Fatimah Abdullah Almulhim- Department of Special Education, College of Education, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
Background and objectives: Inclusive education for deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students, supported by digital innovation, has gained global prominence. However, their relevance to Saudi Arabia and Gulf countries has not been well explored. Therefore, this review specifically addresses how global educational technologies are integrated into DHH education and what challenges and opportunities arise in the Saudi and Gulf contexts.
Methods and search strategies: The author included peer-reviewed English-language articles published over the past 10 years (January 2016–April 2025). These studies involved DHH students in educational settings and focused on technology adoption, accessibility, teaching strategies, and inclusive tools, which form the core of this review. Relevant studies were identified using appropriate keywords in Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, the Saudi Digital Library, the Education Resources Information Center, and MedLine.
Review findings: This review identifies key technological categories, such as assistive devices, captioning systems, learning management platforms, and sign language tools, that support DHH learners. The successful adoption of these tools is hindered by several barriers, including infrastructural gaps, scarce Arabic language content, and insufficient teacher training. However, government initiatives and teacher-led, regionally adapted digital innovations, demonstrate the potential create meaningful change.
Conclusion: As Saudi Arabia undertakes educational reforms under Vision 2030, this review provides a regionally grounded synthesis that draws on global literature while emphasizing local challenges, such as limited Arabic-language digital tools, infrastructure disparities, and teacher-training gaps in DHH education. Therefore, context-specific studies examining the effectiveness of educational technologies for DHH students in Saudi Arabia are needed.
1 Introduction
Inclusive education is a philosophy and practice that ensures equitable access to quality education within mainstream environments for all learners, irrespective of their abilities. It promotes the active engagement of students with disabilities alongside their peers by addressing individual learning needs through flexible curricula and differentiated instruction in a supportive environment (UNESCO, 2023; Jardinez and Natividad, 2024; Kafia et al., 2023). Globally, inclusive education is anchored in equity and participation, and respect for diversity, as outlined in frameworks such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality Education (United Nations, 2007; United Nations, 2024). Inclusive education is especially important for students with disabilities, including deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) learners, because it promotes social integration, alleviates stigma, and improves educational achievement (Levesque and Duncan, 2024; Alsalem and Alzahrani, 2023).
The development of smart classrooms has become a key enabler of inclusive practices. A smart classroom combines digital tools within a technology-enhanced learning environment to facilitate active, personalized, and multimodal educational practices (Navas-Bonilla et al., 2025; El Koshiry et al., 2024). These include interactive whiteboards, internet-connected devices, learning management systems (LMS), and cloud-based platforms (El Koshiry et al., 2024; Bradley, 2021). Smart classrooms are particularly valuable in special education, as they accommodate diverse learning styles and help overcome communication barriers. In Saudi Arabia, the adoption of smart classroom initiatives conforms to the larger national reforms under Vision 2030, which focus on innovation and inclusivity in education (Vision2030, 2024). The inclusiveness of smart classrooms relies on both the availability of technology and the efficiency of its use to meet the specific needs of all learners (Navas-Bonilla et al., 2025).
Technology plays a special role in bridging the communication gap among DHH students, for whom traditional instruction and methods are restricted. While students with disabilities sometimes face barriers to content comprehension alone, DHH students do so in terms of language accessibility and classroom interactions. The absence of auditory input requires the use of visual and text-based tools to deliver inclusive communication (Oppong et al., 2024; Nedjar and M’hamedi, 2024; Swanwick and Samantha, 2024). In Saudi Arabia and neighboring Arab countries, DHH education is largely conducted in segregated special schools, with efforts being made toward inclusive integration into the mainstream milieu (Alsolami, 2024; Alsalem and Alzahrani, 2023). National policies advocating inclusive education are diverse because of the shortage of teacher training, lack of supporting services, and lack of Arabic instructional resources. Several studies from Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have documented the benefits of inclusive education for DHH students, emphasizing improved social interaction, reduced isolation, and enhanced academic engagement when placed in supportive mainstream settings (Turkestani and Albash, 2022; Alzyoudi et al., 2021). However, the shift to inclusive, technology-enabled DHH education continues to be uneven, with wide disparities in infrastructure, accessibility, and institutional readiness to accommodate DHH learners across the region. Although some studies address assistive technologies and special education in other countries, knowledge gaps remain regarding contextually specific studies that analyze evidence on the challenges, opportunities, and practical implementations of technology in DHH education in the Kingdom and GCC countries (Rodríguez-Correa et al., 2023). Although policies focusing on inclusive education are increasing in Saudi Arabia, research on DHH students, particularly on the use of technology, remains limited in the Kingdom and across the Gulf. A recent survey of 196 Saudi teachers found slightly negative attitudes toward including DHH students in regular classrooms (Aseery and Alasmari, 2023). Qualitative results also indicate that there is an ongoing communication problem with deaf children in inclusive schools in Saudi Arabia (Alanazi, 2021). Accessibility barriers for DHH students in Arab universities despite reforms (Albash, 2023). In addition, an experimental study conducted in Al-Ahsa Province revealed that augmented-reality tools in Arabic greatly facilitated the learning of geometry among deaf students at the elementary level, but there are few innovations of this kind (Aboud and Al Ali, 2025).
Much of the existing research is fragmented, focusing on general perceptions of inclusion or individual tools without linking them to wider policy or classroom realities (Aseery and Alasmari, 2023; Turkestani and Albash, 2022). An updated review is needed to make sense of these insights, map the field, and guide institutional and policy decision-making. By critically reviewing existing research and bringing regional differences to the fore, this review provides a guide for educators, policymakers, and researchers to embrace evidence-based strategies for DHH education using technology. It is also a benchmark for further research and the development of a whimsical digital pedagogy to cater to the needs of DHH learners in Saudi Arabia. This review explores the current landscape of technology integration in DHH education in Saudi Arabia. Specifically it examines how global educational technologies are integrated into DHH education and the challenges and opportunities in Saudi and Gulf contexts.
2 Search strategies
The present review used a structured method to identify relevant studies to synthesize findings with contextual relevance to Saudi Arabia and the GCC region. Studies reporting on inclusive educational practices, technological adaptation, and stakeholder perspectives were the primary focus. The required studies were identified from Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, the Saudi Digital Library, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and MedLine. The Boolean operators (AND/OR/NOT) were applied with the following keywords: “Deaf,” “Hard of Hearing,” “DHH,” “education,” “inclusive education,” “special education” “technology,” “assistive technology,” “digital learning,” “smart classrooms,” “implementation,” “accessibility,” “pedagogy.” The author included peer-reviewed English articles published over the past 10 years (January 2016 to April 2025). These articles were relevant to DHH students in educational settings and focused on technology adoption, accessibility, teaching strategies, and inclusive tools, which are the focus of this review. We excluded studies published in gray literature, unpublished work (including dissertations), and studies irrelevant to DHH students and technology. Although a formal quality appraisal tool was not applied because of the narrative nature of this review, several steps were taken to ensure the quality and reliability of the included studies, such as verifying the peer review status of each article, ensuring clarity of research aims and methods, cross-checking sample characteristics and data collection consistency, and confirming the relevance of the findings to DHH education and technology integration. After applying these search strategies, we included 93 relevant articles in the main text and discussion sections. Table 1 summarizes the search strategies and Figure 1 depicts the study selection process.
Table 1. Search strategies summary.
Figure 1. Study selection process.
3 Main text
The review identified contextual findings related to theoretical and contextual backgrounds, technological tools in DHH education, integration challenges, barriers, facilitators, and student and teacher perspectives, and the discussion was structured accordingly.
3.1 Theoretical and contextual background
The term DHH refers to individuals who experience varying degrees of hearing loss, which affects their ability to process auditory information. This population is not homogeneous; it occurs across a range of hearing abilities and preferences for communication. The classification comprises two major groups. People who are deaf, commonly with severe hearing loss, may use signs or visual language for communication, while hard-of-hearing individuals may use residual hearing, hearing aids, or verbal communication (Cleminson, 2019; Fobi and and Oppong, 2019).
This review uses the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Technology Adoption Model (TAM) as guiding lenses to interpret the opportunities and challenges identified in the literature. By synthesizing findings through UDL principles, especially multiple means of engagement, representation, and action/expression, this review demonstrates how inclusive technology use can be optimized to meet the diverse needs of DHH learners (Levesque et al., 2024; Mohamed et al., 2022). These frameworks guide the interpretation of both teacher-driven innovations and systemic gaps reported in regional and international studies (Almaki et al., 2024; Almalky and Qaysi, 2025; Alsawalem, 2020; Baybayon, 2021).
From an educational perspective, the distinction between deaf and hard-of-hearing learners is very important as it determines the kind of support, instruction, and communication strategies that may be necessary. DHH students can be subdivided according to the age of onset (pre-lingual or post-lingual deafness), degree of hearing loss (mild, moderate, severe, or profound), communication method (oral, signed, or total communication), and assistive device usage (Fobi and and Oppong, 2019; Hrastinski and Wilbur, 2016; Whitaker and Morere, 2025; Choi et al., 2020). Research from Saudi Arabia and other countries has consistently found that sign language proficiency supports academic success in bilingual programs (Alzahrani, 2022; Liu et al., 2024; Chegovo et al., 2023). For example, Hrastinski and Wilbur (2016) found that deaf students in an American Sign Language (ASL)/English bilingual program who were highly fluent in sign language outperformed less fluent peers in reading, English, and math (Hrastinski and Wilbur, 2016). Olszak and Borowicz (2025) mentioned that deaf learners perform differently in learning tasks (even in foreign language learning), mainly because of hearing loss, the onset of language learning, and available support, and that students’ approaches vary with the modalities they employ (Olszak and Borowicz, 2025). In realistic classroom settings, when a student uses total communication or is enrolled in a sign language-bilingual program, teachers are expected to rely on visual support, sign interpreters, and specific techniques for language teaching. When a student does not use sign language, instruction focuses more on correct articulation, communication through lip reading, and the use of technological tools. These classifications guide individualized educational planning and dictate how students interact with the given instructional content and learning environments. These classifications are also important for planning targeted educational strategies.
Globally, the educational models of DHH students vary, and policy frameworks, cultural perceptions, and the availability of resources affect this variation. There are three dominant models: segregated special education, mainstream inclusion, and bilingual-bicultural (Bi-Bi) education. Segregated settings provide DHH students with specialized schools or classrooms with sign language and teacher training in deaf education that focus on individualized instructional strategies. Although such settings focus on support, they may incidentally constrain opportunities for social integration and academic inclusiveness (Acevedo et al., 2023). At the same time, mainstream inclusion places DHH students alongside hearing peers in regular educational environments, thereby encouraging equity and access to normative curricula (Alzyoudi et al., 2021; Kafia et al., 2023). However, its success depends on provisions such as interpreters, services for captioning and assistive listening devices, teacher preparedness, and institutional readiness. The Bi-Bi model, which is primarily a Western concept, presents sign language as the primary language of instruction, with spoken or written language as the second, affirming the value of deaf identity and culture (Green et al., 2025; Griffin, 2021). Many teachers still do not use real-time captioning or speech-to-text applications because of training gaps and limited Arabic accuracy; therefore, captioning is not widely used despite evidence that it can improve DHH students’ comprehension.
3.2 Technological tools in DHH education
Globally, the role of technology in improving DHH learning is increasingly seen as a pillar of inclusive education (Humphries et al., 2025; Aljedaani et al., 2022; Chiu, 2025). These include speech-to-text apps, real-time captioning systems, sign language avatars, interactive whiteboards, and video-based e-learning environments oriented for visual learners. Empirical studies demonstrate that providing live captions in class can markedly improve DHH learners’ comprehension and test performance (ZainEldin et al., 2024; Jolly et al., 2024; Alsalamah, 2020). These technologies encourage the development of critical skills and collaboration among students, enriching both their studies and social inclusion (Navas-Bonilla et al., 2025). In high-income countries, educational technologies often reflect universal design principles through the use of digital content that accommodates diverse learners. For example, online learning environments create video lectures with closed captions or interpretations in sign language as an integral feature of most learning platforms. Captioned multimedia resources, interactive textbooks with visual annotations, and AI-enabled tools that convert speech to text in real time have made a significant difference in both the engagement and academic performance of DHH students (Levesque et al., 2023; ZainEldin et al., 2024).
Forms of technology that enable full two-way communication, such as captioned videoconferencing systems and applications that translate spoken language into signs, are becoming more common as tools that enable peers to interact and work together. These tools not only respond to instructional access but also to the social inclusion of DHH students in the learning environment (Alsalamah, 2020). However, access to these technologies remains uneven. Advancements in technology that allow conversion between spoken and sign language are vital for creating an effective two-way communication channel. In a recent study, researchers designed an AI-powered speech-to-text-to-sign translator and suggested that it plays a vital role in facilitating equal communication between deaf and hearing users (Madahana et al., 2022). Additionally, the absence of teacher training in the utilization of such tools contributes to their underutilization or ineffective integration into classroom practice (Castaño-Muñoz et al., 2025; Fteiha et al., 2024). Global experiences reveal that thoughtfully designed and implemented technology, when supported by inclusive pedagogy, can transform the educational experiences of DHH learners (Rodríguez-Correa et al., 2023; Madahana et al., 2022). For Saudi Arabia, the use of these international models, adjusted to cultural, linguistic, and systemic contexts, is necessary to create a sustainable and inclusive education system that will facilitate the learning and development of all students.
Technology has significantly enhanced the learning experience of DHH students. Customized solutions address communication gaps, increase engagement, and promote personalized learning. The use of educational technologies (from simple assistive devices to advanced interactive platforms) has made DHH learners as independent as possible in accessing, interpreting, and interacting with content (Chiu, 2025; Holt, 2019; Humphries et al., 2025). These tools are particularly useful in inclusive settings, where the existence of multiple communication needs requires flexible and multimodal approaches.
Assistive technologies form the backbone of support systems for most DHH learners (Humphries et al., 2025; Rodríguez-Correa et al., 2023; Holt, 2019). The most common are hearing aids, which make sounds louder and allow students to distinguish what is said better. Frequency Modulation (FM) systems transmit a speaker’s voice directly to a student’s device, thereby reducing the background noise. For example, Tomblin et al. showed that the audibility provided by properly fitting hearing aids moderated children’s oral language abilities, which in turn boosted their academic achievement (Tomblin et al., 2020). In advanced environments, digital interfaces in classrooms are supported by cochlear implants. In addition to amplification, speech-to-text software has transformed accessibility for DHH students who require text as input. Through these tools, spoken words are translated into actual transcriptions in real time, allowing learners to follow lectures, discussions, and instructions. A recent cohort study demonstrated better outcomes of cochlear implants in terms of language, academic performance, and quality of life (Cejas et al., 2023). Closed captioning systems installed in videos or live meetings deliver text that follows the audio content without relying on listening for understanding. Many services now offer automatic captioning features; however, accuracy remains a concerns in Arabic, especially for topics involving complex wording (Akasheh et al., 2024; Lasheen and Barakat, 2022).
The increase in Learning Management Systems (LMSs) has resulted in greater flexibility in content delivery and engagement, especially in inclusive classrooms. For LMS platforms such as Moodle, Blackboard, and Canvas, DHH students have asynchronous access to materials, which they review at their own pace. Embedded lyrics, visual resources, and downloadable lecture notes may help fill the gaps, as they can be created during live learning (Bradley, 2021; Li, 2023; Turnbull et al., 2022). Blended learning models that integrate face-to-face instruction and digital platforms are beneficial for DHH learners. Such models offer the possibility of accessing pre-recorded content with captions, using discussion boards to engage in typical interactions, and enjoying personalized learning tracks. When well designed, blended environments encourage higher levels of autonomy and help alleviate the stress involved in real-time auditory processing.
Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are emerging technologies with great promise in special education and have a growing impact on DHH learners (Fernandes et al., 2024; Marougkas et al., 2023; Marougkas et al., 2024). By applying AR tools, digital visual information can be superimposed onto the physical environment, enriching real-world learning experiences through sign language translation, captions, or visual instructions (AlGerafi et al., 2023; Fernandes et al., 2024; Khazaie and and Ebadi, 2025). For instance, AR-enhanced textbooks may show sign language pop-ups or mark vocabulary words using visual cues. VR environments create immersive, distraction-free spaces where DHH students can engage in simulated scenarios with enhanced visual cues and guidance. In science or language learning, VR can be employed to replicate real-life settings, in which learners navigate content without auditory input. These technologies also provide teachers with the opportunity to tailor the pace and complexity of information to their individual needs. Although the use of AR/VR in DHH education is relatively new worldwide, preliminary findings indicate that these tools improves content retention, language acquisition, and motivation, leading to pilot program implementation (Marougkas et al., 2024; Wang and Li, 2024).
For many DHH students, sign language remains the primary or complementary mode of communication. Therefore, supportive technological tools for sign-language learning are crucial. For example, the Hand Talk translator application uses Artificial Intelligence to convert text or speech into sign language via a 3D avatar, supporting both ASL and Brazilian/Portuguese Sign Languages (Najib, 2025). Applications such as Hand Talk, VL2 Storybook Apps, and regional Arabic sign language platforms include interactive modules for vocabulary building, sentence construction, and comprehension. For example Herzig and Allen (2023) found a strong association between Storybook app usage, early exposure to reading-specific app pages, and ASL proficiency levels (Herzig and Allen, 2023). Video instruments, particularly those containing sign language interpretation integrated with spoken content, have become a key part of inclusive instruction sets. These are particularly useful in mainstream classrooms, where DHH students would otherwise not have full access to verbal instruction. Some educational institutions have begun recording lectures that incorporate sign language interpretation or deliver dual-format materials (spoken and signed) to ensure equitable access (Almalhy, 2022; Mohd Hashim and Tasir, 2020). A recent study by Almalhy in Saudi Arabia suggested that the optimal format may depend on the content type; for factual declarative content, videos with captions only led to significantly better comprehension scores than those with signing (Almalhy, 2022). Additionally, gamification introduces a sense of play and interactivity, which appears to benefit sign language learners (Oliveira and Freire, 2025).
The COVID-19 pandemic revealed several educational challenges related to DHH students and provided important lessons to improve DHH students’ education through different technologies (Bloom and Palmer, 2025; Alshawabkeh et al., 2021; Alqraini and Alasim, 2021). For example, a qualitative study in the UAE found that typical online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic lacked efficient communication channels and failed to address the needs of deaf students with concerns regarding communication media (Alshawabkeh et al., 2021). Furthermore, one study stated that e-learning based on an authentic sign language e-learning facility and technology improved deaf learners’ satisfaction with and motivation for their first e-learning experience (Niksiar et al., 2025). The digital transformation of Saudi education has increased the pace of integration of mobile learning tools and e-platforms in Saudi Arabia, especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. The platforms introduced by the Ministry of Education, “Madrasati” and the National E-Learning Center, have created new opportunities for inclusion. However, significant variation exists in the accessibility of these platforms for DHH learners and teachers (Aljedaani et al., 2021; Basonbul, 2023; Assiri et al., 2022). Although some platforms include closed-captioned and downloadable materials, the lack of sign language integration, scarcity of Arabic-based speech-to-text, and absence of visual customization remain significant barriers (Madhesh, 2021). Although there have been advancements in this field and several apps targeting deaf students and Arabic Sign Language (ArSL) (Al Khuzayem et al., 2024; Mohammad et al., 2022), systematic adaptation of digital tools still remains essential for DHH education in Saudi Arabia. Stakeholder reviews, particularly those of students and teachers, call for more culturally and linguistically appropriate tools, improved training of educators, and greater consideration of DHH needs during the national platform design phase. A summary of the main technology categories, settings, key outcomes, intended benefits for DHH learners, and the presence of Saudi/GCC evidence is presented in Table 2. Overall, captioning and LMS solutions are the most widely used locally, whereas AR/VR and advanced sign language tools have limited regional implementations.
Table 2. Summary of included studies: setting, technology type, intended benefit, key outcomes, and regional evidence.
3.3 Integration challenges
The incorporation of educational technologies into DHH education in Saudi Arabia is associated with many opportunities and barriers. Several systemic and contextual impediments prevent the meaningful use of technology by DHH learners.
The inadequate distribution of infrastructure in schools is a major barrier to the meaningful integration of technology into DHH education (Albash, 2023; Madhesh, 2021). Globally, and in Arab countries, urban cities and some private institutions have instituted smart classroom technologies; however, most public schools, especially in remote or underserved areas, lack the minimum technological premises necessary for inclusive digital classrooms. Internet connections, high-quality interactive boards, power supplies, and hardware are often outdated and maintained inconsistently. The lack of such infrastructure hampers DHH students’ ability to access instructional content and participate in the classroom because of their dependence on visual media and live captioning (Albash, 2023). Even in an environment with hardware, lack of teacher preparedness continues to be a formidable impediment. Many teachers in Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries lack proficiency in using assistive technologies, captioning tools, or speech-to-text applications (Abu-Alghayth, 2022; Alshareef et al., 2022). The lack of general opportunities for professional development in deaf education and inclusive pedagogy further aggravates this issue. Educators might not only face difficulties in mastering technical aspects with digital tools, but may also find it challenging to comprehend how to compose a set of instructional practices adequate for the characteristics of DHH students’ communication. Even well-intentioned inclusion efforts can be superficial or ineffective without structured training programs. Conversely, some studies have found that teachers show a positive attitude and eagerness to integrate technologies (Almziad, 2025; Alghamdi et al., 2022; Ageel Mutlaq Alswilem, 2019).
Finally, DHH learners remain constrained from their full participation in regular schooling because of communication barriers and social stigma. A deficiency in peer-to-peer and a teacher fluency in sign language can lead to social segregation, and hinder collaborative learning (Alamri, 2024; Asiri, 2020). Even though there are technological instruments, they may still feel marginalized if the prevailing classroom culture is not inclusive. Additionally, some cultural misconceptions about disabilities could discourage the use of assistive tools or create reluctance toward inclusive technology among families. For example, in Basonbul (2023), identified several barriers in Saudi Arabia, including administrative, technical, teaching, family, and personal factors (Basonbul, 2023). These social factors must be addressed concurrently with technical interventions to achieve sustainable and meaningful change.
3.4 Enablers and stakeholders’ perspectives
Despite these challenges, enablers and emerging best practices are shaping a more inclusive technological landscape in DHH education in Saudi Arabia and the wider Gulf region. This combination of factors highlights the potential of technology for transformation when embedded in enriched pedagogical and institutional surroundings.
In classrooms where inclusive practices have proven to work more effectively, innovative practices in the hands of teachers have been central (Silvestri and Hartman, 2022). Teachers who methodically adjust their strategies while using visual aids, modifying the LMS, or using captioned videos envision that technology integration does not have to be a resource-demanding process. Teachers who embrace a universal design for UDL principles design more student-friendly environments for all students, including those with hearing loss (Levey, 2021; Cumming and Gilanyi, 2023). Peer-supported models and the student-driven use of technology (captioning apps) have also been found to have the potential to enhance the engagement and autonomy of DHH learners. However, Almutairi and And Alsuwayl (2023) from Saudi Arabia demonstrated that their participants had only medium levels of knowledge regarding UDL (Almutairi and and Alsuwayl, 2023). Another study that assessed knowledge, readiness, and the need to implement UDL in the classroom suggested the need for training and professional development (Alquraini and and Rao, 2020). Saudi educators’ limited awareness of UDL and the need for further training to apply it effectively. Other GCC nations endorse inclusive education in policy; however, the explicit adoption of UDL-based practices in classrooms remains at an early stage.
In addition to UDL, the TAM can help understand the acceptance of modern technologies among teachers and students with disabilities (Almalky and Qaysi, 2025; Almaki et al., 2024). Some of the studies reviewed here capture the main concepts of TAM, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use, particularly in the context of teacher preparedness, training requirements, and student use of assistive technologies (Almalky and Qaysi, 2025; Aboud and Al Ali, 2025; Al-Obeidi and Ali, 2024). For example, Saudi Arabia can be used to illustrate that the lack of confidence or familiarity among educators implies that technology acceptance is usually not confined to the infrastructure but also to the perceived usefulness and ease of use of the tools (Alsawalem, 2020). The use of TAM in this regard can explain why even properly designed technologies cannot be used because users lack proper support or a certain degree of trust in their effectiveness.
Digital transformation and inclusive education have become evolving priorities for the Saudi Ministry of Education, which has planned investments in smart classroom infrastructures and implemented national e-learning platforms. Initiatives such as “Tatweer” and Vision 2030’s Human Capability Development Program consider accessibility and equity to be important (Tayan, 2017; Alsolami, 2024; Allmnakrah and Evers, 2019). Institutional support is available at universities and teacher colleges that offer special education and educational technology courses. Such actions lead to a policy environment productive for scaling technological solutions in special needs education. Nonetheless, management at the school level requires sustained investments and monitoring. Due to limited participation and many teachers’ lack of confidence in using tools (such as captioning apps or interactive media) for DHH students, a trend, mirrored in other GCC countries, is the gradual scaling up of specialized training for inclusive education technology.
Activities to enhance teacher and workforce training in the use of inclusive technologies are growing through workshops, certificate courses, and links with international education providers (Vosough Matin, 2023; Alsolami, 2024; Castellano-Beltran et al., 2025). Modules for in-service training are beginning to be developed for the use of captioning software, visual teaching strategies, and communication tools, albeit with limited reach. Learning programs based on a combination of theoretical and practical instructions have worked the best. Blended training models that allow teachers to practice using real devices in simulated classroom scenarios increase their competence and confidence.
Partnerships between international educational bodies and NGOs have provided access to expertise, resources, and frameworks for implementing inclusive technology. For example, partnerships with digital accessibility-oriented organizations have contributed to the creation of captioning tools for Arabic-language content and sign language dictionaries. Involvement in regional conferences and initiatives has also served as a platform for exchanging interstate best practices among Arab countries and preparing students (Al-Hendawi et al., 2023; Almalky and Alqahtani, 2021). Saudi Arabia’s response to global inclusive education standards has gradually advanced through reforms that emphasize data-driven planning, universal access, and accountability (Allmnakrah and Evers, 2019).
Teachers play a critical role in determining the effectiveness of technology in supporting learners who are DHH. Feedback from special education teachers indicates a high level of eagerness to use educational technologies but an understanding of the major limitations. Many teachers admit that they can better differentiate instruction and support their students because of digital tools, especially by creating and using multimedia content, interactive lessons, and assessments tailored to each learner’s needs (Meccawy, 2023; Sulaimani and Bagadood, 2023). For example, in Alrashdi (2024) stated that several barriers persisted in integrating these tools and delivering effective teaching (Alrashdi, 2024). Parents of DHH students are important stakeholders in the education process because they support technology use at home and ensure that their children’s needs are considered in school (Phillipson et al., 2024; Kurniati et al., 2022; Alford et al., 2023). In many cases, parental perceptions of educational technology are molded, in part, by digital literacy levels, cultural beliefs, and past interactions with the education system. In Arab countries, such families (who are tech-savvy or have access to private resources) are more likely to embrace and interact with digital tools in the classroom. Parents’ positive involvement is often associated with better academic results among DHH students, who may be encouraged to use educational apps, sign language content, and captioned video materials outside school hours. For example, a study from Qatar explored a novel method based on VR to teach the basics of Qatari Sign Language to teachers and parents and found significant findings (Ghoul and Othman, 2022). In another study, Abed and Shackelford stated that Saudi parents viewed technology positively for their disabled children’s education (Abed and Shackelford, 2024). Some families may invest in tools, such as personal devices or additional resources, including tablets with accessibility capabilities or specialized learning software. Such efforts may support classroom learning and help develop independence. While global studies often report the extensive use of advanced inclusive technologies, such as AI-based captioning systems or immersive AR/VR content, these innovations have not yet been widely implemented in the Saudi context. The review revealed that infrastructural limitations, shortage of Arabic-language digital content, and limited teacher preparedness often constrain technological integration in Saudi Arabia. The gap between global innovation and local readiness underscores the pressing need for regionally tailored strategies that account for linguistic, cultural, and institutional contexts.
4 Knowledge gaps and future directions
4.1 Knowledge gaps
Despite the increasing trend toward inclusive education and the use of technology, numerous knowledge gaps remain in the field of DHH education, particularly within the Saudi and GCC context. These gaps vary along the lines of research evidence, practical implementation, and policy development, and their remediation is crucial for the advancement of equity and effectiveness in technology-enhanced learning of DHH students. These knowledge gaps are discussed below:
4.1.1 Limited context-specific research
Much of the literature on technology integration in DHH education comes from Western countries, and the socio-cultural and linguistic settings in these countries are quite different from those in Arab contexts. There is a dearth of empirical, region-specific studies exploring the socialization of DHH students in Saudi Arabia and its immediate neighbors using educational technologies, notably those for Arabic speakers and sign language users. This gap prevents educators and policymakers from making evidence-based decisions that reflect local needs.
4.1.2 Inadequate evaluation of technology impact
Few studies have examined how various technological interventions that improve learning, effectiveness with language, or a sense of social inclusion for DHH learners (e.g., captioning tools, LMS features, and sign language apps) impact academic outcomes, language development, or social participation. Much of the present data is based on a descriptive design or teacher/student perceptions rather than quantitative or longitudinal measures. There is a distinct requirement for directed outcome-based research that determines the tools that provide material benefits in various learning settings.
4.1.3 Gaps in Arabic sign language and linguistic resources
The resources for digital content in Arabic sign language remain insufficient, constraining the availability of instructional materials suitable for both linguistic and cultural derivations. Most platforms either draw from English or settle on superficial Arabic scripts that do not consider dialectal or sign-language syntax. Further research is required to develop, validate, and disseminate high-quality Arabic education tools for DHH learners.
4.1.4 Underrepresentation of early childhood and higher education
Most contemporary studies and interventions have focused on primary and intermediate schools. However, research on early intervention programs for DHH students in higher education settings is lacking. The issue of how technology can best assist in language acquisition, pre-literacy, and cognitive development in DHH children remains underexplored. Similarly, studies on university-level accommodation, digital accessibility, and learning strategies for DHH students at tertiary institutions in Saudi Arabia are scarce.
4.1.5 Neglected perspectives: parents and rural populations
Parents’ perspectives, particularly in low-resource or rural contexts, remain among the least-explored topic. This restricts the appreciation of home-based technology support, barriers to engagement, and cultural beliefs that influence technology acceptance. Moreover, research usually centers on urban or well-funded schools, neglecting regional disparities, while DHH students in remote areas continue to face challenges.
4.1.6 Professional development and pedagogical innovation
Research with a systematic overview of teacher-training models that would help build competence in using educational technologies for DHH inclusion is lacking. Comparative studies will be helpful in determining the best practices in professional development and in measuring the effect of current support, mentorship, and peer learning practices toward inclusive teaching capacity.
4.2 Future directions
Further studies should adopt a context-specific approach to examine the effectiveness of educational technologies for DHH students in Saudi Arabia and in the GCC region in general. First, localized studies that combine quantitative and qualitative approaches are required to understand the real-world effects of tools such as captioning systems, sign language-integrated platforms, and adaptive learning technologies on student outcomes. Future work should focus on developing and validating Arabic language digital resources, including content that supports Arabic Sign Language and culturally relevant instructional designs. Second, studies should extend beyond primary schooling to encompass childhood activities, vocational work, and tertiary settings where the sample remains underrepresented in the literature. Additionally, research should focus on family roles, with an emphasis on the development of parents’ digital literacy and their involvement in technology use within the family. Finally, future studies should examine the effectiveness of teacher-training models on inclusive technology utilization and determine lasting professional development strategies that can be adopted nationwide. Implementing these directions will build a stronger evidence base to inform stakeholder engagement in inclusive educational planning and innovation in the region.
To execute the aforementioned future directions, the following specific and testable research questions should be investigated.
1. What is the effectiveness of Arabic closed-captioning and sign-supported multimedia tools in improving comprehension and classroom participation among DHH students in Saudi Arabia?
2. How do differences in teacher training and professional development programs influence the long-term adoption of inclusive digital technologies in DHH education?
3. Which infrastructural or policy factors enable or discourage the adoption of smart classroom technologies that promote DHH learning under the Vision 2030 initiative?
Context-dependent mixed-method studies that answer these questions would reinforce the empirical basis for inclusive digital education practices and policymaking in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf region.
5 Limitations
This review used a narrative synthesis approach, which restricted the comprehensiveness and reproducibility of the findings. Although there is no formal quality appraisal system such as the JBI or NOS, several measures have been implemented to ensure rigor. They included checking the peer-reviewed quality of every article, verifying methodological transparency and suitability to the context, and removing studies that lacked sufficient detail or had an unclear design. Moreover, the synthesis relied on English-language sources, which may have led to the exclusion of potentially relevant regional literature. Despite these limitations, the narrative design provides a more flexible and integrative understanding of technological trends and contextual challenges in DHH education in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf region.
6 Conclusion
This review explores the role of technology in educational practice as it relates to DHH education in Saudi Arabia and the GCC region. It advances global scholarship by situating international evidence within the Saudi and Gulf educational contexts. The review synthesizes global findings through a regional lens, emphasizing critical local realities, such as the scarcity of Arabic-language digital resources, disparities in infrastructure across schools, and insufficient teacher preparation for inclusive technology use. Although access to assistive and instructional technologies holds transformative potential for inclusive learning, the successful adoption of these tools is hindered by several barriers. Nevertheless, government initiatives, teacher-led innovations, and regionally adapted digital tools demonstrate the potential for meaningful change. By situating these insights within the framework of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 educational transformation, this review offers a regionally grounded synthesis that highlights the linguistic and contextual challenges unique to Arabic-speaking DHH learners, while outlining pathways for inclusive digital advancement. Investments in research, infrastructure, and professional development can significantly transform smart classrooms into inclusive learning spaces.
Author contributions
FA: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This work was funded by the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Jouf University under grant no. (DGSSR-2025-03-01334).
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for English language editing.
Conflict of interest
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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The author declares that Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. Generative AI was used for Language enhancement.
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Keywords: deaf students, technology, inclusive education, smart classrooms, Saudi Arabia
Citation: Almulhim FA (2025) Smart classrooms, unheard perspectives: a global review of technology integration and local challenges in deaf and hard-of-hearing education in Saudi Arabia. Front. Educ. 10:1663912. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1663912
Edited by:
Simanta Roy, Florida International University, United StatesReviewed by:
Antara Swarnali Priyanka, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), BangladeshHaneen Vasel, Beit Berl, Israel
Copyright © 2025 Almulhim. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Fatimah Abdullah Almulhim, ZmFhbG1lbGhlbUBqdS5lZHUuc2E=