Laura Batstra1*
Allen Frances2- 1Department of Child and Family Welfare, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- 2Department of Psychiatry, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
Introduction
Many Western countries have experienced a dramatic increase in reported rates of psychiatric diagnoses and use of psychiatric drugs (1–7). The popularity of the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), published in 1980, contributed to this, because it greatly increased interest in psychiatric diagnosis (8). By focusing almost exclusively on the troubled individual, DSM’s have diverted attention away from the social context in which mental suffering occurs (9). Our goal here is to first provide a brief summary of the history of modern psychiatric diagnosis and then to indicate why and how individual diagnosis should always be supplemented by context diagnosis.
History of modern psychiatric diagnosis
Modern psychiatric diagnosis began with Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), who took a descriptive approach based on careful observation of deviant behaviors and their course (10). Since Pinel, nosographers have devised dozens of diagnostic systems cutting the pie of human distress in a bewildering variety of different ways- none clearly superior to any other. For example (11), Emil Kraepelin in the 19th century introduced a biologically oriented, descriptive classification of mental disorders. The somatoetiological model followed, seeking to ground psychiatric diagnoses in physical causes. During World War II, the U.S. military developed Medical 203 (1945), a practical diagnostic system. This influenced the DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968), both shaped by psychodynamic theory. A shift toward reliability emerged with the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) in the 1970s, culminating in the DSM-III (1980) and its successors, which adopted a criteria-based, atheoretical framework that redefined psychiatric diagnosis. It is fair to say that throughout its history, psychiatric diagnosis has always been over-rated, purporting to explain what it could only describe and maintaining only an incomplete relationship with treatment choice and response.
Before DSM-III’s publication in 1980, psychiatric diagnosis had limited impact on clinical practice. DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968) were thin books mainly used administratively. DSM-III, by contrast, was a thick book that laid out detailed diagnostic criteria and descriptions for each diagnosis. DSM-III claimed to be atheoretical, but its symptom oriented approach clearly favored a biological model over the more inferential psychodynamic model. Although it was not the intention of organized psychiatry to develop a taxonomy that was an industry-friendly instrument, Robert Spitzer, the chair of the DSM III, later acknowledged that “the pharmaceuticals were delighted” with the medical model adopted by the DSM (12). The biomedical model was fueled by significant investments from industry and the government, as well as by advancements in neuroscience and the development of new medications (8, 13). DSM-III gained more legitimacy than it deserved, due to its extensive utilization in public health and administrative contexts, including census taking, statistical reporting, military fitness assessment, and numerous other purposes. It also reshaped both educational curricula and clinical training and its use became a requirement for clinical research funding and insurance payments for treatment (8, 14). DSM-III marked a paradigm shift and transformed psychiatry from broad, etiologically based constructs to symptom-based, categorical biomedical disorders within the individual. It diverted attention away from the social contexts that contribute to the causation of psychiatric problems and are crucial in their treatment.
Why context diagnosis
DSM-III did not completely ignore the importance of social factors in psychiatric evaluation. It introduced the multiaxial diagnostic system (continued through DSM-III-R in 1987 and DSM-IV in 1994) explicitly including an Axis IV to document psychosocial and environmental problems that affect mental health conditions, their prognosis, and treatment (15). However, in practice, clinicians tended to focus almost exclusively on Axis I and II disorders, marginalizing contextual influences (16). DSM-5 (published in 2013) eliminated the useful multiaxial system entirely as part of its embrace of a simple minded and reductionist biological/medical model.
There are at least four reasons why it is important to bring context back into focus in mental health care. Firstly, despite 45 years of brain research, no single cause has been found in the brain for any disorder (17, 18). Nevertheless, many people believe that mental disorders are brain disorders, and this belief is associated with negative attitudes toward people with mental health diagnoses (19). Such stigma is a second reason to focus more attention on contextual determinants of mental suffering. A mental health label unjustifiably places the problems solely in the individual and can lead to exclusion (20) and self-stigma (21, 22), which in turn can result in diminished self-esteem, loss of hope and impaired social relationships (23). A third reason to diagnose and, where possible, treat contexts is the limited effectiveness of individual treatments for mental disorders. Leichsenring’s (24) recent umbrella review reported only modest effect sizes (0.34 for psychotherapy and 0.36 for medication). One reason for limited impact may be that clinicians focus too much on the patient and his or her DSM diagnosis and too little on the context in which problems are occurring. A recent viewpoint in JAMA explicitly states that requiring treatment for addiction or psychiatric issues before receiving housing would have created a barrier to the success of Housing First programs (25).
Finally, there is sufficient scientific evidence for the crucial role of context in the development, exacerbation, and maintenance of mental health problems. Kirbride et al. (26) provide an overview of social determinants of mental health problems, including poverty, negative childhood experiences, unemployment and job insecurity, debt, living in unsafe neighborhoods, homelessness or unstable housing, experiences of loss, loneliness, social isolation, lack of social support, exclusion, marginalization, and discrimination based on race, gender, or sexual orientation. Some of these factors may be difficult to influence from a clinical setting, but a recent Position Statement by the Canadian Psychiatric Association calls on mental health professionals to actively raise their voice and push back against sickening oppression, inequities and discrimination (27). In the clinical context it can be useful to identify and acknowledge intractable factors and recognize that they are very stressful. According to McMillen et al. (28), validating, that is, acknowledging the coherence or reasonableness of someone’s emotional or behavioral response in context, is a useful but underused clinical strategy.
How to diagnose contexts
Following Bronfenbrenner (29), we define context as a set of nested environmental systems that influence human development and functioning, including the microsystem (e.g. daily interactions with partner/coworkers), mesosystem (e.g. the relationship between one’s workplace and family life), exosystem (e.g. local government policies affecting healthcare access), macrosystem (e.g. cultural values or national laws), and chronosystem (e.g. life transitions or historical events like a pandemic). Context diagnosis ensures that treatment is tailored to the possibilities in each of these systems in individual’s real-life context and not reduced to isolated behaviors and emotions. It offers a more comprehensive alternative to the DSM-IV’s Axis IV, which was often limited to superficial documentation of social factors without integrating them into treatment planning.
Context diagnosis explores the broad life context in which distress occurs. This includes a detailed contextual anamnesis, assessing aspects such as living conditions, work or educational setting, socio-economic situation, social relationships, life transitions, sources of stress, etcetera. In addition to this, the question “What matters to you” may open the door to holistic health solutions (30). The related social prescribing is an emerging contextual approach to addressing mental health challenges, involving explicitly non-medical referrals such as community groups and activities like community gardening, choirs, reading clubs, walking groups, and volunteering (31). Table 1 offers a preliminary overview of some areas for contextual diagnostics, to be expanded in the future.
Table 1. Domains for context diagnosis, each of which could be assessed on two dimensions using a 1–10 scale (1): the degree to which the domain is influenceable, and (2) its priority for action. Taking these quantitative scores into account, clinicians work with individuals to make qualitative assessments of which contextual factors to address first.
In a concrete case, a young man may seek mental health care due to depressed moods. Alongside questions about mood (e.g. loneliness, isolation, sadness), the clinician explores his living situation (e.g. living with parents and younger sister), family dynamics (e.g. controlling parents), employment (e.g. low-paying, unfulfilling job), finances (e.g. unable to afford moving out), and past experiences (e.g. feeling unsafe, witnessing parental conflict). The clinician also inquiries about past (e.g. walking in nature) and present hobbies (e.g. diminished pleasure in all activities). Once sufficient information is gathered, the clinician formulates a contextual diagnosis, identifying contributing factors to the young man’s mental health issues. Often, this reveals that the problems are, at least partly, a logical reaction to life circumstances. The clinician can then validate unchangeable hardships and propose a treatment plan targeting modifiable contextual factors. In this case, interventions may include family therapy, referrals for financial aid and career services, and connecting the young man—given his loneliness and interest in nature—with a local walking group.
Discussion
DSM diagnostics have benefited from promotion by interested parties, such as the pharmaceutical industry and biological psychiatry (37) and from the immense popularity of DSM-III. DSM diagnostics have been included in textbooks, courses, research funding, and treatment reimbursement. Consequently, we have a highly developed ability to psychopathologize and medicalize individuals, yet we lack a practical, sophisticated approach to diagnosing social or contextual deficiencies and linking them to interventions wherever possible.
More robust emphasis on contextual factors and the potential of context treatment and social prescribing as means to enhance treatment efficacy in mental healthcare settings is a promising avenue for future research and clinical applications. We offer three recommendations to provide greater emphasis on contextual factors and their corresponding solutions:
1. Develop some sort of contextual checklist or DSM-like handbook – like a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Contextual factors (DSC-I) - listing contextual categories that may contribute to mental issues and ways to address them (where possible). Like the DSM, a DSC might serve a clinical purpose in predicting prognosis, fostering clinical communication and planning (contextual) treatment, as well as a purpose in education, research funding and reimbursement. Table 1 is a very preliminary starting point for a DSC.
2. Recognize the value of qualitative research. Context diagnosis and -intervention do not fit neatly within the conventional RCT framework which is considered the gold standard for providing the best possible evidence (38). RCTs are limited in evaluating complex, context-dependent interventions, as they rely on standardized protocols. Therefore, it is difficult for context work to receive the “evidence-based” label and (structural) funding. Qualitative designs offer greater flexibility, allowing for the exploration of broader theoretical frameworks. Furthermore, qualitative designs have been shown to facilitate more inclusive representation of marginalized groups, who are frequently overlooked in RCTs (39) and often undertreated (40).
3. Use a Stepped Diagnosis approach (41, 42). This cautious, context-sensitive approach aims to prevent overmedicalization without risking undertreatment. Rather than assigning psychiatric labels, it progresses through a series of minimal, proportional steps in collaboration with the person seeking support. These steps include exploring the personal and social context of distress, framing emotional distress as part of the normal human experience when appropriate, formulating advice, monitoring problems over time to see if they resolve naturally, and offering low-intensity, autonomy-promoting support such as bibliotherapy, self-help groups, or e-health tools. If problems persist, brief therapeutic support focused on practical problem-solving can be provided without a formal diagnosis. A psychiatric label should be considered if the distress is persistent, severe, and disabling, and then only in collaboration with the patient. This stepped approach prioritizes shared decision-making and allows for many contextual interventions.
Psychiatric Diagnosis and Context Diagnosis are complementary and clinicians - whether primary care or mental health- should be prepared to meet people’s needs in both dimensions.
Author contributions
LB: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AF: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, and/or publication of this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
1. FAIR Health. Trends in mental health conditions: an analysis of private healthcare claims. In: A FAIR Health white paper. FAIR Health, New York (2024). Available online at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media2.fairhealth.org/whitepaper/asset/Trends%20in%20Mental%20Health%20Conditions%20-%20A%20FAIR%20Health%20White%20Paper.pdf (Accessed August 25, 2025).
2. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: results from the 2024 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Rockville (MD): Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2025). (HHS Publication No. PEP25 07 007; NSDUH Series H 60).
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). QuickStats: mental health treatment trends among adults aged ≥18 years, by age group — United States, 2019–2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. (2024) 73(50):1150. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7350a5
4. Clery E, Morris S, Wilson C, Cooper C, Das-Munshi J, McManus S, et al. Mental health treatment and service use. In: Morris S, Hill S, Brugha T, and McManus S, editors. Adult psychiatric morbidity survey: survey of mental health and wellbeing, england, 2023/4. NHS England, London (2025).
5. Thom J, Jonas B, Reitzle L, Mauz E, Hölling H, and Schulz M. Trends in the diagnostic prevalence of mental disorders, 2012–2022—using nationwide outpatient claims data for mental health surveillance. Dtsch Arztebl Int. (2024) 121:355–62. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0052
6. Forslund T, Kosidou K, Wicks S, and Dalman C. Trends in psychiatric diagnoses, medications and psychological therapies in a large Swedish region: a population-based study. BMC Psychiatry. (2020) 20:328. doi: 10.1186/s12888-020-02749-z
7. Ten Have M, Tuithof M, van Dorsselaer S, Schouten F, Luik AI, and de Graaf R. Prevalence and trends of common mental disorders from 2007–2009 to 2019–2022: results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Studies (NEMESIS), including comparison of prevalence rates before vs. during the COVID-19 pandemic. World Psychiatry. (2023) 22:275–85. doi: 10.1002/wps.21087
8. Kawa S and Giordano J. A brief historicity of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: issues and implications for the future of psychiatric canon and practice. Philos Ethics Humanit Med. (2012) 7:2. doi: 10.1186/1747-5341-7-2
9. Wilson M. DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history. Am J Psychiatry. (1993) 150:399–410. doi: 10.1176/ajp.150.3.399
10. Kendler KS. Philippe Pinel and the foundations of modern psychiatric nosology. Psychol Med. (2020) 50:2667–72. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720004183
11. Shorter E. The history of nosology and the rise of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. (2015) 17:59–67. doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.1/eshorter
12. Spitzer R. Interview with: jon ronson. In: Ronson J, editor. Bipolar kids: Victims of the ‘madness industry’, New Scientist (2011) vol. 210(2815):p. 44–7.
13. Deacon BJ. The biomedical model of mental disorder: a critical analysis of its validity, utility, and effects on psychotherapy research. Clin Psychol Rev. (2013) 33:846–61. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.007
14. Mayes R and Horwitz AV. DSM-III and the revolution in the classification of mental illness. J Hist Behav Sci. (2005) 41:249–67. doi: 10.1002/jhbs.20103
15. Probst B. The life and death of Axis IV: caught in the quest for a theory of mental disorder. Res Soc Work Pract. (2014) 24:123–31. doi: 10.1177/1049731513491326
17. Schleim S. Why mental disorders are brain disorders. And why they are not: ADHD and the challenges of heterogeneity and reification. Front Psychiatry. (2022) 13:943049. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.943049
18. Scull A. American psychiatry in the new millennium: a critical appraisal. Psychol Med. (2021) 51:2762–70. doi: 10.1017/S0033291721001975
19. Schomerus G, Schwahn C, Holzinger A, Corrigan PW, Grabe HJ, Carta MG, et al. Evolution of public attitudes about mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. (2012) 125:440–52. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01826.x
20. Ringbom I, Suvisaari J, Kääriälä A, Sourander A, Gissler M, Ristikari T, et al. Psychiatric disorders diagnosed in adolescence and subsequent long-term exclusion from education, employment or training: longitudinal national birth cohort study. Br J Psychiatry. (2022) 220:148–53. doi: 10.1192/bjp.2021.146
21. Dubreucq J, Plasse J, Gabayet F, Faraldo M, Blanc O, Chereau I, et al. Self-stigma in serious mental illness and autism spectrum disorder: results from the REHABase national psychiatric rehabilitation cohort. Eur Psychiatry. (2020) 63:e13. doi: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2019.12
22. Dubreucq J, Plasse J, and Franck N. Self-stigma in serious mental illness: a systematic review of frequency, correlates, and consequences. Schizophr Bull. (2021) 47:1261–87. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbaa181
23. Yanos PT, DeLuca JS, Roe D, and Lysaker PH. The impact of illness identity on recovery from severe mental illness: a review of the evidence. Psychiatry Res. (2020) 288:112950. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112950
24. Leichsenring F, Steinert C, Rabung S, and Ioannidis JPA. The efficacy of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for mental disorders in adults: an umbrella review and meta-analytic evaluation of recent meta-analyses. World Psychiatry. (2022) 21:133–45. doi: 10.1002/wps.20941
25. Koh KA and Olivet J. Homelessness policy—Assessing the current federal approach. JAMA (2025). doi: 10.1001/jama.2025.16358
26. Kirkbride JB, Anglin DM, Colman I, Dykxhoorn J, Jones PB, Patalay P, et al. The social determinants of mental health and disorder: evidence, prevention and recommendations. World Psychiatry. (2024) 23:58–90. doi: 10.1002/wps.21160
27. Kirmayer LJ, Fernando S, Guzder J, Lashley M, Rousseau C, Schouler‑Ocak M, et al. A Call to Action on Racism and Social Justice in Mental Health: Un appel à l’action en matière de racisme et de justice sociale en santé mentale. Can J Psychiatry. (2021) 66:590–3. doi: 10.1080/02650533.2022.2128311
28. McMillen C, Doyle A, and Claypool E. Validation as a clinical strategy. J Soc Work Pract. (2022) ;37:325–38. doi: 10.1080/02650533.2022.2128311
29. Bronfenbrenner U. The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (1979).
30. Hotz J. The connection cure: The prescriptive power of movement, nature, art, service, and belonging. New York: Hachette Go (2024).
31. Drinkwater C, Wildman J, and Moffatt S. Social prescribing. BMJ. (2019) 364:l1285. Available online at: https://www.bmj.com/content/364/bmj.l1285 (Accessed August 29, 2025).
32. Shiels E, Toll M, Grocott K, Mason K, Bentley R, and Li A. Impacts of housing condition interventions on mental health: A systematic review. medRxiv. (2025), 2025.04.04.25325141. doi: 10.1101/2025.04.04.25325141
33. McFillen JM, O’Neil DA, Balzer WK, and Varney GH. Organizational diagnosis: An evidence-based approach. J Change Manage. (2013) 13:223–46. doi: 10.1080/14697017.2012.679290
34. Brydon R, Haseeb SB, Park GR, Ziegler C, Hwang SW, Forget M, et al. The effect of cash transfers on health in high-income countries: A scoping review. Soc Sci Med. (2024) 362:117397. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117397
35. Bartlett A, Williams M, and Saxberg K. Getting to the root of the problem: supporting clients with lived-experiences of systemic discrimination. Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks). (2022) 6:24705470221139205. doi: 10.1177/24705470221139205
36. National Academy for Social Prescribing. Social prescribing and mental health: Evidence summary (2023). London: National Academy for Social Prescribing. Available online at: https://socialprescribingacademy.org.uk/media/hxyh3x34/social-prescribing-and-mental-health-nasp-evidence-note.pdf (Accessed August 29, 2025).
37. Mills S. The scientific integrity of ADHD: a critical examination of the underpinning theoretical constructs. Front Psychiatry. (2022) 13:1062484. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484
38. Mohr DC. Standards for randomized controlled trials of efficacy of psychological treatments. World Psychiatry. (2024) 23:286–7. doi: 10.1002/wps.21207
40. Brown RCH, Mahtani K, Turk A, and Tierney S. Social prescribing in National Health Service primary care: what are the ethical considerations? Milbank Q. (2021) 99:610–28. doi: 10.1111/1468-0009.12516
41. Batstra L and Frances A. Holding the line against diagnostic inflation in psychiatry. Psychother Psychosom. (2012) 81:5–10. doi: 10.1159/000331565
Keywords: DSM-diagnosis, context diagnosis, social detereminants, inequity and social justice, social prescribing
Citation: Batstra L and Frances A (2025) Diagnosing the context is as important as diagnosing the individual. Front. Psychiatry 16:1698878. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1698878
Received: 04 September 2025; Accepted: 08 October 2025;
Published: 23 October 2025.
Edited by:
Wulf Rössler, Charité University Medicine Berlin, GermanyReviewed by:
Lisa A. Cosgrove, University of Massachusetts Boston, United StatesLuisa Orru’, University of Padua, Italy
Copyright © 2025 Batstra and Frances. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Laura Batstra, bC5iYXRzdHJhQHJ1Zy5ubA==