ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Psychiatry
Sec. Psychopathology
Psychological Correlates of Performance-Enhancing Drug Use: Emotional, Cognitive, and Social Functioning in Long-Term and Short-Term Users
Provisionally accepted
- 1Nisantasi University, Istanbul, Türkiye
- 2Beykoz Universitesi, Istanbul, Türkiye
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Performance-enhancing drug (PED) use, particularly anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), has extended beyond competitive sports into recreational fitness contexts. Although linked to various psychological and cognitive outcomes, less is known about how the duration of use or psychosocial factors may influence these effects. This study examined emotional (depression, anxiety), cognitive (executive functioning), and social (interpersonal functioning) outcomes among long-term PED users, short-term users, and non-users. It also explored whether emotional distress mediates the relationship between PED use and social functioning, and whether self-efficacy and perceived social support moderate these effects. A total of 285 adult gym-goers (87 long-term users, 95 short-term users, 103 non-users) completed validated self-report measures (BDI-II, BAI, MDDI, GSE, MSPSS, SASS) and the Stroop test. Group comparisons, multiple regressions, and PROCESS-based mediation and moderation analyses were conducted, controlling for demographic covariates. Long-term users reported significantly higher depression, anxiety, and muscle dysmorphia, and performed worse on the Stroop interference task, compared to other groups. Mediation analysis indicated that depression and anxiety partially explained the association between PED use and poorer social functioning. Moderation analyses revealed that high self-efficacy and strong social support attenuated depressive and anxious symptoms among users. Findings suggest that chronic PED use is associated with increased emotional and cognitive distress, and that these issues may adversely affect social functioning. However, psychosocial resources like self-efficacy and social support may buffer against these effects. These results underscore the importance of psychological assessment and supportive interventions for individuals engaged in PED use.
Keywords: performance-enhancing drugs, anabolic steroids, Depression, Anxiety, Cognitive Function, social support, self-efficacy, Muscle dysmorphia
Received: 22 Sep 2025; Accepted: 07 Nov 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Çınaroğlu and Yılmazer. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Metin Çınaroğlu, metincinaroglu@gmail.com
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