Abstract
Parental involvement οr engagement is essential for the holistic development of children, especially for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Several ASD interventions integrate parental involvement, with positive outcomes. ICT tools affect children with ASD in their daily lives by empowering social–emotional, communicational, and educational skills. This literature review aims to examine the relationship between ICTs and parental involvement (PI) for children with ASD. Specifically, it describes the most frequently reported theoretical models of PI and identifies effective interventions that integrate ICTs with parental involvement. Combining powerful interventions could lead to better therapeutic and educational outcomes. Results from studies show that, despite methodological limitations, ICTs may support parental engagement in ASD interventions, helping both children with ASD and their parents. Future research could test new synthesized protocols for effectiveness in ASD treatment.
1 Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability that presents with persistent difficulties in social interaction or communication and restricted interests or repetitive behaviors (APA, 2024). Different levels of severity cause clinical impairment in social, occupational, and daily function (CDC, 2024). ASD is considered a lifelong condition affecting children’s and families’ lives differently, depending on severity (APA, 2024). Prevalence of ASD in children in the USA has increased (1:31) since 2022 (Shaw, 2025). There is great need for multi-level support of children with ASD and their families.
Several evidence-based interventions (ABA, Social skills training, speech-language therapy, occupational therapy, parent management training, and special education services) support positive outcomes in the treatment of symptoms (APA, 2024), parallel to parental involvement in education and therapy.
Parental involvement/engagement (PI, PE) in typical or special education has been shown to affect academic and behavioral outcomes (Goodall, 2022; Jones et al., 2025; Spear et al., 2021; Flores et al., 2015). Positive outcomes of PI are also recorded in education and treatment of children with ASD (academic achievement, behavioral problems, and social—emotional skills) (Yan et al., 2021; Chaidi and Drigas, 2023; Cheng et al., 2022; Joy et al., 2023; Garbacz et al., 2016; Widianti and Chamidah, 2024; Mohd Alwi et al., 2023; Cerero et al., 2024).
Currently, technological tools such as ICTs, IoT, and AI are increasingly utilized in special education and ASD treatment, where they have been widely adopted by users (Achtypi et al., 2023; Bondioli et al., 2023; Jayousi et al., 2023; Meneses and Araújo-Filho, 2024; Monica et al., 2020; Toma et al., 2024; López-Díaz and Felgueras Custodio, 2024; Papanastasiou et al., 2022).
Technology has enhanced parental involvement in many ways, especially since the COVID-19 period (Drigas et al., 2023; See et al., 2020; Cheng and Chen, 2018; Komen and Ongínjo, 2024; Şad et al., 2016; Ladesma and Ocay, 2025). The necessity for distant interventions led to an increase in e-learning. Several ICTs were applied and evaluated for usage and efficacy. However, there is little research on the interrelation of ICTs and PI in all forms in ASD interventions. Both practices are efficient and their combination could have more powerful outcomes than either intervention alone. So, this field has to be explored and several questions have to be answered: does technology utilization link to parental involvement in interventions and educational programs for children with ASD? What aspects of PI are prevalent in ICT intervention? Which ICT tools enhance PI? And what challenges arise?
In order to provide answers and an overview on the “state of art,” a narrative literature review has been chosen as the best method (Knopf, 2006; Snyder, 2019). ICTs used for ASD interventions that promote, affect, or relate to parental involvement in multiple ways were researched. Google Scholar, PubMed, ResearchGate, and Mendeley were used for the research. The key phrases used were “parental involvement/engagement in ASD AND ICTs,” “parental involvement AND ASD,” and “parental involvement AND ICTs,” and results were limited to articles published from March to April 2025 in the English language, of the last decade. Peer-group studies published in scientific journals were preferred. Parental involvement (PI) in this study is defined as a procedure in a continuum between parental involvement and parental engagement (Goodall and Montgomery, 2014).
Since searching led to a few results, the review was expanded with relevant articles on ICTs for ASD, forming two circles of main and relevant studies (Knopf, 2006). Articles with “parents” OR “caregivers” in the title or as a repetitive theme in the text were selected. Also, studies on PI in typical and special education were reviewed against the criterion of the most significant theoretical frames on the subject.
Results are summarized and theoretically synthesized in order to draw conclusions about “the state of art” and the possible models that emerge.
The review is organized in units of theoretical frames, followed by results, presented in order of the main and relevant studies. The rest are organized according to the type of ICT and are synthesized with theoretical models. Finally, a discussion on the issues that arise from the results and suggestions for future research follow.
2 Theoretical frames
2.1 Parental involvement: concepts and models
Parental involvement (PI) and parental engagement (PE), although different in meaning and perception by stakeholders, are used interchangeably in education. PI refers to parents’ participation at school in authorized activities and the support they offer the school, while PE refers to the self-directed, co-educational role for parents which is broader and more family-centered (Goodall, 2022; Jones et al., 2025).
PI is characterized by schools directing or “doing to” parents, whereas PE focuses on a collaborative partnership of “doing with” parents (Ferlazzo, n.d., as cited in Manzon et al., 2015). An involved parent follows instructions and guidelines from school staff, volunteers, and is helpful to the school. An engaged parent contributes to the school with ideas, establishes two-way communication and trusted relationships with staff, and shares a common vision for children’s evolution. While different concepts, schools welcome both types of parents (Manzon et al., 2015).
Fantuzzo et al. (2000) (as cited in Wahyuni and Mangunsong, 2022) categorize three types of PI: PI at school, PI at home, and relations between school and home. Desforges and Abouchaar (2003) (as cited in Manzon et al., 2015) distinguish PI as spontaneous by motivated parents and organized by professionals who aim to enhance PI through dynamic relations.
Hoover-Dempsey’s and Sadler’s model (1995, 1997, 2005) (as cited in Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005) suggests six levels of PE as a psychological process: personal aspects of the parents and life context, schools, learning mechanisms, students characteristics, beliefs, and academic success. This model is more informative about the factors which enhance PE.
The ecological-system model (Bronfenbrenner, 1986, as cited in Manzon et al., 2015) is a multistep approach to human development and education that utilizes several systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) and includes the whole community as responsible for a child’s growth.
The most cited theory and model for PI and the most effective for schools and policies is Epstein’s framework (1995, 2001) (Đurišić and Bunijevac, 2017; Goodall, 2022; Manzon et al., 2015; Wahyuni and Mangunsong, 2022). This model suggests six factors for PI: parenting (providing a safe and learning environment), communicating (with the school about the child’s progress), volunteering (every parent’s act of support to the school), learning at home (instructions by the school to parents to support the school curriculum), decision-making (parents as representatives and leaders on school boards), and collaborating with the community (parents’ actions to capitalize on services from the community).
This model categorizes PI and emphasizes the role of school staff (school-focused) alongside learning at home and decision-making by parents, who are mostly motivated and usually white, middle-class, and represented by this model (Goodall, 2022).
Goodall and Montgomery (2014) suggest PE as more important for learning than PI because of the level of participation in activities. Placing the concepts on a continuum with different levels and forms of engagement (PI with school, PI with schooling, and PE with children’s learning) shows a better understanding of the complexity of relationships and the roles of parents and school staff. The main aim is PE which supports choices coming from an authentic parental role.
Goodall (2022) considers PE as a procedure in learning contexts which promotes interactions among children, teachers, parents, and others. The model which is suggested is family-centered and focused on the home learning environment. Furthermore, collaboration with a school encourages supportive attitudes between partners and not just guidelines. Relations are emphasized and characterized as academic socialization.
2.2 Parental involvement in special education
Parallel to mainstream education, PI/PE has been studied in special education. Goals for students with SENs are not subject-specific but instead encompass cognition and learning, communication, interaction, social, emotional, mental health, sensory, and physical development (Department of education, 2013, as cited in Spear et al., 2021).
In particular, parents and experts develop interactions and relationships based on psychological models of parents’ adaptation to their child’s disability and on models of PI with different roles and levels of co-operation (Đorđević et al., 2021; Gentles et al., 2018; Haine-Schlagel et al., 2020). Specifically, the Expert, Transplant, Consumer, Partnership, Empowerment and Negotiating models (Case, 2000) show a gradual turn of PI from passive parental roles to equal, mutually distinct, respectful relations between parents and teachers who co-operate to achieve mutual goals. Furthermore, Epstein’s model is utilized in research involving parents of children with SEN, specifically focusing on categories such as parenting, volunteering in schools, supporting learning at home, and collaborating with the community (Jigyel et al., 2019).
2.3 Parental involvement and ASD
In the case of ASD, PI is more significant for learning-engagement and academic success (Vlcek et al., 2020) and is crucial for a child’s development, while its absence is considered as a failure of the interventions (Chaidi and Drigas, 2020; Klinger et al., 2020). For this reason, PI is integrated into Early Intensive Behavioral Interventions (EIBIs), which are evidence-based effective interventions for children with ASD, so parents are formally trained, act as co-therapists, attend educational planning workshops, communicate with schools, participate in evaluation, and promote the integration of school goals into home practices (Solish et al., 2015). Additionally, parents participate in behavior management programs (Artoni et al, 2018), DIR/floortime, positive behavior, counseling, and parenting programs (Chaidi and Drigas, 2020).
Goldman and Burke (2019) categorize parents’ perceptions of PI in schools for children with ASD as parent advocacy, collaborative partnerships, home-school communication, and school-based participation. Finan et al. (2018) defines PE as parents’ intention to enroll to parenting programs, enrolment and attendance. Musetti et al. (2021) found that increased PI promotes quality of life through direct PI (parent-mediated, home-based training, family-centered approaches, and parent-mentoring programs) vs. indirect PI (parent training and support groups in clinical settings).
2.4 ICTs for ASD: do ICTs promote parental involvement?
ICT tools may improve the everyday lives of people with ASD in many aspects: diagnosis, treatment, intervention, learning, e-learning, monitoring progress or behaviors with biometrics, research, and enhancement in cognition (Bondioli et al., 2023; Jayousi et al., 2023; Monica et al., 2020; Rezayi et al., 2023; Chinchay et al., 2023).
The technological tools supporting the above purposes include the Internet of Things (IoT), AI, robotics, wearable and sensing devices, P/C, software, platforms, computer games, serious games, mobile apps, share active surfaces, mobile and Smartphone technology, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and extended reality (XR) (Kumm et al., 2021; Toma et al., 2024; Bondioli et al., 2023; Meneses and Araújo-Filho, 2024; Monica et al., 2020).
According to research, the most effective, acceptable, accessible, and frequently used ICTs in ASD are P/Cs, mobile technology, tablets, Video-modeling, and Augmentative and Alternative communication (AAC) (Kumm et al., 2021; Bettencourt et al., 2024; Kouroupa et al., 2024; Chinchay et al., 2023).
Research for PI and ICTs has shown an “e-nvolvement” type; parents participate, plan, support, and monitor children’s learning experiences, either at school or at home, with ICTs and media (tablet, P/C, Smartphone, the Internet) (Şad et al., 2016).
The parental role and participation in children’s learning can be empowered by mobiles, VR, AI, chat-bots, platforms, and social robots through programs which strengthen responsible parenting, wellness, and cognitive-emotional balance (Drigas et al., 2023).
ICTs enhance communication between parents and teachers or other parents (with phone- calls, texts, e-mails, social networks, and apps) about the completion of homework, projects, and presentations and even affect classroom management (See et al., 2020; Cheng and Chen, 2018).
Navigating through several models of PI, from general to more specific fields of concern, leads to the need for a synthesized model which embraces most of them. This study suggests a synthesis of the PI/PE continuum model (Goodall and Montgomery, 2014) with mainstream and special education. This study suggests the categorization of PI into three areas; PI with school, PI with schooling, and PE with children’s learning. The PI models identified in this research are categorized along the continuum based on their specific definitions. In addition, different models were clustered together also by their definition or were present at the same time in different categories on the PI/PE continuum (organized or direct) or even between categories (E-nvolvement or negotiation).
3 Results
3.1 ICT tools for ASD interventions relating to parental involvement
Initially, few papers were discovered by this study (5) but, by expanding the search, more studies emerged (4) and were added and summarized according to the year of publication (Table 1).
Table 1
| Study | Research objectives | Methods | N | ICT | Results | PI type |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ingersoll and Berger (2015) | Comparing self-directed Vs therapist-assisted program Predictors for use | Pilot study | 27 (mostly white, mothers, with a college degree) | ImPACT onLine |
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| Putnam et al. (2019) | Interactive technologies supporting ASD, used by stakeholders | Interviews survey | 19 (parents, teachers, specialists, mostly women) 230 (mostly parents) | Platforms Mobile devices Web-based sites |
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| Rabba et al. (2020) | “Pathways Beyond Diagnosis “for families’ support after autism diagnosis | PAR (participatory action research design) | 15 (clinicians mostly) | The Pathways Beyond Diagnosis website |
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| Shaffer et al. (2020) | Effectiveness of a mindfulness-based program in stress reduction of parents of children with special needs, ASD included. | PAR, Pre-test post-test pilot research design | 11 mothers | 6 mindfulness-based synchronous online courses |
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| Denysiuk et al. (2021) | Difficulties and characteristics in communication between parents of children with SEN in the process of ICT usage (during the COVID-19 pandemic) | Survey (Online questionnaire) | 124 (104 mothers) | Online communication in groups (Viber, Telegram, WhatsApp, Facebook) Online marathons Online training sessions |
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| Li et al. (2022) | Evaluation of an online program, during the COVID-19 pandemic | Pilot non randomized study with a waitlist control group | 68 (children, M = 3,67 years old and their parents, 56 mothers) | Online –delivered project ImPACT |
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| Jo et al. (2022) | Behavioral -tracking in ASD- children with challenging behaviors in daily settings | Open-ended field deployment Interviews Observation | 19 Pairs of parent–child, mostly mothers and sons 4–18 years old 3 clinicians | GeniAuti: a mobile-based data collection tool and systematic monitoring tool based on ABC model, with speech-to-text and timer app. |
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| Rusli (2023) | Parental participation in the education of children with ASD through AI | Literature review | - | AI (language technology, games playing, robotics, and virtual reality) |
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| Yuliza and Yanti (2024) | The relationship between PI, learning media and health education outcomes for children with ASD | Cross- sectional study | 83 (parents, 77.5% women, middle class, parents of boys, educated) | Digital platforms |
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Table of main studies in summary.
Ingersoll and Berger (2015) examined PE in a tele-health program for parents. It was based on a parent-mediated intervention (ImPACT) and delivered either as self-directed or therapist-assisted. They tested the relation between this program and parents’ change in knowledge, implementation, and characteristics relating to commitment to participation. Results from 27 parents in rural areas showed that 90.17% completed the program with positive changes in knowledge, with better results in the therapist-assisted group, while parent’s depression correlated with participation. In conclusion, tele-health for parents of children with ASD is effective, positively accepted, and satisfying, especially if it is therapist-assisted.
In this study, PE and PI are affected by the type of intervention itself. Parent-mediated interventions are designed to involve parents in their children’s support. Aspects of PI which are present in this study are PE, learning at home, “with parents,” parenting, direct PI, family-centered, collaborative partnership, and enrollment attendance.
Putnam et al. (2019) in their study described stakeholders’ preferences in using interactive ICT tools and their desires. Using a mixed-methods approach consisting of interviews (n = 19) and an online survey (n = 230), the study identified 23 commercial ICT tools, including digital games, robots, apps, software, and web-based platforms. The findings revealed that these tools were predominantly commercial rather than academic; furthermore, there was little overlap between the tools used by professionals and those used by parents. Despite this, the tools—most of which were apps—were positively perceived and well-accepted by the participants. Stakeholders asked for more products on platforms, robots and VR with personalized settings, and more sound and videos in interactive technologies. The researchers recommended a sharing system for parents and professionals in order to access evidence-based mutually effective tools and academic recommendations that suit children’s needs best.
In the above study, aspects of the ecological system model emerge, since stakeholders’ opinions and attitudes, are taken into account. In addition, they promote co-operation, decision-making, and mutual goals between parents, therapists, and teachers in interventions which fit individualized needs. It encourages a “doing with parents” attitude and matches with consumer, partnership, and negotiating models. The study also assumes that there is a gap in knowledge about evidence-based and effective academic tools in users and a lack of mutual technological practices.
Rabba et al. (2020) used a Participatory Action Research (PAR) design (n = 15) for the development of a web-based resource for parents of children with ASD in order to receive support after the diagnosis. Since there was no access to evidence-based information for parents, the researchers designed a “Pathways Beyond Diagnosis” web-resource, with parents’ and specialists’ help and participation. Through this resource, parents may find information about autism, services, support, funding, and related links for future use.
The design itself embraces parental participation in the construction of useful tools for ASD. PI takes the form of collaborating, establishing partnerships “with parents,” and organized and direct PI.
Shaffer et al. (2020) examined the effectiveness of a web-based mindfulness program on stress for parents of children with SEN. The online classes were performed interactively for 6 weeks in real time. The program consisted of an introduction to stress, self-management in stressful conditions, mindfulness techniques, parenting strategies, and mindfulness practices. Results from 11 parents revealed a 30.4% reduction in their stress levels in the first week and 21.6% a month later; 82% reported better management of challenging behaviors, 4% adopted mindfulness practices, and 100% reported more mindful thinking.
This study depicts an indirect PI which aims to foster parents’ empowerment. Although it is a pilot study and there are methodological limitations, it promotes PI via the web, which makes it easier for parents to participate.
Denysiuk et al. (2021) ran a survey on parents’ views (n = 124) about teachers’ communication with them via ICT tools for supporting their preschooler children’s special educational needs. Half of parents reported dissatisfaction with information given about their children by teachers or with services provided from other institutions (54.8%) and they dealt with several problems (social, emotional, and financial). The majority of parents reported difficulties in the use of ICTs, issues of confidentiality, accessibility issues because of internet problems, and time-consuming procedures. As researchers note, successful communication and co-operation between parents and teachers via ICTs is possible when the quality of information and educational environment is high and when competence to communicate in cyberspace is also high. In making contact and cooperating with parents of children with SEN, some ethical considerations have to be taken into account. Kindness, tact, politeness, respect, tolerance, dignity, and correct terminology by teachers are required for successful interactions with parents. Useful ICT tools for this include forums, chat groups on Viber, WhatsApp, telegram, blogs, e-questionnaires, surveys, online lectures, webinars, and online training.
The utility of the study stands on parents’ voice about communicating with school-staff via ICTs and on suggestions about positive and ethical communication and co-operation between them. Because children with ASD often have concurrent learning disabilities, the findings of this study are also applied to their parents. The results depict some aspects of PI models, including communication with schools, “doing to parents,” relations between school and home, involvement, personal aspects of parents and life context, and academic socialization. It seems that parent’s relationships with school via ICTs are not sufficient in the case of preschooler children with SEL. Parents’ life context, teachers’ social skills, technical issues, and digital competence affect the quality of communication and parental involvement.
Li et al. (2022) studied the effectiveness of an evidence-based, parent-mediated intervention for children with ASD (ImPACT) delivered online. Researchers adjusted ImPACT in a different version (eight-week, real time sessions, 1.5 h each) for online delivery in a conference room generated from the Tencent Meeting Application. In sessions, goals were set first and were followed by reviews, evaluations of homework, didactic instructions for new strategies, homework assignments, and a Q&A section. Parents could load video-clips of parent–child interactions and therapists could watch home videos to detect any improvement in social communication. Therapists also provided answers to parents’ questions and individualized briefing daily, via two-way communication. Parents could communicate with each other via the WeChat App and share information and experiences and cultivate a peer support group. In their non-randomized study with a waitlist control group, 68 children and their parents participated. Results showed positive rates by parents for the program and a great improvement in children’s social communication skills in the intervention group. PI in the training program led to a significant reduction in parental stress and an enhancement of perceived competence in the parental role. Researchers reported that the WeChat App reinforced learning and boosted training. Finally, active involvement of parents was effectively supported by online ICTs.
The above study encompasses elements from the continuum of parental involvement leading to parental engagement. According to PI for ASD models, “ImPACT online” involves involvement, early parent-mediated intervention, home-based, family-centered, parenting mentoring, and the direct involvement model. In addition, indirect parental involvement through parent training and support groups co-exists. Parents are considered as active partners engaging in collaborations, negotiation, and partnerships with therapists. They are empowered by parenting training organized by therapists.
Jo et al. (2022) tried a smartphone app for children with ASD who exhibited challenging behaviors (self-injuries, violence, tantrums, or distraction). GeniAuti is a mobile-based data collection and systematic monitoring tool with speech-to-text functionality and a timer app. It is based on the ABC behavior model and was used by 19 pairs of parents-children and three specialists (one psychiatrist and two behaviorists). The results showed positive changes in children’s behaviors and collaboration between parents and specialists. However, caregivers had difficulties with the use of the app and disagreements with specialists on recording challenging behaviors. Researchers recommend negotiation and co-operation among stakeholders to improve the design of the application.
Negotiation and collaboration are demonstrated in the study. Also, many aspects of PI can be detected: PI at home, direct PI, parent-mediated PE, partnerships, and PI organized by professionals. Moreover, parents’ emotional needs are taken into consideration as equal partners.
Rusli (2023) in a literature review searched for connections between AI and parental involvement as factors which contribute to the learning process and development of children with ASD. Based on the Epstein model of parental involvement, analysis of relevant studies on AI interventions for ASD children was made. Four main types of AI (language technology, games playing, robotics, and virtual reality) contribute positively in learning and development and encourage parent participation, but there is no strong evidence that PI benefits ASD children during AI interaction. Epstein’s model contributes to the analysis by the creation of living spaces for learning, communicating, parenting, and learning at home, as described in the categorization of the model. AI helps identify knowledge gaps in children with ASD, providing parents with the insights and adjustments needed for effective interventions.
In this study PI is directly examined in the context of AI usage in autism interventions. Using a well-known theoretical model, aspects were searched for in studies with AI interventions for ASD. A lack of relevant studies and weak connections were revealed. However, this study is an effort to throw light on a subject not yet explored.
Yuliza and Yanti (2024) studied the relation of PI and learning media (digital Vs traditional) in the health education of children (4–12 years old) with ASD. In a cross-sectional study, 83 parents (mostly women, middle class, parents of boys, and educated) whose children had participated in health education programs with traditional or digital media tools answered a questionnaire with several variables (PI and type of learning media). Analysis showed that a high PI relates to a high score in children’s self-care, in contrast with a low score in PI. In addition, children who were educated with digital media tools showed a 30% increase in health knowledge. PI and digital media tools correlated positively with better health education outcomes. Researchers concluded that interventions which increase PI and use digital media should be implemented in the health education of children with ASD and suggested policies to offer resources and support to parents for home learning.
Beyond methodological limitations, this study enhances the importance of PI and digital media in education of children with ASD. The above variables are examined in different levels (low-high) and in different ways (digital-traditional media) providing a more detailed measurement of their relation to health education and creating ideas for new research designs. The PI models of learning at home, creating living spaces for learning, and “doing with parents” are depicted in the study. Collaborative partnership and empowerment models are also represented.
Research on ICT interventions for children with ASD and PI reveals many difficulties. PI comes in many forms and it is difficult to recognize it in studies by title; there is also a general lack of studies. Only the last two studies examined PI and ICT interventions directly, while the others examined them indirectly. The impact of ICTs on PI is measured with different criteria (parents’ agreement, stress reduction, communication, and obtained knowledge) and appears either positive (ImPACT), negative and weak (AI, SEN), or mixed (GeniAuti). This may be because different research designs are used and ICT types contribute differently to PI or ASD severity. Also, methodological limitations (small, convenient, or not representative samples and no control groups, etc.) do not allow for the generalization of results. Research is at a first stage, so this review maps PI-theory and ICT-practices for new research designs.
These studies embrace parents’ participation in ASD-interventions and focus on suitable ICTs which may facilitate their involvement. More specifically, the ICTs mentioned are platforms, apps, software, web-based experiences, VR, video, robots, mobile communication, social networks, e-mail, Viber, language technology, and more. Based on the literature review, the models most frequently appearing in the studies include learning at home, family-centered practices, direct/indirect PI, the empowering model, and collaborative partnerships. Other models identified within the PI continuum include the transplant model, “doing with,” negotiating, communicating, the ecological-systems model, e-nvolvement, and PE.
3.2 ICT tools for ASD interventions promoting parental involvement
There are many studies on ICT tools for children with ASD. In order to expand on the several types of ICTs relating to parents’ or caregivers’ participation—either in education and intervention or in diagnosis, ICT design, and everyday life—studies which had repetitively related words (parents and caregivers) in the script were selected from studies on ICT interventions for ASD. The results are summarized according to the type of ICT.
3.2.1 Internet of things and parental involvement
Internet of Things (IoTs) refers to apps and digital technologies for general or special education support, enhancing cognitive and social development and monitoring and communicating information among stakeholders. Also, AI, through algorithms, empowers apps to work as the human mind and makes adjustments compatible with the child’s progress (AIoT). Such technologies may help people and children with ASD (Fotoglou et al., 2022).
Especially in the Covid-19 period, many parent–mediated interventions (PMIs) had to change into e-interventions. Parents evaluated E-learning positively and highly compared to standard treatment and reported higher self-efficacy and parental skills after coaching program sessions with therapists, along with positive results in their children’s communication skills and intelligence (Yosep et al., 2022). Although parents had difficulties with E-learning during the Covid-19 period (knowledge, sources, and support), they considered home-schooling as a good educational solution for children with ASD (Vouglanis and Driga, 2023).
IoTs promote home-learning, direct/indirect PI, and parent-teacher-therapist communication and collaboration.
3.2.2 Tele-health and parental involvement
Tele-health can provide distance services, utilizing ICTs and connecting families and educational services, leading to positive outcomes for both children and parents. It is applied for assessment, interventions, learning, consultation, and coaching (Graucher et al., 2022; Garnett et al., 2022). It can be applied synchronously or asynchronously via the internet and makes coaching and supporting possible for more stakeholders in different places at a low cost (Srinivasan et al., 2021).
There are several studies that have examined the effectiveness of tele-health parental-mediated interventions for ASD (PMI) with control groups in different geographical areas and for different skills. Such programs support parents with strategies to cope with many difficulties and help them to develop new functional behaviors and support their participation in tele-diagnosis (Graucher et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2020; Rezai et al., 2024; Dai et al., 2018; Su et al., 2023; Srinivasan et al., 2021; Simacek et al., 2020; Lindgren et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2023; Tein and Rainbow, 2023; Lewis et al., 2024; Qi et al., 2024; Gentile et al., 2022; Jones et al., 2022).
Tele-health educational, parenting, and coaching programs for parents promote parental involvement (Goldman and Burke, 2016; Chaidi and Drigas, 2020), reduce parental stress, and enhance parental efficacy. Programs can be delivered in single subject, in groups(even around the world), or as a hybrid model (telehealth and face-to-face), in real-time or off-line, self-directed or with a therapist (de Nocker and Toolan, 2021; Benson et al., 2017; Garnett et al., 2022; Corona et al., 2021; Tsami et al., 2019; Qu et al., 2022; Sadeghi et al., 2021; Yllades et al., 2021).
Accepted and validated positively, tele-health leads to positive results in children’s behaviors, parents’ mental health, and parental role, entailing PI and PE directly and indirectly. Ellison et al. (2021) claim that these interventions are as effective as—or perhaps even more effective than—face-to-face interventions.
3.2.3 Apps and parental involvement
Mobile health (m-health) utilizes apps in ASD interventions for the development of skills, education, data collection, parenting, managing disruptive behaviors, and daily routines (dental hygiene, sleep, and nutrition) (Liu et al., 2023).
Apps operate on P/C, smartPhones, tablets, robots, the web, and the cloud. Research results show positive evaluations from parents, positive interactions within the family, and less parental burden. Although apps are not all equally effective or suitable for all ages, they reduce the cost of interventions, promote collaboration between parents and professionals with data exchange, and utilize and make possible for many parents to participate in Early Intensive behavioral Interventions (EIBI) (Wan et al., 2022; Bharat et al., 2022; Barbaro and Yaari, 2020; Sanders et al., 2023; Geissler et al., 2022; Dunn et al., 2017; Meerson et al., 2024; Camilleri et al., 2024; Fageeh et al., 2021; Bondioli et al., 2017; Narzisi et al., 2020; Kral et al., 2023; Muhammad et al., 2022).
Although results cannot be generalized, apps assist some aspects of PI such as home-learning, collaborative partnerships between parents and professionals, direct PI, “doing with parents,” and the consumer model.
3.2.4 Serious games and parental involvement
Serious games (SGs) are used in computerized intervention programs for children with ASD. SGs have been used for emotional recognition, imitation and joint attention, mental health problems such as stress and depression, social skills, behavioral problems, and daily routines. Research results show different levels of effect on children’s skills and recommend designers consider development methods especially for children with ASD. Also, a combination of SGs and parental support is effective in daily routines (Fridenson-Hayo et al., 2017; Jouen et al., 2017; Carlier et al., 2020; Beaumont et al., 2021; Lussier-Desrochers et al., 2023; Jaramillo-Alcázar et al., 2022).
SGs may promote PI in the following forms: participation and collaboration in design, learning at home, “with parents,” the consumer model, the psychological model, parenting, and communication with professionals.
3.2.5 Virtual - augmentative reality and parental involvement
Research results on Virtual (VR) and Augmentative Reality (AR) for ASD and PI assessed Virtual Teaching and Learning platforms (VTL), virtual private networks (VPN), assessment tools, mobile technologies, group interventions, and education in behavioral programs with positive results (Fisher et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2024; Berger et al., 2022; Lunsky et al., 2021; Miningrum et al., 2021; Ahmadian et al., 2025). A VTL platform should be accessible, customized to ASD needs, engaging, collaborative, offer feedback and traceable progress, and be positively reinforcing and multimodal in instructions (Mahadi et al., 2023).
It is essential that parents and caregivers in the above interventions are acknowledged as co-therapists, guides, and supporters in a collaborative partnership with professionals. Training and coaching programs for caregivers are designed in order to acquire the necessary knowledge for ASD interventions as an indirect PI.
3.2.6 Robots and parental involvement
Social robots improve social and communicational skills at home with parents’ participation. Parents’ attitudes and experience are examined for the improvement and implementation of robots. Parents serve as mediators between professionals and children with ASD, and their involvement with social robots enhances the positive outcomes of these interventions (Amirova et al., 2023; Huijnen et al., 2017; Rakhymbayeva et al., 2021).
Aspects of PI in social robots include learning at home, with parents, collaborative partnerships with professionals, and direct and organized PI.
4 Discussion
Collecting research data on the subject has been challenging because of range of articles. PI is a broad concept and comes in many forms. Searching for relative studies led to a small sample (five studies), so broadening the search was inevitable. A review of the relevant studies increased the number of main studies (nine studies). In the end, this research found a small sample of studies so cannot generalize the results or support the hypothesis that ICTs enhance PI in ASD. Despite this, the main and relative studies present several ICTs which link to different forms of PI as a medium, in a descriptive way, via theoretical PI-models.
Almost all PI models were utilized top-down and bottom-up in order to track special characteristics of ASD-PI in ICTs interventions. PI models from typical and special education, as well as from ASD, were synthesized and clustered in categories by similarity and definition. The most reported models were learning at home and parenting from Epstein’s model (1995, 2001); family-centered relations and academic socialization by Goodall (2022); “doing with parents” by Ferlazzo (n.d); direct/indirect PI by Musetti et al. (2021); collaborative- partnerships and home-school communication by Goldman and Burke (2019); PI via Early-Intensive-Behavioral Interventions, transplant, consumer, empowerment, and negotiation models by Case’s (2000) review; organized PI by Desforges and Abouchaar (2003); and e-nvolvement by Sad et al. (2016). A broader cluster for the above models includes the ecological system model by Brofenbrenner and Morris (1998) and PE by Goodall and Montgomery (2014) PI-PE continuum model.
In the main studies there were three references to parents-teachers-specialist’s communication and collaboration, two references to parent-mediated interventions, two references to daily lives’ improvement, one reference to children’s education, and one to parents’ empowerment. Generally, interventions were aimed at parents’ education, coaching and empowerment, parenting, experience with ICTs for proper design, communication and collaboration with teachers and professionals, participation in parent-mediated interventions, assessment and monitoring, social skills, and mental health.
ICTs included in the main studies were web experiences, tele-health with parent-mediated interventions, interactive ICTs (games, apps, and robots), chat, AI, and digital-learning media. In the relative studies, most studies reported tele-health, apps, and serious games, while VR, AR, Robots, and IoTs were less frequent but also parent-engaging.
In Figure 1, findings are demonstrated on a PI/PE continuum by most frequently reported and show a link between ICTs and PI—PE mostly—in accordance with research on typical education, special education, and ICTs-ASD interventions, which support that ICTs enhance PI and PE. In the continuum, most studies are classified in PI, with schooling and PE, with children’s learning, while telehealth and apps are more frequently used by stakeholders. Two wide clusters can be distinguished in models: one for parents and family at home and another for their interactions with specialists and teachers. Each provides a different aspect of PI that may be targeted and combined with the most effective ICT tools in intervention protocols for ASD. Combining ICT interventions and PI improves the education and support of children with ASD (e.g., Yuliza and Yanti, 2024).
Figure 1
Studies showed positive and negative results in several aspects and measures: parents accept ICT parent-mediated interventions, collaborate with professionals for data exchange and mutual goals, participate in ICT design, attend educational and empowering programs, and report better parenting skills, mental health, reduction of symptoms, and positive family interactions. However, not all apps or AI enhance PI, while communication with parents and teachers in children with SEN may not be possible via ICTs. Furthermore, due to small, non-randomized samples—most of which lacked control groups and were not fully representative of age, ASD severity, SES, and gender—the results of the reviewed studies may lack generalizability. Also, the present study is a narrative review, not a systematic one, and bias in the selection of studies should be accounted for. In addition, classification of the results in PI models was based on their definitions and not based on a between-researchers agreement.
Furthermore, technical limitations affect PI and ICT interventions. ICTs are not always standardized to personal characteristics, severity of disorder, or the needs of children with ASD, while ASD interventions performed via ICTs need to be modified to the digital form (Li et al., 2022). They may be time consuming and difficult to use for parents and designs are not always based on qualitative results (evidence-based) (Denysiuk et al., 2021). Moreover, the usage of ICTs implicates ethical considerations about consent and privacy issues while collecting and storing personal information and children’s safety and health, due to excessive screen-time or overstimulation and cost. In fact there is “a digital gap” in access for users such as parents with low SES or with little digital knowledge, children with severe ASD, non-English speakers, and those with low quality of internet or no devices (Samadi and Samadi, 2020; Gabellone et al., 2022; Sanders et al., 2023; van Janse Rensburg and Clasquin-Johnson,2023), and this can lead to inequality among stakeholders. The American Academy of Pediatrics for special care suggests that interventions should be designed considering accessibility, comprehension, and family-centered approach, with compassion, in concert and with a focus on affordability (Goldman and Burke, 2016, Dai et al., 2018). Users should also follow ethical guidelines, such as mutual respect, compassion, and patience (Goodall, 2022). These technical and ethical issues should be considered in interventions.
A synthesized model of PI in ASD like the above could be helpful in future studies, proposing specific types of PI and more inclusive types of ICTs in cross-sectional research designs, taking into account different geographical and cultural areas along with different stakeholders (fathers, therapists, and teachers). Agreement in measurements of effectiveness of PI is necessary. Specifically, parent’s acceptance and satisfaction of ICT interventions, a decrease of symptoms, and improvement in parents’ psychological traits and parental efficacy are indicators of positive results in different studies. In addition, there are factors to consider affecting PI in research designs and interventions, such as quality of life, maternal stress, social support, socio-economical status (SES), gender, parents’ education, levels of severity of ASD, academic success, parents’ efficacy, and satisfaction with services (Đurišić and Bunijevac, 2017; Fante et al., 2024; Samadi and Samadi, 2020; Yan et al., 2021; Yan et al., 2023; Flores et al., 2015; Garbacz et al., 2016). These could also affect the efficacy of ICTs in ASD interventions.
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, research on ICT interventions for ASD linked with parental involvement reveals studies in an early stage, testing several forms of PI via ICTs for ASD. Drawing on these findings, this review maps current research along the PI/PE continuum; it suggests that PE is the most frequently documented form of involvement, with telehealth and apps being the primary ICT tools used. Parental Engagement is the aim, since it is most effective in treating ASD symptoms, so new research on ICTs should ensure they are good practice of PE in ASD interventions for children, are affordable, and are accessible, leading to better therapeutic and educational results.
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Author contributions
SK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
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Summary
Keywords
ASD, caregivers, engagement, ICTs, parental involvement, parents
Citation
Kapsi S (2026) ICT tools for autism spectrum disorder interventions linked with parental involvement in children’s education and support. Front. Comput. Sci. 8:1678653. doi: 10.3389/fcomp.2026.1678653
Received
03 August 2025
Revised
08 February 2026
Accepted
12 February 2026
Published
20 March 2026
Volume
8 - 2026
Edited by
Jose Manuel Ferrandez, Polytechnic University of Cartagena, Spain
Reviewed by
Nagwa Abd EL-Ghaffar, National Research Center, Egypt
Claudia Salceanu, Ovidius University, Romania
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Kapsi.
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*Correspondence: Sevasti Kapsi, sevastikapsi@gmail.com
Disclaimer
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