namibia); replicable at pilot-to-medium scale |
Comparative summary of technologies (Richards and Lipnizki, 2023; Zrelli et al., 2023; ; ).
To facilitate cross-country analysis, the Table 3 summarizes the distribution, effectiveness, and contextual challenges of each technology.
TABLE 3
| Country | Technology type | Application/project | Key outcomes | Challenges | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kenya | Solar-MBR | Tilapia aquaculture, Kisumu | 40% energy autonomy, improved water reuse | Initial investment, maintenance needs | |
| Uganda | MBR-GAC + PV | Hospital wastewater, Kampala | 90% pharmaceutical removal, 43% solar autonomy | Imported modules, technical complexity | |
| Namibia | Solar desalination (PV-RO) | Henties Bay Campus | 99.7% salt rejection, 3500 L/h output | Cost of hybrid backup, scaling logistics | |
| Tanzania | Solar UF/NF | Fluoride removal from boreholes | Met WHO drinking standards (1.5 kWh/m3) | Membrane fouling, user acceptance | Schäfer et al. (2018) |
| South Africa | MBR and solar modular systems | Municipal and car wash wastewater treatment | >95% pathogen removal, <1 NTU turbidity | Intermittent power, O&M capacity | Richards et al. (2025) |
| Tunisia | MBR + solar + TiO2 Geopolymer membrane | Textile and paper industry Oily wastewater | 85%–90% COD and color removal, lower fouling >90% oil rejection, good mechanical resistance | Scalability, nanoparticle recovery Pilot scale, curing variability | Mousa et al. (2025) |
| Egypt | MF/UF/NF + MBR | Blackwater and urine valorization | High organic load removal, nutrient recovery | Cost, sludge disposal | |
| Burkina Faso | Anaerobic MBR + NF/RO | Brewery and sugar factory wastewater | 99% COD removal, 0.32 L CH4/g COD | Membrane cleaning, effluent reuse perception | Sawadogo (2018) |
| Morocco | Solar distillation | Rural drinking water | High-quality distilled water, simple operation | Low throughput, weather dependency | |
| Algeria | MBR textile wastewater | Textile effluent pilot (Alger) | 96% COD and 85% color removal | Fouling, effluent discharge norms | |
| Nigeria | Solar AOPs | Urban sludge treatment | Effective disinfection, decentralized application | Oxidant management | Tony (2023) |
| Senegal | Solar sludge drying | Municipal sludge | Cost-effective drying, pathogen inactivation | Weather-dependent | |
| Ghana | Solar drying | Sludge stabilization | Reduced volume, basic infrastructure | Requires land, exposure to elements | |
| Ethiopia | Waste stabilization ponds | Municipal wastewater | Pathogen reduction, low O&M | Space requirement, odor control | Mwamlima et al. (2025) |
| Malawi | Solar pond systems | Community wastewater | Passive treatment, low cost | Long retention time, performance monitoring | Ronteltap et al. (2014) |
| Benin | Solar sludge drying | Sludge treatment | Drying performance acceptable | Dust control, process time | Tun and Juchelková (2018) |
| Zimbabwe | SODIS | Household water treatment | Effective microbial reduction in PET bottles | Turbidity limits, behavior adoption | SODIS (2019) |
Summary of solar and membrane wastewater treatment technologies across 17 African countries.
Hybrid systems represent a promising integration of solar energy and membrane performance, especially for remote or semi-urban areas. However, their technical complexity, dependence on imported components (), and lack of skilled local operators (Richards and Lipnizki, 2023) present real deployment barriers. There is also a gap in standardized methodologies for evaluating cost-benefit and resilience under climate variability (Zrelli et al., 2023). Research should focus on optimizing designs for modularity and local manufacturing potential.
3 Conclusion
The integration of solar and membrane technologies presents a promising and scalable pathway for advancing sustainable wastewater treatment across Africa. Leveraging the continent’s abundant solar resources and the growing accessibility of membrane systems offers a unique opportunity to address both water scarcity and energy poverty. From basic solar disinfection methods such as SODIS to advanced oxidation and membrane-based processes, these technologies have demonstrated strong potential in decentralized, off-grid, and resource-limited settings. Among them, combined solar-membrane systems stand out for their ability to reduce operational costs, improve treatment efficiency, and achieve energy autonomy. Successful case studies from solar-powered membrane bioreactors in Uganda and Kenya to solar desalination systems in Namibia and South Africa demonstrate the feasibility of modular, decentralized solutions. Notably, innovations such as waste-derived membranes, green-synthesized photocatalysts (e.g., TiO2/MnO2), and scalable modular units improve cost-effectiveness and local adaptability. These approaches not only reduce dependency on conventional infrastructure but also support circular economy goals by valorizing industrial and agricultural residues.
Nevertheless, the adoption of these advanced technologies must be contextualized. Critical issues such as membrane fouling, uneven solar energy yields, limited local manufacturing capacity, and social acceptance of treated effluents remain underexplored. Addressing these constraints through targeted R&D, vocational training, and adaptive deployment strategies will be key to successful and sustained implementation.
To accelerate scale-up, the following policy and institutional actions are recommended.
✓ Develop enabling regulatory frameworks that recognize and support decentralized hybrid systems.
✓ Promote public-private partnerships to reduce capital barriers, as seen in the Namibian and Kenyan case studies.
✓ Invest in local innovation ecosystems for membrane manufacturing and solar integration.
✓ Embed these technologies into national water security and climate resilience agendas, ensuring alignment with SDG 6 and SDG 7.
✓ Prioritize inclusive capacity building through technical training and community sensitization to improve ownership and maintenance sustainability.
In sum, the deployment of combined solar-membrane systems, when guided by robust policies and context-aware strategies, holds transformative potential for advancing equitable, low-carbon, and resilient water services across the African continent.
Statements
Author contributions
AN: Writing – original draft, Methodology. AZ: Supervision, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Conceptualization. BS: Methodology, Writing – original draft. RC: Writing – original draft.
Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
1
Abdel-ShafyH.Abdel-ShafyS. H. (2017). Membrane technology for water and wastewater management and application in Egypt. Egypt. J. Chem.60, 347–360. 10.21608/EJCHEM.2017.3480
2
AbedY.ZrelliA.ChaouachiB. (2024). Investigation of TiO2 concentration and calcination temperature effects on hybrid membrane properties for wastewater treatment. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng.43. 10.30492/ijcce.2023.2000347.5976
3
Al AukidyM.Al ChalabiS.VerlicchiP. (2017). Hospital wastewater treatments adopted in Asia, Africa, and australi. Hosp. WastewatersCharacteristics, Manag. Treat. Environ. Risks60, 171–188. 10.1007/698_2017_5
4
Al-SayedA.El SenosyW.AlherrawyA.Abo AlyM.El-GoharyF. (2018). Membrane bioreactor technology for wastewater reclamation. Egypt. J. Chem.61, 883–896. 10.21608/ejchem.2018.4128.1361
5
Al-SayedA.HassanG. K.Al-ShemyM. T.El-goharyF. A. (2023). Effect of organic loading rates on the performance of membrane bioreactor for wastewater treatment behaviours, fouling, and economic cost. Sci. Rep.13, 15601. 10.1038/s41598-023-42876-7
6
AnttiP. (2019). In drought-stricken Namibia, solar energy is now used to make clean water from the Atlantic Ocean. Solar Water Solutions Ltd.
7
ArunkumarT.SathyamurthyR.DenkenbergerD.LeeS. J. (2022). Solar distillation meets the real world: a review of solar stills purifying real wastewater and seawater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.29, 22860–22884. 10.1007/s11356-022-18720-2
8
AzizM.KasongoG. (2021). The removal of selected inorganics from municipal membrane bioreactor wastewater using UF/NF/RO membranes for water reuse application: a pilot-scale study. Membranes11, 117. 10.3390/membranes11020117
9
BabayemiJ.DaudaK. (2009). Evaluation of solid waste generation, categories and disposal options in developing countries: a case Study of Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manag.13, 83–88. 10.4314/jasem.v13i3.55370
10
BennamounL. (2012). Solar drying of wastewater sludge: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.16, 1061–1073. 10.1016/j.rser.2011.10.005
11
BerneyM.WeilenmannH.-U.SimonettiA.EgliT. (2006). Efficacy of solar disinfection of Escherichia coli, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella Typhimurium and Vibrio cholerae. J. Appl. Microbiol.101, 828–836. 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02983.x
12
BoushilaA.ElbejiR.ZrelliA.NajarS. (2025). Valorizing waste bricks in geopolymer membrane preparation for treating oily wastewater: effects of curing temperature and liquid-to-solid ratio. Arab. J. Sci. Eng.50, 3855–3867. 10.1007/s13369-024-09214-z
13
ConroyR. M.MeeganM. E.JoyceT.McGuiganK.BarnesJ. (1999). Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrhoeal disease: an update. Archives Dis. Child.81, 337–338. 10.1136/adc.81.4.337
14
DeS.DinhD. N.AtiyeT.HoinkisJ. (2023). Solar powered membrane bioreactors – a promising technology for water reuse in East Africa. Technoscape. 5th International Conference on Sustainable Technologies for Water and Wastewater Treatment.
15
DeS.CoutardM.HoinkisJ. (2024). Solar powered membrane bioreactor (MBR) treating wastewater for reuse at a Hospital in kampala, Uganda – results of pilot-scale trials. Environ. Challenges16, 100986. 10.1016/j.envc.2024.100986
16
De JagerD. (2013). Membrane bioreactor application within the South African textile industry: pilot to full-scale. Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Available online at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/148364852.pdf (Accessed May 28, 2025).
17
ElmollaE. S.ChaudhuriM. (2010). Degradation of amoxicillin, ampicillin and cloxacillin antibiotics in aqueous solution by the UV/ZnO photocatalytic process. J. Hazard. Mater.173, 445–449. 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.08.104
18
FrascariD.ZanaroliG.MotalebM. A.AnnenG.BelguithK.BorinS.et al (2018). Integrated technological and management solutions for wastewater treatment and efficient agricultural reuse in Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia. EBSCOhost14, 447–462. 10.1002/ieam.4045
19
Ganesh KumarP.KanmaniS. (2022). Removal of persistent organic pollutants and disinfection of pathogens from secondary treated municipal wastewater using advanced oxidation processes. Water Sci. and Technol.86, 1944–1957. 10.2166/wst.2022.308
20
GukelbergerE.AtiyeT.MamoJ. A.HoevenaarsK.GalianoF.FigoliA.et al (2020). Membrane bioreactor–treated domestic wastewater for sustainable reuse in the Lake Victoria region. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag.16, 942–953. 10.1002/ieam.4281
21
Herman-CzezuchA.MekengA. Z.MeilingerS.BarryJ.KimiaieN. (2022). Impact of aerosols on photovoltaic energy production using a spectrally resolved model chain: case study of southern West Africa. Renew. Energy194, 321–333. 10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.166
22
HoffmannJ. E.DallE. P. (2018). Integrating desalination with concentrating solar thermal power: a Namibian case study. Renew. Energy115, 423–432. 10.1016/j.renene.2017.08.060
23
HoinkisJ.GukelbergerE.AtiyeT.GalianoF.FigoliA.GabrieleB.et al (2022). Membrane bioreactor (MBR) treated domestic wastewater for reuse in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). 153-155. Available online at: https://iris.unical.it/handle/20.500.11770/349201 (Accessed May 12, 2025). 10.1007/978-3-031-00808-5_36
24
IssaouiM.JellaliS.ZorpasA. A.DutournieP. (2022). Membrane technology for sustainable water resources management: challenges and future projections. Sustain. Chem. Pharm.25, 100590. 10.1016/j.scp.2021.100590
25
JallouliS.BuonerbaA.BoreaL.HasanS. W.BelgiornoV.KsibiM.et al (2023). Living membrane bioreactor for highly effective and eco-friendly treatment of textile wastewater. Sci. Total Environ.871, 161963. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161963
26
KatekarV. P.DeshmukhS. S. (2020). A review on research trends in solar still designs for domestic and industrial applications. J. Clean. Prod.257, 120544. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120544
27
KitanouS.TahriM.BachiriB.MahiM.HafsiM.TakyM.et al (2018). Comparative study of membrane bioreactor (MBR) and activated sludge processes in the treatment of Moroccan domestic wastewater. Water Sci. Technol.78, 1129–1136. 10.2166/wst.2018.384
28
KumarP.CuprysA.BrarS. K. (2022). “Chapter 18 - application of solar energy in modular drinking water treatment,” in Modular treatment approach for drinking water and wastewater. Editors Kaur BrarS.KumarP.CuprysA. (Elsevier), 319–334. 10.1016/B978-0-323-85421-4.00014-0
29
LaasriS.El HafidiE. M.MortadiA.ChahidE. G. (2024). Solar-powered single-stage distillation and complex conductivity analysis for sustainable domestic wastewater treatment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.31, 29321–29333. 10.1007/s11356-024-33134-y
30
LemaM. W. (2025). Wastewater crisis in East African cities: challenges and emerging opportunities. Discov. Environ.3, 18. 10.1007/s44274-025-00206-w
31
LimayeM. S.CoakleyW. T. (1998). Clarification of small volume microbial suspensions in an ultrasonic standing wave. J. Appl. Microbiol.84, 1035–1042. 10.1046/j.1365-2672.1998.00440.x
32
MaifadiS.MhlangaS. D.NxumaloE. N.MotsaM. M.KuvaregaA. T. (2022). Treatment of salon wastewater by peroxydisulfate based advanced oxidation process (PDS-AOP) under solar light: synergy through integrated technologies. J. Water Process Eng.49, 103062. 10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.103062
33
MalatoS.BlancoJ.VidalA.RichterC. (2002). Photocatalysis with solar energy at a pilot-plant scale: an overview. Appl. Catal. B Environ.37, 1–15. 10.1016/S0926-3373(01)00315-0
34
MechaA. C.OnyangoM. S.OchiengA.JamilT. S.FourieC. J. S.MombaM. N. B. (2016). UV and solar light photocatalytic removal of organic contaminants in municipal wastewater. Sep. Sci. Technol.51, 1765–1778. 10.1080/01496395.2016.1178290
35
MeyoH. B.NjoyaM.BasitereM.NtwampeS. K. O.KaskoteE. (2021). Treatment of poultry slaughterhouse wastewater (PSW) using a pretreatment stage, an expanded granular sludge bed reactor (EGSB), and a membrane bioreactor (MBR). Membr. (Basel).11, 345. 10.3390/membranes11050345
36
MousaS. A.AbdallahH.KhairyS. A. (2025). The use of green synthesized TiO2/MnO2 nanoparticles in solar power membranes for pulp and paper industry wastewater treatment. Sci. Rep.15, 2102. 10.1038/s41598-024-85075-8
37
MwamlimaP.NjauK. N.RwizaM. J. (2025). Efficacy of waste stabilization ponds and constructed wetlands adopted for treating faecal sludge in Africa: a review. Int. J. Environ. Health Res.35, 410–423. 10.1080/09603123.2024.2358504
38
MzahmaS.DuplayJ.SouguirD.Ben AmarR.GhaziM.HachichaM. (2023). Membrane processes treatment and possibility of agriculture reuse of textile effluents: study case in Tunisia. EBSCOhost15, 1430. 10.3390/w15071430
39
NadeemS.QarsamF.SalmanD.MustahssunN.ChohanS. (2025). Advancing sustainable desalination: thermohaline solar membrane distillation for enhanced efficiency and environmental resilience. Available online at: https://www.authorea.com/users/918000/articles/1290589-advancing-sustainable-desalination-thermohaline-solar-membrane-distillation-for-enhanced-efficiency-and-environmental-resilience. (Accessed 16, August, 2025)
40
NasirA. M.AdamM. R.Mohamad KamalS. N. E. A.JaafarJ.OthmanM. H. D.IsmailA. F.et al (2022). A review of the potential of conventional and advanced membrane technology in the removal of pathogens from wastewater. Sep. Purif. Technol.286, 120454. 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.120454
41
Nouhou MoussaA. W.SawadogoB.KonateY.ThianhounB.SidibeS. dit S.HeranM. (2023). Influence of solid retention time on membrane fouling and biogas recovery in anerobic membrane bioreactor treating sugarcane industry wastewater in Sahelian climate. Membranes13, 710. 10.3390/membranes13080710
42
NoureddineE. B. (2021). Membranes céramiques. Intechopen. Available online at: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_c%C3%A9ramique. (Accessed August 16, 2025).
43
NqomboloA.MpupaA.MoutloaliR. M.NomngongoP. N. (2018). “Wastewater treatment using membrane technology,” in Wastewater and water quality. Intechopen. Editor YonarT. (InTech). 10.5772/intechopen.76624
44
Obotey EzugbeE.RathilalS. (2020). Membrane technologies in wastewater treatment: a review. Membranes10, 89. 10.3390/membranes10050089
45
OluwasanyaG.PereraD.QadirM.SmakhtinV. (2022). Water security in Africa: a preliminary assessment. UNU-INWEH report series. Available online at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359472596_Water_Security_in_Africa_A_Preliminary_Assessment_13. (Accessed 16, August, 2025)
46
OthmanN. H.AliasN. H.FuzilN. S.MarpaniF.ShahruddinM. Z.ChewC. M.et al (2022). A review on the use of membrane technology systems in developing countries. Membranes12, 30. 10.3390/membranes12010030
47
PhungelaT. T.GqomfaB.Concelia MalakaneK.MadonselaB. S.MakgathaM. C.MaphangaT.et al (2024). An overview of the technological advancement of wastewater treatment for effluent reuse in South Africa: a meta-analysis. J. Water Wastewater; Ab va Fazilab (in persian)34, 74–88. 10.22093/wwj.2024.415717.3419
48
PichatP. (2016). “Fundamentals of TiO2 photocatalysis. Consequences for some environmental applications,” in Heterogeneous photocatalysis: from fundamentals to green applications. Editors ColmenaresJ. C.XuY.-J. (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer), 321–359. 10.1007/978-3-662-48719-8_10
49
RachidA.NajmiN. (2024). A review on the present and future of solar power in Africa. 10.20944/preprints202403.0300.v2
50
RichardsE.AngulaS.AyindeW. B.OkediJ.IkumiD. (2025). Water reuse options for decentralised MBR effluents: a case study in South Africa. Water Supply25, 955–969. 10.2166/ws.2025.049
51
RichardsH.LipnizkiF. (2023). Evaluation and mapping of sustainable water and wastewater treatment with membrane processes in South Africa and Sweden. The Thinker95, 44–49. 10.36615/the_thinker.v95i2.2521
52
RonteltapM.DodaneP.-H.BassanM. (2014). Panorama des technologies de traitement. ChapitreV.StrandeL.RonteltapM.BrdjanovicD. (Eds.) In Faecal Sludge Management: systems Approach for Implementation and Operation [numéros de page du chapitre]. London, United Kingdom: IWA Publishing. Édition française 2018.
53
SansaniwalS. K. (2022). Advances and challenges in solar-powered wastewater treatment technologies for sustainable development: a comprehensive review. International Journal of Ambient Energy43, 958–991. 10.1080/01430750.2019.1682038
54
SawadogoB. (2018). Traitement des eaux usées industrielles par des procédés membranaires sous climat sahélien: cas des eaux usées de brasserie au Burkina Faso. Université Montpellier ; Institut international d’ingénierie de l’eau et de l’environnement. Available online at: https://theses.hal.science/tel-02071743.
55
SawadogoB.KonatéY.LesageG.DjanniH. M.ZaviskaF.HeranM.et al (2018a). Beer and soft drinks industry wastewater treatment using an anoxic-aerobic membrane bioreactor (MBR) coupling with nanofiltration in Sahelian context. Desalination and Water Treatment126, 32–39. 10.5004/dwt.2018.22801
56
SawadogoB.KonatéY.LesageG.ZaviskaF.MonnotM.HeranM.et al (2018b). Brewery wastewater treatment using MBR coupled with nanofiltration or electrodialysis: biomass acclimation and treatment efficiency. Water Sci Technol77, 2624–2634. 10.2166/wst.2018.232
57
SawadogoB.KonatéY.Nouhou MoussaA. W.LesageG.ZaviskaF.HeranM.et al (2022). Anaerobic membrane bioreactor coupled with nanofiltration applied to the treatment of beverage industry wastewater under soudano-sahelian climatic conditions. Journal of Membrane Science and Research8. 10.22079/jmsr.2022.545078.1521
58
SawadogoB.Nouhou MoussaA. W.KonatéY.TiendrebeogoC.SossouS.SidibéS. D. S.et al (2024). Integrated coagulation-flocculation with nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membrane for treating sugar cane industry effluent. Heliyon10, e40805. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40805
59
SchäferA. I.ShenJ.RichardsB. S. (2018). Renewable energy-powered membrane technology in Tanzanian communities. npj Clean Water1, 24. 10.1038/s41545-018-0026-6
60
ShehataN.EgiraniD.OlabiA. G.InayatA.AbdelkareemM. A.ChaeK.-J.et al (2023). Membrane-based water and wastewater treatment technologies: issues, current trends, challenges, and role in achieving sustainable development goals, and circular economy. Chemosphere320, 137993. 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.137993
61
ShenJ.RichardsB. S.SchäferA. I. (2016). Renewable energy powered membrane technology: case study of st. Dorcas borehole in Tanzania demonstrating fluoride removal via nanofiltration/reverse osmosis. Separation and Purification Technology170, 445–452. 10.1016/j.seppur.2016.06.042
62
SkouterisG.ArnotT. C.JraouM.FekiF.SayadiS. (2014). Modeling energy consumption in membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment in North Africa. Water Environment Research86, 232–244. 10.2175/106143013X13736496908672
63
SobseyM. D.StauberC. E.CasanovaL. M.BrownJ. M.ElliottM. A. (2008). Point of use household drinking water filtration: a practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environ. Sci. Technol.42, 4261–4267. 10.1021/es702746n
64
SODIS (2019). Utiliser le soleil pour désinfecter l’eau en Afrique. CORDIS | European Commission. Available online at: https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/415839-using-the-sun-for-water-disinfection-in-africa/fr10.3030/688928(Accessed August 19, 2024).
65
TabraizS.ZeeshanM.AsifM. B.IftekharS.AbbasZ. (2023). “Chapter 11 - hybrid membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment,” in Current developments in biotechnology and bioengineering. Editors BuiX.-T.GuoW.ChiemchaisriC.PandeyA. (Elsevier), 239–265. 10.1016/B978-0-443-19180-0.00016-X
66
TaylorM.Al-ZoghoulS.RalonP.SorokinaO. (2022). International renewable energy agency (IRENA) renewable power generation costs in 2022. International renewable energy Agency.
67
TettehE. K.RathilalS.NaidooD. B. (2020). Photocatalytic degradation of oily waste and phenol from a local South Africa oil refinery wastewater using response methodology. Sci Rep10, 8850. 10.1038/s41598-020-65480-5
68
TiwariG. N.TiwariA.Shyam (2016). “Solar distillation,” in Handbook of solar energy: theory, analysis and applications. Editors TiwariG. N.TiwariA. (Singapore: Springer), 519–553. 10.1007/978-981-10-0807-8_13
69
TonyM. A. (2023). Solar concentration for green environmental remediation opportunity— international review: advances, constraints and their practice in wastewater treatment. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry103, 2568–2600. 10.1080/03067319.2021.1895138
70
TunM.JuchelkováD. (2018). Drying methods for municipal solid waste quality improvement in the developed and developing countries: a review. Environmental Engineering Research24, 529–542. 10.4491/eer.2018.327
71
UlanickiB.VairavamoorthyK.ButlerD.BoundsP. L. M.MemonF. A. (2007). “Water reuse,” in Water management challenges in global change (London : CRC Press). 10.1201/9781003061076
72
WintgensT.MelinT.SchäferA.KhanS.MustonM.BixioD.et al (2005). The role of membrane processes in municipal wastewater reclamation and reuse. Desalination178, 1–11. 10.1016/j.desal.2004.12.014
73
WouterP.AnD.EberhardM.NicolasD.PeterD.MichaelB.et al (2019). Gravity-driven membrane filtration for water and wastewater treatment: a review. Water research149, 553–565. 10.1016/j.watres.2018.11.062
74
YusufA.SodiqA.GiwaA.EkeJ.PikudaO.De LucaG.et al (2020). A review of emerging trends in membrane science and technology for sustainable water treatment. Journal of Cleaner Production266, 121867. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121867
75
ZlitniN. (2019). Realization of a reduced model of a water distillation station by solar energy: case study in Africa for consumption or irrigation. PAUWES. Available online at: http://repository.pauwes-cop.net/handle/1/369 (Accessed May 15, 2025).
76
ZrelliA.BessadokA.AlsalhyQ. (2022). Important parameters of ceramic membranes derived from oasis waste and its application for car wash wastewater treatment. Journal of Membrane Science and Research8. 10.22079/jmsr.2021.529855.1488
77
ZrelliA.IsmailiS.AlsalhyQ. (2023). Valorization of waste plastics and waste oases of Gabes-Tunisia to prepare polymeric membrane for oily wastewater treatment. Euro-Mediterr J Environ Integr8, 907–918. 10.1007/s41207-023-00418-7
Summary
Keywords
solar-membrane systems, wastewater treatment, circular economy, renewable energy, water reuse, Africa
Citation
Nouhou Moussa AW, Zrelli A, Sawadogo B and Chemini R (2025) A review on combined solar-membrane systems for wastewater treatment in Africa. Front. Membr. Sci. Technol. 4:1638191. doi: 10.3389/frmst.2025.1638191
Received
30 May 2025
Accepted
11 August 2025
Published
29 August 2025
Volume
4 - 2025
Edited by
Raja Ben Amar, Faculty of Science of Sfax, Tunisia
Reviewed by
Atikah Mohd Nasir, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Updates
Copyright
© 2025 Nouhou Moussa, Zrelli, Sawadogo and Chemini.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Adel Zrelli, adel.zrelli@issatgb.u-gabes.tn, adel.zrelli@yahoo.fr
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.