The interplay between magmatic and sedimentary processes on Noachian Mars and its implications for habitability

The Noachian epoch (∼4.1–3.7 Ga) on Mars was a formative period of its evolution marked by intense magmatic activity, pervasive surface weathering, and the extensive deposition of sedimentary deposits. Orbital and in situ observations have identified a complex interplay between volcanic and sedimentary processes that shaped Martian landscapes in the early era, which could have sustained habitable environments. Extensive magmatic activity, as represented by the formation of ancient highland volcanic provinces and large effusive eruptions, supplied the thermal energy, volatiles, and geochemical substrates for hydrothermal systems. Meanwhile, sedimentary activity, driven by fluvial, lacustrine, and aeolian activity, deposited phyllosilicate and sulfate-rich layered material, key indicators of aqueous alteration and environmental stability. The spatial and temporal coincidence between volcanic edifices and sedimentary basins, such as in igneous regions comprising Nili Fossae, Eridania Basin, and the boundary of Hellas, is suggestive of episodic linkage between magmatism and aqueous activity, with the possibility of long-lived hydrothermal environments. These environments would have provided stable redox gradients, nutrient fluxes, and liquid water on a long-term basis, which are all critical for life. Furthermore, the presence of alteration minerals like serpentine, smectites, and carbonates validates water-rock interaction hypotheses under neutral to alkaline conditions, which are favorable for microbial life. This review aims to synthesize current understanding of Noachian magmatic-sedimentary couplings and evaluate their geochemical and environmental implications for Martian habitability in the early epoch. While the duration and extent of these interactions remain uncertain, their geological and mineralogical signatures identify potential for habitable environments, offering valuable targets for future study of early Martian conditions.

1 Introduction

The Noachian period (∼4.1–3.7 Ga) on Mars is widely observed as the most geologically dynamic period in its history. It is characterized by widespread internal and surface processes that laid the foundation for much of the subsequent evolution of the planet (Carr and Head, 2010; Changela et al., 2021; Fassett and Head, 2011). This era witnessed extensive volcanic activity, crustal formation, and vast resurfacing that supported the creation of a diverse and complicated lithosphere (Grott et al., 2011; Grott et al., 2013; Nimmo and Tanaka, 2005; Sautter et al., 2016). Simultaneously, geomorphological and mineralogical evidence suggests that surface conditions also supported a wide range of fluvial, lacustrine, and glacial processes, indicating the presence of liquid water across vast regions (Carr, 2012; Fastook and Head, 2015; Hynek et al., 2010; Irwin et al., 2005). Recent studies of Martian paleoenvironments show that the amount and duration of surface and subsurface water during the Noachian were enough to support regional water systems lasting at least 10⁵–10⁷ years (Fassett and Head, 2008; Hynek et al., 2010; Irwin et al., 2005). Estimates of the total water volumes required to shape valley networks and maintain lakes suggest precipitation and groundwater flows similar to those in semi-arid regions on Earth, supporting the view of a long-lasting water cycle in early Mars history (Carr and Head, 2010; Irwin et al., 2005; Wordsworth, 2016).

One of the most compelling aspects of the Noachian is the spatial and temporal coincidence between sedimentary and magmatic activity, which has been interpreted as indicative of environmental conditions that may have been habitable (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Grotzinger et al., 2014). Volcanic crustal heat flow and intrusions might have played a significant role in maintaining subsurface hydrothermal systems, enabling long-term water-rock interactions within the Martian subsurface (Clifford et al., 2010; Michalski et al., 2013; Onstott et al., 2019). These systems, analogous to terrestrial hydrothermal vents, are particularly relevant to astrobiology as they yield stable redox gradients, energy, and nutrient fluxes essential for microbial ecosystems (Boston et al., 1992; Shock, 1997; Varnes et al., 2003).

Orbital spectral observations by instruments such as OMEGA, CRISM, and TES have deciphered phyllosilicate, sulfate, carbonate, and serpentine mineralogy that represent aqueous alteration under varying redox and pH environments in the Noachian (e.g., Bibring et al., 2006; Ehlmann et al., 2009; Wray et al., 2016). These minerals not only provide signs of water activity but also preserve potential biosignatures because they can maintain organic compounds and microbial textures under optimal conditions (Farmer and Des Marais, 1999). The high concentration of these alteration minerals in regions close to volcanic features, such as Nili Fossae, the Eridania Basin, and Terra Sirenum, supports magmatic-hydrothermal interaction and accompanying volcano-sedimentary evolution models (Cuevas-Quiñones et al., 2025; Leask et al., 2024; Michalski et al., 2017).

Geomorphic features across the southern highlands, such as valley networks, open-basin lakes, alluvial fans, and delta deposits, further support persistent surface hydrology, possibly due to climatic modulations or regional heating events caused by volcanic activity (Craddock and Howard, 2002; Fassett and Head, 2008). Several large impact craters of this era, including Gale and Jezero, have layered sedimentary deposits that are interbedded with basaltic rocks and reflect episodic resurfacing by volcanism during their accumulation (Morris et al., 2016; Palucis et al., 2016; Stack et al., 2020). In situ observations by Perseverance and Curiosity rovers have confirmed the presence of such lithological contacts, providing ground-truth to orbital interpretation (Farley et al., 2022; Schmidt et al., 2014).

Intrusive magmatism during the Noachian is supported by structural, mineralogical, and thermal evidence across Mars. Linear fractures, pit chains, and collapse features observed in several regions indicate subsurface dike and sill emplacement (Wyrick et al., 2004). Thermal models suggest that these intrusions could have melted the cryosphere, creating hydrothermal systems that remained active for several million years (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2008; Kite et al., 2009). The resulting alteration assemblages, including smectites, serpentines, carbonates, and magnetite, record fluid-rock reactions between basaltic crust and CO₂-H₂O-rich fluids, confirming that magmatic heating was the primary cause of aqueous alteration (Brown et al., 2010; Ehlmann et al., 2009). Occasional release of volatiles from intrusions could have added CO₂, H₂O, and SO₂ to the atmosphere, causing temporary greenhouse warming and surface runoff (Halevy and Head, 2014; Wordsworth et al., 2021). Meteorites like ALH 84001 contain carbonates and magnetite formed at 20 °C–80 °C in CO₂-rich fluids, which provides direct evidence of low-temperature hydrothermal alteration linked to Noachian magmatism (Golden et al., 2004; Harvey and McSween, 1996).

Together, the geomorphological, mineralogical, in situ exploration, and meteoritical lines of evidence emphasize a robust record of magmatic-aqueous interaction on early Mars. Understanding the nature of these interactions is key to deciphering the planet’s environmental history and establishing its early habitability (Des Marais et al., 2008). This review aims to synthesize current understanding of the interplay of magmatic and sedimentary processes during the Noachian, with particular emphasis on their spatial interrelations, mineralogical products, and implications for sustaining habitability, focusing on key regions discussed throughout the manuscript (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. MOLA-HRSC (Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter - High Resolution Stereo Camera) blended digital elevation model (DEM) overlaid on a MOLA-HRSC hillshade, illustrating the locations of key regions referenced throughout this review.

2 Noachian magmatic processes

The Noachian epoch on Mars featured intense volcanic activity that significantly influenced the planet’s thermal and atmospheric evolution (Carr and Head, 2010; Grott et al., 2011). During this period, extensive basaltic eruptions, both effusive and intrusive, occurred across major provinces such as Tharsis, Arabia Terra, and the southern cratered terrains, releasing vast quantities of heat and gases into the crust and atmosphere (Werner, 2009; Wilson and Head, 1994). This volcanic activity not only shaped the landscape of Noachian terrains (Figure 2) but also created important thermal and chemical gradients necessary for supporting hydrothermal systems, which might have served as habitats for early life (Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; Michalski et al., 2017). Volcanic degassing during the Noachian injected large amounts of greenhouse gases, primarily CO₂, H₂O vapor, and SO₂ into the atmosphere (Grott et al., 2011; Halevy and Head, 2014). Laboratory and observational studies show that even microscale liquid water films on mineral surfaces can lead to sulfate formation under current Martian conditions, emphasizing that sulfate deposition does not need large bodies of standing liquid water (Góbi and Kereszturi, 2019). Modeling studies suggest that cumulative outgassing could have built a dense CO₂ atmosphere exceeding 1 bar, with episodic SO₂ pulses providing transient warming of up to 10–30 K above baseline mean annual temperatures (Halevy and Head, 2014; Wordsworth et al., 2021). These warming episodes, lasting from decades to millennia, may have intermittently raised mean surface temperatures above the melting point of water, enabling rainfall, snowmelt, and fluvial runoff across low-lying basins (Kite, 2019; Wordsworth et al., 2015). The interaction between released volatiles and surface materials would have driven the formation of alteration minerals such as carbonates and sulfates, consistent with orbital detections in ancient terrains (Bibring et al., 2006; Ehlmann et al., 2009).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Volcanic landforms on Mars illustrating the diverse geomorphic expressions of magmatic activity and associated structural modification. (a) Ceraunius Tholus–a central volcano in the Tharsis region showing well-preserved flanks and a summit caldera. The valleys that cut into its surface are due to later erosional processes (Fassett and Head, 2007). (b) Eden Patera–irregular depression interpreted as a volcanic caldera formed by collapse following explosive volcanism. It represents a key example of caldera complex volcanism on Mars (Michalski and Bleacher, 2013). (c) Zephyria Tholus–a stratovolcano, later modified by flank erosion into a truncated cone with concave flanks. These features indicate the degradation of the volcanic structure through mass wasting and faulting (Stewart and Head, 2001). (d) Hadriaca Patera–a broad, low-relief volcanic construct with extensive flank materials, interpreted as a result of phreatomagmatic activity, highlighting explosive hydrovolcanic processes (Williams et al., 2007). (e) Dike crosscutting a ridge–high-resolution observation showing a magmatic dike intruding into pre-existing ridged terrain. It demonstrates how intrusive activity modifies surface morphology and provides evidence for magmatic plumbing systems (Brustel et al., 2017). Images in (a–d) are CTX mosaic, and (e) is HiRISE PSP_010857_1650.

2.1 Large-scale and small-scale volcanism

Volcanism during the Noachian era occurred on regional and local levels, indicating that Mars had a dynamic and diverse interior (Carr and Head, 2010; Werner, 2009). Large-scale volcanism is evident in the extensive basaltic plains and ancient volcanic regions that dominate the southern highlands, including Thaumasia Planum and Arabia Terra. In Thaumasia, geomorphic analyses suggest the presence of large, possibly explosive volcanoes from the early Noachian; some are interpreted as deeply eroded central edifices with crater-count model ages of ∼4.0–3.9 Ga (Ye and Michalski, 2021). Arabia Terra features several caldera-like depressions (e.g., Figure 2b) interpreted as remnants of collapsed supervolcanoes active during Noachian, based on their degraded morphologies and stratigraphic relationships with surrounding Noachian terrains (Michalski and Bleacher, 2013). These potential calderas imply massive pyroclastic eruptions, which could have released large amounts of ash and volatiles, thereby influencing the planet’s climate and surface chemistry over extensive areas (Michalski and Bleacher, 2013).

Another area of widespread activity is the circum-Hellas volcanic province. This region features a variety of volcanic landforms, such as cones, domes, and possibly pyroclastic deposits, interpreted as some of the oldest preserved volcanic features on Mars, dating to the Early-Middle Noachian (Williams et al., 2009). Brož et al. (2021) further studied these structures and found that many likely date back to the early Noachian period, based on their morphology and stratigraphic relationships. These ancient volcanic constructs may record processes deeply rooted in and controlled by the early martian crust, which formed shortly after the planet’s differentiation (Baratoux et al., 2013; Taylor and McLennan, 2009). The circum-Hellas region also exhibits extensive lava flows, indicating prolonged volcanic episodes that persisted millions of years (Neukum et al., 2004; Scott and Tanaka, 1986). The large size and volume of these deposits suggest ongoing mantle melting and continuous magma production, consistent with models of higher heat flow on early Mars (Hauck and Phillips, 2002; Zuber et al., 2000). Such large-scale volcanic events likely released substantial thermal energy and gases including CO₂, H₂O, SO₂, and H₂ into the atmosphere, temporarily enhancing greenhouse warming and inducing short-lived climatic fluctuations (Grott et al., 2011; Halevy and Head, 2014). These episodes of warming may have triggered transient surface runoff, valley formation, lacustrine activity, and hydrothermal circulation, reflecting dynamic interactions between magmatism, climate, and surface hydrology (Carr and Head, 2010).

In parallel, multiple lines of evidence indicate the presence of small-scale volcanism across ancient terrains. Many isolated cones, lava domes, fissure-fed flows, and other localized features are found throughout the Noachian-aged terrains (Michalski et al., 2017; Patel et al., 2025; Tuhi et al., 2025). However, constraining their exact ages can be challenging without detailed morphometric or stratigraphic analysis. For instance, the study by Patel et al. (2025) identifies volcanic features in ancient terrains, but they suggest these may be more recent eruptions emplaced through, or superposed on, the Noachian crust. This highlights the challenge of classifying such features over time without more investigation. This uncertainty is a common issue; many small volcanic structures in Noachian-aged regions may not be of Noachian age. Distinguishing true early volcanism from later resurfacing remains an important area of ongoing research.

Although many small cones and domes are reported within Noachian terrains, the lithological nature of the underlying crust remains uncertain. The term “Noachian crust” in such contexts typically denotes a terrain age rather than composition. Without compositional data or explicit superposition relationships, it is challenging to demonstrate whether these younger edifices erupted through igneous, sedimentary, or mixed substrates. Unambiguous examples of post-Noachian volcanic features directly superposed on identified Noachian volcanic edifices remain limited and inconclusive.

However, some small-scale features have clearer associations with the Noachian period. Stewart and Head (2001) described two steep-sided volcanic cones in the Aeolis region that exhibit ∼10°–15° flanks, 2–4 km-wide summit craters, and an absence of surrounding lava flows. Their degraded morphology, occurrence on Noachian-aged crust, and isolation from younger volcanic plains suggest a Noachian origin. The cone geometry and lack of effusive deposits further imply a pyroclastic or phreatomagmatic mode of formation, potentially resulting from magma-volatile interactions in a crust that still retained significant subsurface water or ice (Stewart and Head, 2001). Similarly, Xiao et al. (2012) documented hundreds of small volcanic edifices, including cones, domes, and low shields, across Noachian highlands such as Terra Cimmeria, Terra Sirenum, and Libya Montes. These features, typically 1–10 km wide and 100–500 m high, possess summit craters and eroded rims consistent with ancient, degraded volcanic constructs. Their occurrence on Noachian basement units, combined with thermal and morphologic evidence indicative of basaltic compositions, supports their interpretation as remnants of localized explosive or effusive eruptions during the Early–Middle Noachian (Xiao et al., 2012). Together, these examples suggest that small-scale volcanism was not only active but also more widespread and diverse than previously recognized, reflecting a distributed style of magmatism possibly controlled by local crustal heterogeneity and volatile abundance during Mars’s earliest geologic eras. Such small-scale volcanic systems may also have created transient hydrothermal environments driven by magmatic heat interacting with subsurface ice or water (Boston et al., 1992; Onstott et al., 2019). These systems could have produced chemical gradients favorable for prebiotic chemistry or microbial life, while the release of sulfur-bearing gases and other volatiles during eruptions may have contributed to short-lived but significant atmospheric and environmental changes (Cockell et al., 2016).

2.2 Intrusive magmatism and dike emplacement

Intrusive magmatism, which involves the movement of magma beneath the surface in the form of dikes, sills, and plutons, played a key role in Noachian magmatic processes, though it is often overlooked (Flahaut et al., 2011; Hardy, 2016). Remote sensing data (e.g., Figure 2e) reveal large dike swarms, commonly associated with tectonic fractures and volcanic centers, suggesting that magma rose through crustal pathways and altered the host rock both thermally and chemically (Ernst et al., 2001; Hardy, 2016; Schultz et al., 2004). These intrusions released intense heat, metamorphosing adjacent crustal materials and producing recrystallization and devolatilization zones, while magmatic volatiles and hydrothermal fluids altered the mineralogy of the host rocks through metasomatic processes (Flahaut et al., 2011; Hardy, 2016). Such interactions not only modified crustal composition but also may have generated transient hydrothermal systems capable of supporting fluid circulation and localized habitability (Michalski and Niles, 2010; Shock, 1997).

A well-studied example that underscores the importance of intrusive magmatism on early Mars is the Martian meteorite Allan Hills 84001 (ALH 84001). This orthopyroxenite crystallized approximately 4.09 Ga ago, consistent with early Noachian magmatic activity (Lapen et al., 2010; Treiman, 2005). Its coarse-grained, slow-cooling texture and mineral assemblage indicate crystallization at depth within the crust, while later carbonate and oxide precipitates record fluid–rock interactions associated with aqueous alteration (Leshin et al., 1998; McKay et al., 1996). ALH 84001 thus provides direct petrographic evidence for deep-seated magmatism coupled with episodic hydrothermal activity during the Noachian. These observations suggest that intrusive bodies were widespread in the early Martian crust and may have played a critical role in maintaining localized habitable environments. The heat and fluid circulation associated with dike and sill emplacement could have produced chemically reactive, thermally stable subsurface niches, offering potential refugia for life even during periods of severe surface conditions.

2.3 Mineralogy of Noachian volcanic and intrusive rocks

Understanding the mineralogy of Noachian magmatic rocks is essential for reconstructing the thermal evolution and fluvial alteration of early Mars. Both orbital and rover studies have identified key igneous minerals, including olivine, low-calcium and high-calcium pyroxenes, and plagioclase feldspar, in Noachian volcanic areas (Mustard et al., 2005; Ody et al., 2013). This mineralogical and spectroscopic evidence supports the interpretation that Mars’s crust was primarily basaltic in composition, formed through partial melting of a mantle source (e.g., Bandfield et al., 2000; Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; McSween et al., 2009; Murchie et al., 2009). These primary mafic phases are commonly associated with secondary alteration minerals, such as Fe/Mg smectites, carbonates, serpentine, and silica, indicating post-emplacement modification by water, likely under neutral to alkaline conditions (e.g., Bibring et al., 2006; Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Wray et al., 2009a). The coexistence of unaltered igneous and hydrated alteration minerals indicates that magmatism plays a dual role: creating crustal materials and later altering them through fluid-driven processes. In regions where alteration minerals occur adjacent to volcanic vents, dikes, or caldera systems, and where mineral zonation and chemistry indicate high-temperature, volatile-rich fluids, a magmatic hydrothermal origin is favored (Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013; Mège et al., 2023). In contrast, alteration in isolated crater floors or sedimentary basins lacking volcanic context is more consistent with impact- or groundwater-driven hydrothermal activity (Ehlmann et al., 2011b; Osinski et al., 2013).

Petrological studies of Martian meteorites provide further insights into the subsurface magmatic environments. The orthopyroxenite meteorite ALH 84001, a Noachian intrusive rock containing orthopyroxene, chromite, phosphate, and zoned carbonate globules, records a history of slow magmatic cooling followed by low-temperature hydrothermal alteration (Lapen et al., 2010; Treiman, 2005). This evidence supports the idea that magmatic heat initiated the circulation of hydrothermal systems. Comparable multi-stage magmatic and hydrothermal processes have been found in the Yamato 593 Martian meteorite, providing direct petrological evidence for subvolcanic hydrothermal circulation on early Mars (Gyollai et al., 2023; Mikouchi et al., 2003). These systems created environments that allowed for mineralogical changes and possibly habitable chemical gradients. Such alteration systems are known to be good settings for prebiotic chemistry and microbial life on Earth (e.g., Michalski et al., 2017; Wray et al., 2016); similar conclusions may reasonably be drawn for early Mars.

Recent studies have questioned whether the composition of Martian magmas changed significantly after the Noachian period. Early results from the OMEGA instrument suggested that rocks high in low-calcium pyroxene (LCP) might be found only in Noachian terrains, which points to a shift toward higher-calcium or more evolved magmas in later periods (Mustard et al., 2005). Other global surveys, such as Viviano et al. (2019), have supported this idea, with proposals suggesting a change in magma chemistry from the Noachian to the Hesperian and Amazonian eras. However, this interpretation is still debated. For instance, Rogers and Christensen (2007) used TES thermal emission data to show no apparent difference in feldspar abundance or overall mafic composition between Noachian and younger surfaces. This suggests that any compositional changes may not be noticeable everywhere or may vary by region. Additionally, new evidence of extensive and ancient feldspathic crust exposed across the north Hellas rim suggests that large regions of primary, feldspathic crust have persisted from the pre-Noachian, indicating that some aspects of early crustal composition may have survived subsequent magmatic and resurfacing events (Phillips et al., 2022).

One major evolutionary trend involves a shift in Martian eruptive styles over time. Several studies suggest that early Noachian volcanism may have been more explosive than the later, predominantly effusive Hesperian and Amazonian eruptions, supported by geomorphological comparisons of volcanic features across these periods (Bandfield et al., 2013). Brož et al. (2021) also support this by reviewing various pieces of evidence, such as vent shape and deposit features, which indicate a decline in explosive volcanism over time. If early Martian magmas were more volatile-rich, then explosive eruptions could have released significant amounts of water and other gases into the near-surface environment, increasing the chances and scale of alteration processes (Craddock and Greeley, 2009). This link between volcanic gas release and hydrothermal alteration highlights the potential role of Noachian magmatism in generating habitable conditions. Yet, without quantitative constraints on the spatial extent and temporal persistence of these systems, their overall contribution to crustal alteration remains uncertain.

The variety of minerals produced by primary igneous crystallization and subsequent alteration reflects the combined effects of geological processes and environmental complexity. In the framework of mineral evolution, Hazen et al. (2008) proposed that greater mineral diversity often corresponds to a broader range of chemical environments, some of which may arise in the presence of, or through the action of, life. On Noachian Mars, the coexistence of unaltered mafic phases with phyllosilicates, carbonates, and other hydrated minerals indicates a dynamic, water-rich, and chemically diverse environment, conditions that are widely considered favorable for prebiotic chemistry or early habitability (Bibring et al., 2006; Hazen et al., 2008).

2.4 Surface volcanic features: the case of Jezero Crater

While Jezero crater is discussed in more detail in Section 4.4, it offers an important case study for Noachian volcanic processes. It shows signs of coarse-grained volcanic rocks next to sedimentary deposits (Farley et al., 2022; Goudge et al., 2015). Mineralogical data from orbit and the rover reveal the presence of basaltic rocks with textures that indicate both effusive and explosive volcanic origins. This likely reflects complex volcanic activity during early Martian history (Alwmark et al., 2023; Goudge et al., 2015). The mineral composition of Jezero’s volcanic units includes pyroxene and olivine, along with alteration minerals like smectites and carbonates in the upper sedimentary layers. This sequence shows how volcanism created the igneous foundation, which was later changed by water interactions (Farley et al., 2022). This interaction is vital for habitability, as it indicates environments where water-rock contact was sustained. This allowed for nutrient cycling and energy gradients essential for life. Overall, Jezero crater demonstrates how volcanic terrains acted as sources of chemical materials and as structural bases for habitable environments. These locations continue to be key targets for ongoing and future exploration.

2.5 Subsurface habitability sustained by magmatic heat

The thermal energy from Noachian magmatic processes is seen as a key factor for maintaining subsurface habitability on early Mars (Boston et al., 1992; Onstott et al., 2019). Hydrothermal systems driven by magmatic intrusions and volcanic gases may have provided thermally stable conditions, buffering diurnal and seasonal surface variability, while supplying chemically rich fluids that generated the redox gradients essential for microbial life (Michalski et al., 2017; Shock, 1997). These subsurface habitats may have shielded life from harsh surface radiation and atmospheric loss, which increased after the Noachian (Dartnell, 2011; Schulze-Makuch and Irwin, 2006). Additionally, the lasting presence of intrusive heat sources indicates that habitable conditions might have persisted for millions of years, allowing ample time for life to emerge or continue (Michalski and Niles, 2010). Therefore, magmatic heat sources are among the best candidates for long-term habitability on early Mars.

3 Noachian sedimentary processes

Sedimentary processes on Noachian Mars show how the surface responded to climate, volcanic activity, and water flow during the planet’s earliest geological period. The Martian surface changed significantly after widespread volcanic materials formed during the Noachian. Aqueous and wind-driven sedimentary activity created landforms and mineral deposits that indicate ongoing interaction with liquid water (Carr and Head, 2010; Ehlmann et al., 2011b). These sedimentary signs offer important insights into the environmental conditions of that time. Combined with magmatic processes, they help us understand the potential for habitability on early Mars.

It is important to recognize that although many fluvial and sedimentary systems initiated during the Noachian, significant modifications in valley networks, delta formation, and basin filling continued into the transition from Noachian to Hesperian (Fassett and Head, 2008; Hynek et al., 2010). This temporal overlap suggests that some sediment records traditionally attributed to the Noachian may instead reflect conditions linked to the decline in volcanic heat, gradual atmospheric loss, and changing water systems during the early Hesperian (Carr and Head, 2010; Wordsworth, 2016). Furthermore, erosion during this transition may have mainly removed older Noachian deposits. This results in a preservation bias favoring sedimentary units formed later in the Noachian and earlier in the Hesperian (Grotzinger and Milliken, 2012). As a result, interpretations of early Martian habitability based on sedimentary records should account for this bias and the possibility that many currently observable sedimentary units, while primarily formed during the Noachian, were subsequently reworked during the early Hesperian (Fassett and Head, 2008). On Mars, the long-term stability of topography and the absence of plate tectonics allow basins to persist for billions of years, enabling sedimentary environments to be reused and modified long after their initial formation, in contrast to Earth, where plate tectonics and continuous topographic reorganization rarely preserve intact sedimentary basins over comparable timescales (Carr and Head, 2010; Grott et al., 2013). As a result, Martian sedimentary records may preferentially preserve composite histories that integrate multiple episodes of deposition, erosion, and reworking.

3.1 Morphological evidence of aqueous activity

3.1.1 Valley networks and fluvial erosion

The surfaces of Noachian terrains feature extensive, branching valley networks (e.g., Figure 3a) that indicate runoff from precipitation, groundwater processes, glacier melting, and basin overflooding (e.g., Carr and Head, 2010; Fassett and Head, 2008; 2007; Hynek et al., 2010; Irwin et al., 2004). These networks exhibit characteristics like branching patterns, smooth islands, and internal channels, which all point to sustained erosion by flowing liquid water (Howard et al., 2005). The density and connection of these networks, especially in the southern highlands, suggest a water system that was either occasionally or consistently active over long periods (Hynek et al., 2010; Rosenberg et al., 2015).

Figure 3

Figure 3. CTX mosaic images showing major Noachian-aged fluvial features on Mars. (a) Sabrina Valles–a valley system with a winding shape and branching tributaries. These features suggest fluvial activity during the Noachian (Harrison and Grimm, 2005). (b) Alluvial fans in Holden Crater formed through sediment movement and buildup at the base of crater walls. They show past ongoing water activity and possible groundwater resurgence (Pondrelli et al., 2005). (c) Delta deposits in Jezero crater formed by sediment-filled water flow into a past lake. This region is one of the most interesting locations for studying sediment and the potential for life on early Mars (Goudge et al., 2015). (d) Polygonal fracture networks in the Mawrth Vallis region linked to fine-grained layered deposits and layers rich in phyllosilicates. These likely formed by desiccation, thermal contraction or diagenetic processes (El Maarry et al., 2010).

The elevation profiles of many valleys show steady downstream slopes and interior channels, indicating surface runoff, not groundwater sapping, was likely the primary process shaping these valleys (Howard et al., 2005). This interpretation aligns with climate models that suggesting that the early Martian atmosphere could have maintained temperatures and pressures above the triple point of water, during episodic warm periods on early Mars (Haberle et al., 2017; Richardson and Mischna, 2005). Collectively, these valley networks provide some of the most substantial evidence that Mars once sustained a hydrologic cycle operating at or near the surface (Baker et al., 1991; Moore et al., 1995).

3.1.2 Deltaic and lacustrine systems

Many Noachian basins contain well-preserved deltaic deposits, indicating the presence of standing bodies of water, such as paleolakes (Mondro et al., 2023; Tebolt and Goudge, 2022). Examples include the Jezero (Figure 3c), Eberswalde, and Holden craters, where fan-shaped layers of sediment formed at the termini of valley systems (Cabrol and Grin, 2010; Goudge et al., 2017; Mangold et al., 2012; Pondrelli et al., 2005). These deltas exhibit graded bedding, distributary channel patterns, and lateral accretion, which are consistent with sediment deposition into long-lived lacustrine environments (Bhattacharya et al., 2005; Schon et al., 2012).

Basin analysis further indicates that some of these lakes were hydrologically open, with inlets and outlets that suggest a consistent water supply exceeding losses from evaporation and infiltration (Fassett and Head, 2008; Stucky de Quay et al., 2021). This challenges models invoking occasional groundwater outbursts, instead suggesting that periods of climatic stability supported liquid water on the surface (Hoke et al., 2011). These fine-grained, low-energy conditions, typical of deltaic and lacustrine settings, also promote the preservation of biosignatures (Grotzinger and Milliken, 2012). Taken together, these lake systems represent key astrobiological targets, offering both habitable environments and promising repositories for preserved organic or chemical biosignatures.

3.1.3 Alluvial fans and slope processes

Noachian terrains also host numerous alluvial fans and colluvial aprons, particularly along crater rims (Figure 3b) and highland slopes (Sun and Milliken, 2014; Tuhi et al., 2022). These deposits are interpreted as products of short bursts of intense runoff (Grant and Wilson, 2012). They often lack well-defined channels and instead have lobate morphologies, consistent with debris flows or sheetwash under semi-arid surface conditions (Morgan et al., 2022; Williams and Malin, 2008; Wilson et al., 2021). Their occurrence adjacent to both volcanic and sedimentary deposits suggests a common water source, possibly seasonal snowmelt or volcanic/impact-related heating of subsurface ice (Head and Marchant, 2014; Moore and Howard, 2005; Wilson et al., 2021). Alluvial fans, therefore, provide key evidence for localized water availability and near-surface fluvial activity. In some volcanic settings, their proximity to eruptive or intrusive features also raises the possibility that magma-related surface heating or hydrothermal processes enhanced local meltwater production and contributed to brief runoff events (Bargery and Wilson, 2011; Head and Wilson, 2002; Head and Marchant, 2014).

3.1.4 Polygonal fractures and desiccation features

In various sedimentary basins, polygonal cracks and fracture networks are observed in fine-grained, layered deposits. These features suggest the drying and shrinkage of wet sediments (Brooker et al., 2018; El Maarry et al., 2010). They often occur alongside sulfate, chloride, and clay-rich layers (Figure 3d) and seem to be stratigraphically linked, indicating that there were periods of drying in areas that were once wet (Brooker et al., 2018; El-Maarry et al., 2015; Levy et al., 2009; Stein et al., 2018). The presence of these fractures, especially in regions such as Meridiani Planum and Valles Marineris, supports the idea that early Mars experienced cycles of wet and dry conditions, which could have been beneficial for prebiotic chemistry and reactions on mineral surfaces (Tosca and Knoll, 2009). Polygonal fracture fields are important indicators of past sedimentary environments as they provide insights into ancient climate patterns and the preservation of potential biosignatures, particularly if they formed in evaporative settings rich in organic materials (Tosca and Knoll, 2009).

3.2 Mineralogical indicators of past aqueous conditions

3.2.1 Phyllosilicate assemblages

Phyllosilicates, especially Fe/Mg-rich smectites like nontronite and saponite, are widely found in Noachian terrains. They result from long-term interactions between water and rock under near-neutral pH conditions (Ehlmann et al., 2011b; Poulet et al., 2005). These minerals usually occur in basement layers below younger, unaltered or sulfate-bearing deposits (Figure 4a), suggesting they formed during an earlier, less acidic period of Martian alteration (Bibring et al., 2006; Bishop et al., 2018). Spectral mapping from orbit has detected these clays in regions such as Mawrth Vallis, Nili Fossae, and the margins of large impact basins, where they frequently occur on high-thermal-inertia, low-albedo surfaces (Loizeau et al., 2007; Mustard et al., 2008). The transformation of volcanic rocks into phyllosilicates supports the idea that extensive mafic substrates were chemically altered by groundwater circulation, which aligns with a warmer and wetter Noachian climate (Ehlmann et al., 2011b). The distribution and composition of phyllosilicates strongly suggest that early Mars was not consistently dry. Instead, it had regions with significant aqueous alteration environments.

Figure 4

Figure 4. HiRISE false-color image showing (a) phyllosilicate-bearing deposits, which display spectral characteristics consistent with Al- and Fe/Mg-bearing clays and related alteration minerals. The spatial heterogeneity of the unit suggests multiple episodes of aqueous alteration (Wray et al., 2008). (b) Stratigraphic section from Columbus crater showing sulfate-rich layers overlain by kaolinite-bearing deposits (Wray et al., 2009b). (c) Exposed carbonate-bearing outcrops identified in orbital datasets, indicating localized preservation of carbonates (Wray et al., 2016).

3.2.2 Sulfates and evaporites

In contrast to the clay-rich early alteration, younger layered deposits often contain sulfate minerals, such as kieserite and polyhydrated sulfates (e.g., Figure 4b), particularly in equatorial regions such as Meridiani Planum and Gale Crater (Bibring et al., 2006; Gendrin et al., 2005). These minerals form under more acidic and evaporative or freezing conditions, suggesting a shift in climate from a neutral-pH environment to a more acidic one (Clark et al., 2005; Tosca et al., 2008). Sulfate-bearing units are often found in association with layered sedimentary deposits within closed basins and equatorial troughs, which fits with the drying out of salty water bodies (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2008; Deit et al., 2013). The transition from phyllosilicate-to sulfate-dominated alteration marks a significant shift in Martian climate and water chemistry, likely driven by atmospheric loss and a decline in volcanic outgassing (Tosca and Knoll, 2009; Wordsworth, 2016). Although sulfates are generally less effective than clays at preserving organic material, they still record critical environmental information, revealing that ancient waters were often acidic, oxidizing, and highly evaporative, and recording key aspects of water chemistry, hydrologic regimes, and climatic transitions associated with atmospheric thinning and volcanic outgassing (Bibring et al., 2006; Grotzinger et al., 2005; Summons et al., 2011; Tosca and McLennan, 2006).

3.2.3 Carbonates and hydrothermal indicators

Carbonate minerals, although relatively uncommon, have been detected in Noachian terrains (e.g., Figure 4c) through both orbital spectroscopy and in situ analyses, particularly in the Nili Fossae region and Jezero Crater (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Niles et al., 2013). Their presence indicates that water interacted with rocks under neutral to alkaline conditions, with enough CO₂ available to encourage carbonate formation (Michalski and Niles, 2010; Wray et al., 2016). These deposits often occur near olivine-rich units, supporting a model in which carbonation occurred through the alteration of mafic and ultramafic rocks, likely in hydrothermal or underground settings (Brown et al., 2010; Ehlmann et al., 2008; Morris et al., 2010). Carbonates are a significant mineralogical marker because they can trap and preserve evidence of life over long periods, similar to terrestrial stromatolites (Grotzinger and Knoll, 1999). Their discovery confirms that at least some Noachian environments were chemically stable and buffered, making them prime targets for future sample return missions.

3.3 Jezero Crater as a Noachian sedimentary basin

Jezero Crater is one of the best-preserved examples of a Noachian-aged fluvio-lacustrine system on Mars, and offers crucial sedimentary evidence for ongoing past water activity (Goudge et al., 2017; Goudge et al., 2015). Situated on the western edge of the Isidis Basin, Jezero features a large deltaic fan, where two valley systems, Neretva Vallis and Sava Vallis, once fed into a standing lake (Bell et al., 2022; Jodhpurkar et al., 2024; Stack et al., 2024). The delta deposits in Jezero show a clear stratigraphic structure including layered, fan-shaped lobes, distributary channels, and foreset beds, all of which indicate sediment deposition in a low-energy lake environment (Goudge et al., 2017; Mangold et al., 2021). High-resolution HiRISE and CTX images have revealed lateral accretion structures and changes from coarser to finer materials downsection, consistent with delta growth under stable water conditions (Schon et al., 2012; Stack et al., 2020).

Spectroscopic data from CRISM and information from the Perseverance rover indicate that the deltaic sediments contain phyllosilicates, including Fe/Mg smectites and carbonates, supporting prolonged interaction between water and rock under neutral to alkaline conditions (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Farley et al., 2022). These alteration phases are primarily concentrated within sedimentary layers, suggesting that secondary processes changed detrital grains after they were deposited (Mangold et al., 2021; Stack et al., 2024).

The preserved sedimentary structure and mineral content of the Jezero delta provide strong support for the presence of long-lasting surface water and possibly habitable conditions during the late Noachian (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Goudge et al., 2017). Additionally, the delta sits atop igneous floor units rich in olivine and pyroxene (as discussed in Section 2.4), highlighting a transition from volcanic to sedimentary processes (Farley et al., 2022). This stratigraphic context supports the idea that Jezero’s history with water involved reworking volcanic materials, emphasizing the connection between volcanic and sedimentary processes on early Mars. Overall, Jezero serves as a key site for understanding sedimentary processes on Noachian Mars. Its excellent preservation shows how water and volcanic histories merge in a single basin. Due to this, it remains one of the most promising locations for detecting biosignatures and serves as an important reference for understanding other sedimentary systems across ancient Martian landscapes. Recent hydrodynamic modeling of areas with erosion and deposition in the Jezero delta shows how fluvial accumulation patterns can help predict where biosignatures and samples are best preserved. This provides an important framework for guiding future exploration on-site (Harris et al., 2022).

4 Interaction between volcanic and sedimentary processes on Noachian Mars

Rock-fluid interactions on Noachian Mars encompass a range of physical and chemical processes, including low-temperature water alteration, hydrothermal circulation driven by magmatic heat, and fluid-mediated element transport within volcanic and sedimentary materials. These environments formed under different pressures and temperatures and were influenced by changing geothermal gradients, water availability, and redox conditions (Clifford and Parker, 2001; Tosca and Knoll, 2009). The connection between the subsurface and the surface, as well as the atmosphere, also changed over time. During the Noachian, when the global cryosphere was likely discontinuous or only weakly formed, shallow subsurface systems were likely more open. They were directly linked to surface water and atmospheric processes, allowing for the exchange of fluids, gases, and solutes (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; Head et al., 2003). As Mars cooled and a thick cryosphere formed during Hesperian, subsurface fluid systems became more insulated from the atmosphere. This change led to more closed, pressured environments. In these conditions, fluid circulation, redox buffering, and mineral alteration could last for longer periods (Clifford and Parker, 2001; Michalski et al., 2013). Together, these factors shaped mineral, chemical, and possibly biological records found in Noachian terrains.

The early Noachian epoch is a critical interval for Mars, during which volcanic and sedimentary processes occurred together. They left behind geomorphic, mineralogical, and stratigraphic signatures that give us insight into the planet’s past habitability (Carr and Head, 2010; Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014). Although we discussed volcanic and sedimentary features separately, their spatial and temporal overlap suggests that they interacted in complex ways. This interaction may have created long-lasting fluvial environments that were suitable for early chemistry or microbial life (Goudge et al., 2017; Michalski et al., 2018).

4.1 Geomorphic expressions of magmatic-sedimentary interaction

The surface of Noachian Mars exhibits a diverse range of landforms that reveal the complex interplay between volcanic and sedimentary processes. These features provide important insights into past environmental conditions and the potential for habitability. One of the most prominent signs of these interactions is the presence of layered terrains found within or near volcanic regions. These deposits show rhythmic or finely bedded patterns that can form through explosive volcanic activity, such as airfall tephra, hydromagmatic ash, or volcaniclastic material, as well as sedimentary processes including aeolian dust accumulation, fluvial or lacustrine deposition, and reworking of volcanic ash (Kerber et al., 2012; Malin and Edgett, 2000; Squyres et al., 2007). Their distribution in eastern Arabia Terra, along the Hellas rim, and near Syrtis Major suggests a close temporal and spatial relationship between episodic volcanic eruptions and contemporary sedimentation (Michalski and Bleacher, 2013).

Volcanic landforms such as calderas, collapse pits, and cratered volcanic cones can serve as natural basins that trap sediments transported by water or wind. These basins often accumulate layered deposits, recording intervals of standing water or sustained sediment influx (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2008). For example, volcanic depressions in the Tharsis region and along tectonic grabens contain layered deposits and inverted channels. In these settings, volcanic and tectonic activity modified the landscape by creating new topographic lows or barriers, which redirected surface runoff, concentrated water into enclosed basins, and altered local drainage pathways (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; Vijayan and Sinha, 2017). Another significant landform that results from this interaction is delta systems, which form within volcanic basins or at the edges of volcanic areas, such as those found in the Jezero and Eberswalde impact craters. These deltas develop where flowing water enters standing bodies of water that have accumulated in such depressions, or where lava flows dammed valleys and created ponds or lakes (Goudge et al., 2017; Howard et al., 2005). The presence of deltas in these volcanic settings indicates a steady supply of water and relatively stable conditions, suggesting that the surface was suitable for life over a long time (Goudge et al., 2017).

Fan-shaped landforms, particularly alluvial fans, offer more evidence of the interaction between volcanic and sedimentary processes. These features often appear where steep volcanic slopes increased runoff, causing sediment movement during heavy rains or snowmelt (Grant and Wilson, 2012; Moore and Howard, 2005). Inverted channels and winding ridges, which are common in volcanic areas, reveal how riverbeds hardened through cementation by volcanic ash or groundwater minerals, followed by differential erosion (Burr et al., 2010; Pain et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2018). The volcanic supply of fine ash and alteration products played a crucial role in preserving these fluvial features from erosion, allowing them to remain as prominent signs of water-volcano interaction.

Most evidence for the interaction between volcanic and sedimentary processes comes from the Noachian period, but examples from younger terrains highlight the significance of these processes. The Aeolis region provides a strong case study. Here, the Medusae Fossae Formation (MFF), interpreted as a large volcaniclastic deposit, contains numerous inverted channels, fan deposits, and potential delta features. These demonstrate a close relationship between volcanic activity and sediment from water (Burr et al., 2010). While the MFF dates back to the Hesperian to Amazonian period, its excellent preservation provides insight into processes that must have been even more common during the Noachian, when there was more volcanism, climate-related water activity, and higher sediment recycling rates. By studying Aeolis as a well-preserved example, we can infer that similar, though less well-preserved, volcanic-sedimentary systems once dominated the Noachian landscape, illustrating how volcanic activity shaped the surface and maintained hydrological and climate feedback by adding heat and volatiles to the atmosphere (Carr and Head, 2010; Wordsworth, 2016).

The variety and distribution of these features suggest that surface processes on Noachian Mars were shaped by both volcanic activity and climate-driven sedimentary processes, with preservation of river, delta, and lake features in volcanic areas shows that volcanism not only played a role in forming basins but also likely supported water cycles by releasing heat and gases into the atmosphere (Carr and Head, 2010; Wordsworth, 2016). Thus, the visible signs of interaction between volcanic and sedimentary processes offer crucial insights into the early Martian environment and its ability to support life.

4.2 Alteration mineral assemblages: tracers of water-rock interaction

Alteration minerals are important indicators of past environmental conditions and often reveal interactions between magmatic and sedimentary processes. In this review, the term alteration is used broadly to refer to changes in the mineralogy and chemistry of primary igneous materials induced by interaction with aqueous fluids, consistent with common usage in studies of Martian aqueous processes (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; McSween et al., 2009; Tosca and Knoll, 2009). This definition does not impose a strict temperature threshold separating low-temperature weathering from hydrothermal reactions, reflecting the continuum of fluid-rock interactions expected on Mars (Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013; Tosca and Knoll, 2009). Such distinctions are particularly ambiguous in the Martian context, where geothermal gradients, pressure conditions, and fluid compositions differ substantially from those on Earth (Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013; McSween et al., 2009). Moreover, liquid water on Mars may persist over a broad range of temperatures due to the presence of saline brines and subsurface pressure effects, further blurring conventional terrestrial boundaries between weathering and hydrothermal alteration (Chevrier and Rivera-Valentin, 2012; Tosca and Knoll, 2009; Wordsworth, 2016). Subsurface pressure effects further influenced fluid-rock interactions by elevating fluid boiling points, enhancing mineral solubility, suppressing volatile exsolution, and controlling the stability fields of alteration minerals, particularly in hydrothermal and groundwater-dominated systems (Shock, 1997; Tosca and Knoll, 2009).

On Mars, the stability of liquid water is limited by lower atmospheric pressure and colder surface temperatures compared to Earth. Present-day surface pressures on Mars average about 6–8 mbar, and even estimates from the Noachian period likely did not exceed about 0.1–1 bar (Carr and Head, 2010; Wordsworth, 2016). In these conditions, pure liquid water is unstable at the surface. However, subsurface environments significantly extend the pressure-temperature stability range of liquid water due to lithostatic pressure, higher geothermal gradients, and the presence of saline fluids (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; Chevrier and Rivera-Valentin, 2012). Research shows that brines with chlorides, sulfates, or perchlorates can stay liquid at temperatures well below 0 °C, sometimes down to −20 °C to −70 °C, greatly increasing the range of habitable water environments on Mars (Chevrier and Rivera-Valentin, 2012; Tosca and Knoll, 2009). Unlike Earth, where fluid-rock interaction is primarily driven by surface weathering under stable atmospheric conditions, Martian aqueous alteration likely occurred mostly underground in areas such as impact-heated crust, volcanic structures, and buried sedimentary basins, where heat flow and pressure support liquid water (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; Ehlmann et al., 2011a; McSween et al., 2009). These environments would have enabled a broad range of alteration processes, from low-temperature weathering to hydrothermal reactions, with no clear terrestrial equivalents in terms of spatial extent or duration (Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013).

Phyllosilicates, especially Fe/Mg-smectites, are commonly found in Noachian terrains, where they commonly occur with basaltic substrates and likely formed under neutral to mildly alkaline water conditions (Carter et al., 2013; Ehlmann et al., 2011a). These minerals are usually layered beneath sulfates or silica-rich deposits, indicating a shift from an early environment conducive to phyllosilicate formation to more acidic conditions (Bibring et al., 2006; Wray et al., 2009b). Serpentinization reactions that involve olivine- and pyroxene-rich rocks create serpentine minerals. They also produce brucite and molecular hydrogen, resulting in strongly reducing environments that are important for astrobiology (McCollom and Bach, 2009; Plümper et al., 2017). These environments can support chemolithoautotrophic life on Earth and may have provided similar energy sources for potential subterranean life on early Mars. On Mars, serpentinite can form through the water-driven changes of both olivine- and pyroxene-rich basalts, consistent with the mineralogy of Noachian volcanic crust (Ehlmann et al., 2010). Carbonates have been found in small but significant geological contexts, often alongside volcanic terrains or buried beneath sedimentary layers (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Niles et al., 2013). Their presence is notable because carbonates form in relatively neutral to alkaline conditions, whereas at least some sulfates need more acidic fluids, indicating that early Mars had different fluvial environments associated with the alteration of magmatic materials, each offering varying potential for habitability (Ehlmann et al., 2016).

In several locations, including the western Hellas Basin, Eridania, and eastern Terra Sirenum, clay-bearing and sulfate-bearing layered deposits are situated above or adjacent to volcanic flows or lava plains, suggesting a sequence of volcanic activity followed by water alteration and sedimentation (Hughes et al., 2024; Michalski et al., 2024; 2017). The variety and layering of these minerals indicate changing water conditions influenced by volcanic heat, surface runoff, and possibly hydrothermal activity (Ehlmann and Mustard, 2012). The range of minerals found in Noachian units strongly supports the view that volcanic terrains acted as geochemical engines, releasing elements such as Mg, Fe, Si, and Ca through weathering, alteration, and hydrothermal activity; these elements were subsequently redistributed and transformed in fluvial environments, producing mineral assemblages that both record these interactions and offer potential sites for biosignature preservation (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013; McSween et al., 2009; Michalski et al., 2017).

The changes in alteration assemblages on Noachian Mars are strongly influenced by fluctuations in the water/rock ratio, which directly control reaction kinetics, mineral stability, and fluid chemistry (Tosca and Knoll, 2009). In the early Noachian, conditions with high geothermal heat flow, widespread groundwater movement, and frequent volcanic activity likely increased water/rock ratios, allowing significant basalt alteration and the development of Fe/Mg-smectites and carbonates under mostly open-system conditions (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013; Grott et al., 2011). As volcanic heat gradually diminished in the late Noachian, groundwater circulation became more focused and limited, which led to lower effective water/rock ratios and encouraged more chemically evolved, closed-system alteration pathways (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Tosca and McLennan, 2006). This consistent shift in the water/rock ratio helps us understand the change from widespread clay-dominated alteration to more confined sulfate- and silica-rich assemblages near the Noachian–Hesperian boundary (Bibring et al., 2006; Carter et al., 2013; Ehlmann et al., 2011b).

In addition to changes in the water-to-rock ratio, Noachian alteration environments likely experienced significant spatial and temporal variations in pH. This variability reflects the steady decrease of volcanic heat flow and the shift from open to more closed geochemical systems (Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2013; Tosca and Knoll, 2009). Early high heat flow and active fluid circulation would have created near-neutral to mildly alkaline conditions, which were good for widespread phyllosilicate and carbonate formation (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Michalski and Niles, 2010). In contrast, declining magmatism and less fluid movement during the late Noachian would have led to chemical isolation, solute buildup, and more acidic or chemically altered fluids (Bibring et al., 2006; Tosca and McLennan, 2006; Wordsworth, 2016). This progressive shift in pH under increasingly closed-system conditions promotes solute concentration, oxidation, and sulfur enrichment of fluids, thereby suppressing clay stability while favoring the precipitation of sulfate phases, providing a geochemical explanation for the mineral diversity observed across Noachian terrains and the stratigraphic transition toward sulfate-dominated alteration as the Noachian-Hesperian boundary approached (Carter et al., 2013; Ehlmann et al., 2011b; Tosca and McLennan, 2006).

4.3 Subsurface or hydrothermal systems

Intrusive magmatism, primarily through sills, dikes, and plutonic bodies, is thought to have created localized hydrothermal systems. Here, water moved through permeable rock, leaching elements and forming alteration minerals (Dohm et al., 2009; Harrison and Grimm, 2009). These areas likely had redox gradients, which are essential for chemolithotrophic life. They may have been stable for more extended periods compared to temporary surface flows (Abramov and Kring, 2005). Crustal heating from intrusive bodies may have melted subsurface ice. This generated steam or warm water that interacted with magmatic and sedimentary rocks. The resulting mineral signatures, particularly those of clays, carbonates, and silica, match those characteristic of hydrothermal alteration. They often appear near volcanic structures (Ehlmann et al., 2011b; Thollot et al., 2012). These environments may resemble places on Earth, like the hydrothermal fields of Yellowstone or Iceland, where life thrives in chemically active settings. These buried hydrothermal systems are some of the most promising yet least explored environments on early Mars. The mineral signals found at the surface suggest deep exchanges, connecting magmatic heat sources with sedimentary and water pathways.

4.4 Case study: Jezero Crater as a site of magmatic-sedimentary convergence

As discussed in Sections 2.4 and 3.3, Jezero Crater, located at the western edge of the Isidis impact basin, presents a compelling case for studying the intersection of volcanic and sedimentary processes on Noachian Mars through its well-preserved geological record (Goudge et al., 2017; Schon et al., 2012). The spatial arrangement of igneous and fluvio-lacustrine deposits at Jezero reveals not only the overlap of volcanic and water-related activities but also their influence on the changing Martian surface. The crater floor is characterized by extensive olivine-rich and pyroxene-bearing rocks. Their size suggests they formed through volcanic or impact-related resurfacing before sustained fluvial activity began (Farley et al., 2022; Goudge et al., 2015). These igneous units display diverse shapes, including rough terrains interpreted as lava flows or volcanic sediments, possibly related to post-impact magmatism from the Isidis basin or mantle upwelling along its edge (Alwmark et al., 2023; Holm-Alwmark et al., 2021; Horgan et al., 2023; Vaughan et al., 2023). Their detailed layering and the presence of distinct subunits, identified in high-resolution images and radar data, suggest multiple phases of formation, likely through sheet flows or explosive volcanic activity (Raguso et al., 2024; Stack et al., 2024).

Jezero is especially interesting because the sediments not only cover these igneous materials but are also mixed and reshaped within the sedimentary layers (Mangold et al., 2020). For example, detrital grains of olivine and pyroxene found in deltaic and lakebed sediments indicate erosion of local volcanic sources, likely during active transport of water (Farley et al., 2022; Horgan et al., 2023; Wiens et al., 2022). This sourcing of sediment suggests a dynamic landscape where volcanic materials offered a chemical and physical foundation for fluvial processes. Recent hydrodynamic modelling of the Jezero crater delta further constrains the magnitude and spatial variability of fluvial input, identifying zones dominated by erosion versus deposition based on reconstructed water flow dynamics (Steinmann et al., 2024). Such modelling provides a quantitative physical foundation for interpreting deltaic architecture and offers a framework for prioritizing sedimentation-dominated targets for future in situ Mars surface missions.

The boundary between the crater floor units and the overlying delta deposits represents an important transition. CRISM and SuperCam observations show altered mineral groups, including Fe/Mg smectites, carbonates, and localized sulfates, that form clear halos around igneous fragments or appear along sedimentary layers, indicating changes that occurred after deposition (Brown et al., 2020; Clavé et al., 2023; Royer et al., 2024). These mineral patterns reflect not only changes due to water but also redox gradients likely driven by the interaction of volcanic materials with infiltrating water, which could have created microenvironments suitable for early chemistry (Costello et al., 2020; Randazzo et al., 2024). Geomorphologically, Jezero’s features exhibit evidence of sediment filling in volcanic depressions and cracks, indicating that the volcanic landscape influenced the distribution of sediment (Goudge et al., 2017; Mangold et al., 2020; Schon et al., 2012). The pathways of the Neretva and Sava inlet valleys into Jezero’s interior align with topographic lows, which were partly shaped by the underlying volcanic structure. This indicates that volcanism had an impact on how water and sediment flowed into the basin (Bell et al., 2022; Stack et al., 2024).

The timing of Jezero’s development, determined by counting craters and observing the relationships between features, supports a view in which volcanic activity occurred before or alongside fluvial activity during the late Noachian to early Hesperian (Fassett and Head, 2008; Goudge et al., 2015; Holm-Alwmark et al., 2021). This timing suggests that volcanic materials were available for erosion and weathering when deltas began to form, creating a direct route for releasing nutrients and metals into the water system, which are critical factors for understanding possible biosignature preservation (Michalski et al., 2018).

Ongoing exploration by the Perseverance rover continues to study evidence of geochemical changes and layers that highlight the complexity of volcanic and sedimentary interactions in Jezero (Farley et al., 2022; Stack et al., 2024). Initial rover studies suggest differing levels of water-related alteration in igneous rocks, possibly linked to nearby water-rich delta units. The detection of Mg-carbonates and serpentinized materials suggests past hydrothermal systems, either on the surface or just below, that may have enhanced habitability (Singh et al., 2022). In the broader context, Jezero stands out as a rare instance where volcanic rock, sediment processes, and water alteration all coexist in space and time. This combination not only captures the site’s geological history but also enhances its potential for supporting life. The overlapping clues of volcanic contributions, fluvial transport, and post-formation changes make Jezero a high-priority site for studying conditions suitable for life on Mars and potentially other rocky planets.

5 Biosignature potential in volcanic-sedimentary systems on Noachian Mars

The interaction between magmatic and sedimentary processes during the Noachian epoch on Mars is widely believed to have created conditions suitable for life (Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; Michalski et al., 2013). This interaction produced lasting fluvial environments, allowed nutrient cycling, generated chemical energy gradients, and established mineral conditions that preserved biosignatures (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Grotzinger et al., 2014; Varnes et al., 2003).

Magmatic activity during the Noachian provided necessary chemical components and created thermal gradients needed to drive hydrothermal systems (Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2019). Basaltic volcanic rocks, which are rich in olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase, are plentiful in Noachian areas, including Nili Fossae and Jezero Crater (Ehlmann et al., 2009; Mustard et al., 2005). When these minerals came into contact with liquid water, they underwent chemical weathering and hydrothermal changes, resulting in secondary phases such as smectite clays, carbonates, and serpentine (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Michalski et al., 2013). These alteration products indicate sustained water-rock interaction over timescales of at least 10⁵–10⁶ years, suggest moderate pH levels, and imply relatively low temperature conditions that generally align with environments that could support life (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; Fassett and Head, 2008).

Sedimentary processes, mainly driven by fluvial and lacustrine activity, transported and deposited materials that originated from altered volcanic areas (Goudge et al., 2017; Mangold et al., 2021). These sediments accumulated in lower-lying areas, such as crater basins, deltas, and alluvial fans, creating layered units that recorded both the mineral and geochemical histories of the surface and subsurface environments (Grotzinger et al., 2014; Holm-Alwmark et al., 2021; Malin and Edgett, 2000). The presence of fine-grained clays and carbonates in these deposits is particularly significant, as they can capture and preserve organic molecules and potential biosignatures over extended periods (Farley et al., 2022; Hickman-Lewis et al., 2022). Crucially, the merging of volcanic and sedimentary processes helped develop redox gradients that are essential for metabolic processes. Such redox gradients would have arisen from the juxtaposition of reduced volcanic substrates with oxidized surface waters, creating chemically stratified environments capable of supporting diverse metabolic pathways analogous to terrestrial hydrothermal and lacustrine systems (Hurowitz et al., 2017; Westall et al., 2015). For instance, ferrous iron released from olivine-rich basalts could be oxidized in the presence of water, thereby providing energy sources used by some microorganisms on Earth (Nealson et al., 2005; Price et al., 2018). Additionally, sulfate minerals formed through interactions between volcanic gases and water oxidation may have further enhanced redox stratification in standing water, thereby increasing the metabolic diversity of any microbial community (Tosca and Knoll, 2009). Furthermore, fluid-rock interactions on Mars likely facilitated the transport of a variety of chemical elements. Their behavior differs from that observed on Earth due to consistently low oxygen levels. Under these conditions, redox-sensitive elements such as iron and manganese can remain dissolved over long distances and for extended periods, thereby increasing their availability to life and their geochemical importance (Hurowitz et al., 2010; Loche et al., 2024). This environment may have created lasting chemical gradients within sedimentary and subsurface environments, promoting mineralogical diversification and redox heterogeneity over extended timescales (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Tosca and Knoll, 2009).

Volcanic-sedimentary junctions likely also hosted hydrothermal systems, especially near crater edges and cracks. Impacts would have fractured volcanic crust, increasing permeability and allowing hydrothermal fluids to circulate underground. These systems might have lasted from thousands to millions of years based on thermal gradients and water availability, providing an additional stable environment for life (Abramov and Kring, 2005; Barnhart et al., 2009). On Earth, such settings are home to microbial communities that get energy from rock-water interactions, and similar environments could have existed on early Mars (Boston et al., 2001). Finally, the mineral context of these areas is crucial for the long-term preservation of biosignatures. Smectite clays, carbonates, and silica, all linked to volcanic and sedimentary processes, are well recognized for preserving organic matter on Earth (Farmer and Des Marais, 1999; Summons et al., 2011). Their presence on Mars boosts the chances of finding signs of ancient life if it ever existed. Additionally, Grady and Wright (2006) examined potential carbon isotopic signatures of Martian organic matter. They predicted extremely negative δ¹³C values (down to less than −200‰) resulting from biological fractionation if photosynthetic or chemoautotrophic processes were happening. This prediction provides a key reference for understanding future isotopic measurements of Martian organics.

Locations like Jezero Crater illustrate this beneficial combination. Here, igneous materials rich in olivine and pyroxene provided a base for delta formation. These volcanic units were later weathered, reshaped, and incorporated into lakebed deposits (Farley et al., 2022; Goudge et al., 2015). CRISM and rover-based studies confirm the presence of Fe/Mg-smectites and carbonates, which formed under neutral to alkaline conditions suitable for microbial life (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Mangold et al., 2021). Moreover, the preservation of layered delta structures and lateral accumulation suggests relatively calm water conditions that are ideal for preserving organics and supporting microbial growth (Holm-Alwmark et al., 2021). Continued exploration at Jezero and similar sites can help narrow down where and when habitable conditions existed during the Noachian. Studying other areas with signs of hydrothermal activity, like Nili Fossae, Northeast Syrtis, or the Hellas region, may also uncover different geochemical environments that support the preservation of biosignatures.

6 Outstanding knowledge gaps and future mission constraints

Despite significant progress in orbital and in situ exploration, several key areas of knowledge remain to be addressed in understanding Noachian environmental evolution (Carr and Head, 2010). Important unresolved questions remain regarding the temporal evolution of groundwater systems, the duration and spatial connectivity of hydrothermal circulation, the magnitude and stability of early atmospheric pressure, and the pathways of mineral alteration under varying redox and pH conditions (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; Michalski et al., 2017; Wordsworth, 2016). Additionally, the roles of in situ alteration and sedimentary reworking in forming the mineral types found in ancient basins remain incompletely understood (Ehlmann et al., 2011b; Grotzinger and Milliken, 2012).

Upcoming missions should help clarify these uncertainties. The ExoMars rover mission, which features a roughly 2-m subsurface drill, aims to reach materials protected from surface radiation and oxidative damage. This will enable direct study of ancient aquatic environments and may uncover biosignatures in the Noachian subsurface (Vago et al., 2017). Sampling at this depth may help us piece together information about primary alteration environments that we cannot access through orbital observations alone (Farmer and Des Marais, 1999).

7 Conclusion

The Noachian period was one of the most active geological times in Mars’s history. It featured extensive volcanic and sedimentary processes that worked together to shape the planet’s surface. Volcanic heat acts as a fundamental engine driving these interactions by melting subsurface ice, enhancing groundwater circulation, elevating water/rock ratios, modifying pH, and accelerating mineral alteration reactions, thereby creating chemically dynamic environments of exceptional astrobiological significance (Ehlmann and Edwards, 2014; Filiberto and Schwenzer, 2019; McSween et al., 2009). This review highlights that volcanism during the Noachian era was widespread and lasted for at least several hundred million years, from >4.1 Ga into the early Hesperian, and created diverse igneous terrains filled with mafic minerals like olivine and pyroxene (Baratoux et al., 2011; Mustard et al., 2005; Werner, 2009). Once these volcanic materials were exposed to a wetter Martian climate, they changed due to water-rock interactions. This led to the formation of secondary minerals such as Fe/Mg-smectites, carbonates, and serpentine, which are strongly associated with neutral to mildly alkaline water environments (Ehlmann et al., 2011a; Michalski et al., 2013). At the same time, sedimentary processes driven by flowing water, lakes, and possibly glaciers carved out large valley networks. These processes filled basins with layered sediments and created fan-shaped deltas throughout the Noachian landscape (Fassett and Head, 2008; Hynek et al., 2010). They also reworked volcanic materials, moving and depositing them in low-energy basins where additional changes occurred (Goudge et al., 2017; Stack et al., 2020). The combination of volcanic terrains and aquatic environments led to areas of high interest for astrobiology, particularly where hydrothermal alteration, mineral accumulation, and sediment accumulation occurred over extended periods. However, a critical unresolved issue is the relative roles of in-situ alteration of volcanic substrates and the transport and redeposition of altered materials in sedimentary systems (Grotzinger and Milliken, 2012; Mangold et al., 2021). Many units with clay and carbonate show direct interaction between water and primary volcanic materials, while others likely originate from eroded and altered source regions and were subsequently transported and redeposited within river and lake basins, rather than forming through in situ alteration at their final depositional locations (Farley et al., 2022; Goudge et al., 2017; Tuhi et al., 2022). Understanding these processes is crucial for reconstructing environmental conditions and evaluating the true habitability of Noachian environments.

A key theme from this synthesis is that the interaction between volcanic and sedimentary processes was significant in shaping the potential for early Mars to support life. Volcanism provided the heat and chemical materials required for hydrothermal systems, while sedimentary processes enabled the long-term preservation of habitable spaces through burial, mineral sealing, and organic trapping (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Farmer and Des Marais, 1999). The mineral signatures and landforms found at sites like Jezero Crater, Nili Fossae, Isidis basin, and Northeast Syrtis show this combination clearly. They offer some of the best insights into Mars’s early environmental complexity (Ehlmann et al., 2009; Ehlmann and Mustard, 2012; Goudge et al., 2015; Mustard et al., 2009). Jezero Crater is a prime example of the interactions between volcanism, fluvial transport, and lake deposition. Its preserved deltaic layers, units containing phyllosilicates, and the combination of altered volcanic materials with fine sediments all suggest a long-lasting habitable environment during the late Noachian (Farley et al., 2022; Mangold et al., 2021). Additionally, the patterns of lateral accumulation, the potential for preserving organics, and evidence of interactions between groundwater and surface water at Jezero highlight the importance of magmatic-sedimentary systems in understanding Mars’s early environmental changes (Stack et al., 2024).

Looking ahead, understanding how these processes interact across different areas and times is crucial for identifying future exploration targets. Continued exploration by Perseverance, the upcoming ExoMars rover, and planned Mars Sample Return missions will offer new insights into the timing, chemistry, and preservation potential of Noachian environments (Beaty et al., 2019; Stack et al., 2020; Vago et al., 2017). These missions aim to directly test the models discussed in this review. They will characterize alteration processes, sediment sources, and biosignature preservation across important Noachian targets. Broadening this framework to include other Noachian terrains with similar volcanic and sedimentary features will enhance our models of early Mars and help assess its potential for ancient life.

In summary, the Noachian epoch was a time of important environmental convergence. It supported the thermal, chemical, and water-related elements necessary for habitability. The interactions between volcanic and sedimentary processes not only shaped early Mars’s landscape but also created and preserved environments that could have supported life and possibly captured evidence of it. The forthcoming ExoMars rover, equipped with a 2-m subsurface drill, is specifically designed to investigate such Noachian terrains and evaluate their habitability potential using mineralogical, geochemical, and biosignature indicators inaccessible from the surface.

Author contributions

ST: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. JW: Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The authors are grateful for financial support from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment for publishing this paper.

Acknowledgements

We thank the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology for supporting our research. We thank Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences for inviting us to write this review. We also thank the reviewers for their constructive feedback, which significantly improved the quality of the manuscript. Finally, we acknowledge ChatGPT (GPT-5), an AI language model developed by OpenAI, for its assistance in improving the grammar and clarity of this paper.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. Generative AI (GPT-5) was used to improve the grammar and clarity of the manuscript.

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