ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Vet. Sci.
Sec. Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics
Volume 12 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1572794
This article is part of the Research TopicUtilizing Real World Data and Real World Evidence in Veterinary Medicine: Current Practices and Future PotentialsView all 15 articles
Estimated activity levels in dogs at population scale with linear and causal modelling
Provisionally accepted- 1Waltham Petcare Science Institute, Melton Mowbray, United Kingdom
- 2Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, North West England, United Kingdom
- 3Pet Insight Project, Whistle Labs, San Francisco, United States
- 4Machine Intelligence and Decision Systems Research Group, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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The aim of this study was to determine patterns of physical activity in pet dogs using real-world data at a population scale aided by the use of accelerometers and electronic health records (EHRs).A directed acyclic graph (DAG) was created to capture background knowledge and causal assumptions related to dog activity, and this was used to identify relevant data sources, which included activity data from commercially available accelerometers, and health and patient metadata from the EHRs. Linear mixed models (LMM) were fitted to the number of active minutes following log-transformation with the fixed effects tested based on the variables of interest and the adjustment sets indicated by the DAG.Results: Activity was recorded on 8,726,606 days for 28,562 dogs with 136,876 associated EHRs, with the median number of activity records per dog being 162 (interquartile range [IQR] 60-390). The average recorded activity per day of 51 minutes was much lower than previous estimates of physical activity, and there was wide variation in activity levels from less than 10 to over 600 minutes per day. Physical activity decreased with age, an effect that was dependent on breed size, whereby there was a greater decline in activity for age as breed size increased. Activity increased with breed size and owner age independently. Activity also varied independently with sex, location, climate, season and day of the week: males were more active than females, and dogs were more active in rural areas, in hot dry or marine climates, in spring, and on weekends.Accelerometer-derived activity data gathered from pet dogs living in North America was used to determine associations with both dog and environmental characteristics. Knowledge of these associations could be used to inform daily exercise and caloric requirements for dogs, and how they should be adapted according to individual circumstances.
Keywords: DOG1, canine2, PET3, accelerometer4, activity monitor5, wearable technology6
Received: 07 Feb 2025; Accepted: 30 Jun 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 O'Rourke, Haydock, Butterwick, German, Carson, Lyle and O'Flynn. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Abigail O'Rourke, Waltham Petcare Science Institute, Melton Mowbray, United Kingdom
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