The effectiveness of project-based learning: a retrospective comparative analysis of Russian and foreign experience

Background: Project-based learning (PBL) implementation faces unresolved tensions between pedagogical integrity and economic utility, complicated by fragmented theoretical frameworks and divergent national approaches across educational systems.

Objective: This study identifies systematic barriers to PBL effectiveness through retrospective comparative analysis of Russian and international practices, models socio-economic impacts via cognitive simulation, and develops evidence-based optimization strategies.

Methods: Mixed-methods approach combining historical analysis of PBL evolution (fifteenth to twentieth centuries), institutional case studies from six leading Russian universities (HSE, SFedU, Moscow Polytech, FEFU, UrFU, UNN), and cognitive simulation modeling using 29-node framework with CMCS software to map regional development impacts across 24 test scenarios.

Key findings: Russian PBL emphasizes collective outcomes while Western models prioritize individualization. Current implementations show 78% commercial focus over competency development, though customer-centric approaches demonstrate 3.2× higher critical thinking scores. Cognitive modeling confirms PBL specialists enhance human capital (+210%), regional sustainability (+120%), and technological sovereignty (+150%) with grant support reducing risks by 37–52%.

Conclusion: PBL effectiveness requires rebalancing commercial-pedagogical tensions through customer-centric approaches, enhanced teacher training, and systematic grant support. Cognitive modeling provides unifying framework for resolving paradigm conflicts while maximizing socio-economic impact.

1 Introduction

Project-based learning (PBL) has emerged as a transformative pedagogical approach in higher education, positioning students as active constructors of knowledge through engagement with authentic, real-world challenges (Kazun and Pastukhova, 2018). This educational methodology transcends traditional lecture-based instruction by integrating theoretical learning with practical application, fostering critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving capabilities essential for twenty-first-century professionals (Peña et al., 2024). Despite widespread adoption across global educational institutions, PBL implementation faces significant theoretical and practical challenges that limit its effectiveness and scope (Gu et al., 2025).

Contemporary higher education systems worldwide grapple with fundamental tensions between pedagogical integrity and economic utility in PBL implementation (Bukrina et al., 2023; Nagornyy and Scherbakov, 2021). Universities increasingly emphasize market-oriented outcomes, with research indicating that 78% of current PBL initiatives prioritize commercial profitability over core competency development (Research Ed Market, 2022). This commercialization trend threatens to undermine PBL's foundational educational objectives, transforming students from critical thinkers into passive market respondents rather than autonomous innovators capable of addressing complex societal challenges (Boldina, 2023; Perova, 2015; Pla-Campas et al., 2025).

The conceptual fragmentation surrounding PBL further complicates its implementation. No universal consensus exists regarding PBL's definition, primary objectives, or optimal implementation strategies (Bryzgalova, 2021). This ambiguity manifests across multiple disciplinary lenses: sustainability science positions PBL as a vehicle for achieving UN Sustainable Development Goals (Perez-Rodriguez et al., 2022), economic perspectives view it as a bridge between academic learning and labor market demands (Lider et al., 2021), pedagogical frameworks emphasize its role in cultivating critical thinking and professional competencies (Donskaya, 2023), while technical disciplines regard it as the optimal methodology for engineering education (Gusev et al., 2024).

Historical analysis reveals distinct national trajectories in PBL development that contribute to contemporary implementation disparities. Western educational models, exemplified by the Dalton Plan and Decroly's “centers of interest,” have traditionally emphasized individualized learning pathways and student autonomy (Penkovskikh, 2010). Conversely, Russian and former Soviet pedagogical traditions prioritized collective problem-solving and systemic social outcomes, reflecting broader cultural values regarding education's societal role (Kazun and Pastukhova, 2018). These divergent philosophical foundations continue to influence contemporary PBL implementation strategies, creating challenges for cross-cultural adaptation and standardization.

Current research gaps further impede PBL optimization. Existing studies demonstrate asymmetrical disciplinary coverage, with extensive investigation in pedagogical contexts but limited exploration in economics, humanities, and interdisciplinary applications (Bryzgalova, 2021). Additionally, the prevailing “customer focus” paradigm—adjusting educational content to immediate market demands—requires evolution toward “customer centricity,” which empowers students as autonomous decision-makers capable of resisting manipulative influences and creating societal value (Ushanov, 2020). This paradigm shift is essential for developing graduates who can navigate complex global challenges while maintaining ethical integrity and critical autonomy.

Russian universities present particularly relevant case studies for PBL analysis due to their innovative institutional mechanisms and substantial regional impact. Leading institutions such as the Higher School of Economics (HSE), Southern Federal University (SFedU), and Moscow Polytechnic University have implemented comprehensive structural reforms including dedicated PBL departments, industry partnerships, and grant ecosystems (Evstratova et al., 2018). These institutions demonstrate varying approaches to balancing commercial viability with pedagogical goals, offering valuable insights for global PBL implementation strategies.

The complexity of PBL's multi-level impact on individual learning outcomes, institutional effectiveness, and regional socio-economic development necessitates sophisticated analytical approaches. Traditional educational research methodologies prove insufficient for capturing the dynamic interactions between pedagogical processes, institutional structures, and broader socio-economic systems. This limitation calls for innovative analytical frameworks capable of modeling complex cause-effect relationships within educational ecosystems.

1.1 Research objective and scope

This study addresses critical gaps in PBL implementation research through a comprehensive retrospective comparative analysis of Russian and global practices, combined with innovative cognitive simulation modeling to quantify PBL's systemic impact. The primary objective is to identify systematic barriers to PBL effectiveness and develop evidence-based optimization strategies that balance pedagogical integrity with economic utility while maximizing regional socio-economic impact.

The research employs a mixed-methods approach integrating historical analysis, institutional case studies, and cognitive simulation modeling. The historical component traces PBL evolution from fifteenth-century apprenticeships through contemporary university implementations, identifying persistent tensions and adaptation patterns. The institutional analysis examines PBL implementation mechanisms across six leading Russian universities, evaluating structural innovations, project typologies, and effectiveness drivers. The cognitive modeling component utilizes a 29-node framework to map interactions within teacher-learner systems and quantify PBL's impact on regional development indicators including human capital quality, technological sovereignty, and economic sustainability.

1.2 Research questions and hypotheses

This investigation addresses four primary research questions: (1) How have historical and cultural factors shaped contemporary PBL implementation disparities between Russian and Western educational systems? (2) What institutional mechanisms most effectively balance pedagogical goals with economic outcomes in university PBL programs? (3) How does PBL implementation impact regional socio-economic development through human capital enhancement and technological innovation? (4) What optimization strategies can resolve the tension between market-oriented and pedagogically-centered approaches to PBL?

The study tests the central hypothesis that PBL-trained specialists enhance regional human capital quality, thereby enabling sustainable regional development and technological sovereignty. Supporting hypotheses examine the relationships between institutional support mechanisms (particularly grant systems and teacher training) and PBL risk reduction, as well as the superior effectiveness of customer-centric compared to customer-focused PBL models in developing critical thinking capabilities.

1.3 Structure of the study

The subsequent sections present a comprehensive literature review examining PBL as an interdisciplinary research object, institutional implementation mechanisms, and effectiveness measures. The methodology section details the cognitive simulation modeling approach, data sources, and analytical procedures. Results present findings from historical analysis, institutional case studies, and scenario modeling. The discussion synthesizes key insights, addresses limitations, and proposes optimization strategies. The conclusion summarizes contributions and outlines future research directions for advancing PBL theory and practice.

2 Literature review

2.1 Historical evolution of project-based learning across national contexts

Project-based learning has evolved through distinct historical phases, shaped by cultural, pedagogical, and socio-economic factors that continue to influence contemporary implementation strategies. Understanding this evolution provides essential context for analyzing current PBL challenges and opportunities.

2.1.1 Early origins and technical foundations (fifteenth to eighteenth centuries)

The earliest manifestations of project-based learning emerged in fifteenth-century engineering apprenticeships across Russia and Germany, where master craftsmen transmitted technical knowledge through hands-on replication of complex objects under conditions of professional secrecy as presented in Table 1 (Gusev et al., 2024). These early programs established the foundational principle of learning through authentic practice, though knowledge transfer remained largely tacit and undocumented.

Table 1

Table 1. Evolution of project-based learning development (fifteenth to early twentieth centuries).

Simultaneously, Italian Renaissance architects introduced the concept of “progetti” into formal education, creating the first documented integration of design principles with pedagogical practice (Lyubimova and Mirankova, 2015). This innovation marked a critical transition from purely apprenticeship-based learning to more structured educational approaches that combined theoretical knowledge with practical application.

The eighteenth century witnessed significant systematization under Peter I's educational reforms in Russia, which established schools that integrated fundamental mathematical and scientific education with practical engineering applications (Saprykin, 2012). This approach created what Saprykin termed “applied industrially organized science,” representing an early model of theory-practice integration that would later influence modern PBL approaches.

2.1.2 Formal systematization and pedagogical theory (nineteenth to twentieth centuries)

The transition from informal apprenticeships to formal educational methodology occurred during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as presented in Table 2. John Dewey's pragmatic philosophy provided theoretical foundations for student-centered learning approaches that emphasized personal motivation and active knowledge construction (Lyubimova and Mirankova, 2015).

Table 2

Table 2. Periodization of project method development in twentieth century pedagogy.

The formalization culminated in 1911 when the U.S. Bureau of Education officially recognized the “project method,” legitimizing its use in educational literature and practice (Penkovskikh, 2010). William Kilpatrick's theoretical contributions established systematic frameworks connecting project topics with student interests and defining progressive learning sequences.

2.1.3 Divergent national pedagogical traditions

The historical analysis reveals fundamental philosophical differences between Western and Russian approaches to project-based learning that persist in contemporary implementations. From Table 3, western models, including the Dalton Plan and Decroly's “centers of interest,” prioritized individualized learning pathways and student autonomy (Penkovskikh, 2010). These approaches emphasized personal discovery and self-directed exploration, reflecting broader cultural values regarding individual agency and educational freedom.

Table 3

Table 3. Comparative analysis of national PBL adaptations.

In contrast, Russian and Soviet pedagogical traditions integrated PBL with collective social objectives and systemic thinking approaches (Kazun and Pastukhova, 2018). Shatsky's labor schools exemplified this philosophy by emphasizing community-oriented outcomes and shared responsibility for learning achievements. This approach reflected broader societal values regarding education's role in social development and collective progress.

These historical differences continue to influence contemporary PBL implementation strategies, creating challenges for standardization while offering opportunities for cross-cultural learning and adaptation.

2.2 PBL as an interdisciplinary research object

Project-based learning transcends traditional disciplinary boundaries, generating diverse interpretations and implementation approaches across multiple academic and professional domains. This interdisciplinary nature contributes both to PBL's adaptability and to conceptual fragmentation that complicates systematic implementation.

2.2.1 Disciplinary perspectives and interpretations

Contemporary PBL research reflects significant disciplinary variation in theoretical frameworks and practical applications. Pedagogical perspectives emphasize PBL's capacity to foster critical thinking, self-directed learning, and metacognitive skills essential for lifelong learning (Peña et al., 2024; Donskaya, 2023). This view positions PBL as fundamentally transformative of traditional teacher-student relationships, promoting collaborative knowledge construction and authentic assessment practices.

Economic interpretations focus on PBL's role in bridging academic learning with labor market requirements, viewing it as a mechanism for human capital development and regional economic competitiveness (Kotler and Armstrong, 1994; Lider et al., 2021; Popova et al., 2023). This perspective emphasizes skills alignment, employability outcomes, and economic returns on educational investment, though it risks reducing education to purely instrumental functions.

Engineering disciplines regard PBL as the optimal methodology for professional preparation, emphasizing technical problem-solving, design thinking, and systems integration capabilities (Gusev et al., 2024). This technical perspective values PBL's capacity to simulate authentic professional challenges while developing both theoretical knowledge and practical competencies.

Sustainability science positions PBL as a vehicle for addressing complex global challenges, particularly in relation to United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (Perez-Rodriguez et al., 2022). This perspective emphasizes PBL's potential for developing systems thinking, ethical reasoning, and collaborative problem-solving capabilities necessary for addressing environmental and social challenges.

2.2.2 Methodological pluralism in PBL implementation

The interdisciplinary nature of PBL has generated methodological diversity that both enriches and complicates implementation efforts. Contemporary PBL integrates multiple project management frameworks adapted from professional practice, including classical waterfall approaches for linear, stage-gated projects, Agile/Scrum methodologies for dynamic fields requiring iterative development, and Lean/Six Sigma approaches emphasizing efficiency optimization (Kornilov, 2021; Ushakov, 2022).

Bryzgalova argues that “the application of these frameworks to pedagogy generates new PBL tools and outcomes,” though systematic evaluation of their relative effectiveness remains limited (Bryzgalova, 2021). This methodological pluralism reflects PBL's adaptability but also contributes to implementation inconsistency and evaluation challenges.

2.2.3 Cross-disciplinary knowledge transfer and research gaps

PBL's migration from teacher training programs to economics, humanities, and STEM fields illustrates both its adaptability and the uneven nature of its research foundation (Kazun and Pastukhova, 2018). While pedagogical applications receive extensive scholarly attention, economic and humanities implementations remain under-explored, creating knowledge gaps that limit comprehensive understanding of PBL's potential and limitations.

The relationship between engineering and pedagogical traditions reveals particular complexity. Gusev et al. note that historical “secrets of craftsmanship” initially limited documentation but later enriched PBL's technical rigor (Gusev et al., 2024). This evolution suggests that interdisciplinary knowledge transfer, while challenging, can enhance rather than dilute disciplinary expertise.

Current research demonstrates asymmetrical coverage, with extensive investigation in pedagogical contexts but limited exploration in economics, humanities, and interdisciplinary applications (Bryzgalova, 2021). This imbalance constrains comprehensive theory development and limits evidence-based optimization of PBL across diverse educational contexts.

2.3 Institutional implementation mechanisms in higher education

Contemporary universities have developed sophisticated institutional frameworks for PBL integration, though implementation approaches vary significantly across institutions and national contexts. Understanding these mechanisms provides insights into effective strategies for scaling PBL while maintaining educational quality and institutional coherence.

2.3.1 Structural and organizational innovations

Russian universities demonstrate particular innovation in structural mechanisms for PBL implementation. Evstratova et al. identify six core institutional mechanisms employed across leading institutions including Moscow Polytechnic University, Higher School of Economics (HSE), Southern Federal University (SFedU), and Far Eastern Federal University (FEFU; Evstratova et al., 2018).

Structural changes encompass the creation of dedicated PBL departments and innovation hubs that provide organizational focus and resource coordination. These units facilitate cross-disciplinary collaboration while maintaining institutional coherence and quality standards. The Higher School of Economics exemplifies this approach through university-wide PBL integration supported by specialized administrative structures.

Curriculum reform initiatives integrate mandatory project modules across degree programs while maintaining disciplinary depth and academic rigor. This approach requires careful balance between project-based activities and traditional coursework, with institutions developing various models for credit allocation and assessment integration.

Industry integration mechanisms embed real-client projects into curricula while establishing digital platforms for project coordination and stakeholder communication. Southern Federal University's online project hub illustrates how technology can facilitate authentic industry engagement while maintaining educational objectives and student learning outcomes.

2.3.2 Faculty development and assessment innovation

Successful PBL implementation requires substantial faculty development initiatives that address both pedagogical skills and industry knowledge. Moscow Polytechnic University's comprehensive training in Agile/Scrum methodologies demonstrates systematic approaches to faculty preparation, though (Evstratova et al., 2018) report that such programs achieve 92% competency improvement over 2-year periods.

Assessment innovation represents a critical implementation challenge, with institutions replacing traditional examinations with competency-based evaluation through project deliverables and portfolio assessment. This shift requires substantial faculty retraining and institutional policy development to maintain academic standards while accommodating diverse learning outcomes.

Grant ecosystems provide essential financial support for student projects while encouraging innovation and risk-taking. Southern Federal University's seed funding programs illustrate how institutional investment can stimulate high-quality project outcomes, though sustainable funding models remain challenging for many institutions.

2.3.3 Project classification and institutional integration

Universities have developed sophisticated classification systems for organizing and managing diverse project types. Evstratova et al. identify classification by leading activity, including research projects focused on knowledge generation, engineering design projects emphasizing technical creation, organizational projects targeting structural innovation, strategic projects addressing macro-level planning, and art projects pursuing aesthetic production (Evstratova et al., 2018).

Alternative classification by product results distinguishes between knowledge-generating projects producing academic outputs, technological projects creating process innovations, infrastructure projects developing physical or digital systems, and entrepreneurial projects yielding startups and business models.

The University-Business Integration Model represents a hybrid framework combining traditional industry consultation with cyclical PBL collaboration. This approach enables businesses to submit authentic problems while students develop solutions under mentorship, creating pipelines for research and development and commercialization (Winarsi et al., 2024). The Higher School of Economics' “Project Fair” portal exemplifies this integration, generating over 120 industry adoptions annually.

2.4 Contemporary challenges and paradigmatic tensions

Despite widespread adoption and institutional innovation, PBL implementation faces significant challenges that threaten both educational effectiveness and institutional sustainability. Understanding these challenges provides essential context for developing optimization strategies.

2.4.1 The commercialization dilemma

Contemporary PBL implementation increasingly emphasizes commercial outcomes at the potential expense of educational objectives. Research indicates that 78% of current PBL projects prioritize profitability over competency development, raising concerns about educational mission drift and student learning outcomes (Bukrina et al., 2023).

This commercialization trend reflects broader pressures on universities to demonstrate economic relevance and financial sustainability. However, excessive focus on market outcomes risks transforming education from a developmental process into a production system, potentially undermining critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and intellectual autonomy (Pevnaya et al., 2024).

2.4.2 Customer focus vs. customer centricity

The prevailing “customer focus” paradigm adjusts educational content to immediate market demands, creating what Gulakova terms reactive learners who respond to existing conditions rather than shaping future possibilities (Gulakova, 2021). While this approach may enhance short-term employability, it potentially limits students' capacity for innovation and critical analysis of market structures and social needs.

Alternative “customer centricity” approaches empower students as autonomous decision-makers capable of resisting manipulative influences while creating societal value (Donskaya, 2023; Ushanov, 2020). Research indicates that customer-centric models correlate with 3.2 times higher critical thinking scores compared to customer-focused approaches, though implementation remains limited to less than 20% of current programs (Peña et al., 2024).

2.4.3 Scope limitations and exclusions

Current PBL implementation demonstrates significant scope limitations, particularly regarding non-commercial sectors such as public policy, social work, and community development. Despite regional universities' mandates to address diverse societal needs, project databases remain predominantly filled with corporate challenges rather than civic or community-oriented problems (Valdman et al., 2024).

This limitation reflects both resource constraints and institutional priorities that favor commercially viable projects. However, it also represents missed opportunities for developing students' civic engagement, social responsibility, and understanding of non-market value creation.

2.5 Effectiveness research and measurement challenges

Evaluating PBL effectiveness requires multidimensional approaches that capture diverse learning outcomes, institutional impacts, and broader societal benefits. Current research demonstrates both significant achievements and important limitations in measurement and evaluation approaches.

2.5.1 Multi-dimensional effectiveness indicators

PBL effectiveness research encompasses quantitative metrics including training cost reduction, return on investment from program commercialization, and employment outcome improvements (Bengraf et al., 2024; Research Ed Market, 2022). These measures provide important institutional data but may not capture deeper learning outcomes or long-term developmental impacts.

Qualitative indicators focus on student motivation enhancement, critical thinking development, and self-directed learning capabilities (Kazun and Pastukhova, 2018; Peña et al., 2024). These outcomes align more closely with educational objectives but present measurement challenges and require longitudinal research approaches.

Competency development outcomes demonstrate PBL's capacity to foster critical thinking through unstructured problem-solving, teamwork through cross-disciplinary collaboration, and innovation capacity through prototyping and design thinking (Donskaya, 2023; Gusev et al., 2024). However, competency measurement remains inconsistent across institutions and lacks standardized assessment frameworks.

2.5.2 Institutional success factors

Research identifies several institutional factors associated with PBL success. Teacher training initiatives, exemplified by Moscow Polytechnic University's Agile/Scrum certification programs, demonstrate measurable impacts on faculty competency and student outcomes (Evstratova et al., 2018). Grant systems supporting student projects, such as Southern Federal University's seed funding programs, correlate with increased commercialization rates and student engagement levels.

Industry-academia partnerships, illustrated by HSE's “Project Fair” platform, facilitate authentic project opportunities while providing student exposure to professional contexts and market realities. These partnerships require careful management to balance educational objectives with industry expectations and commercial pressures.

2.5.3 Unresolved research questions

Despite extensive research, significant questions remain regarding optimal implementation approaches, long-term learning outcomes, and broader societal impacts. The pedagogical-commercial balance represents a persistent challenge, with only 22% of programs successfully integrating profit and learning objectives (Pevnaya et al., 2024).

Regional disparities in implementation effectiveness suggest that institutional context significantly influences outcomes, though systematic analysis of contextual factors remains limited. Additionally, digital literacy integration and cross-cultural adaptability represent emerging research areas that require sustained investigation (Zagorodnyuk, 2022; Valdman et al., 2024).

2.6 Research synthesis and theoretical framework

The literature review reveals PBL as a complex, multifaceted educational approach with significant potential benefits and persistent implementation challenges. Historical analysis demonstrates deep-seated cultural and pedagogical influences that continue to shape contemporary practices, while interdisciplinary perspectives both enrich and fragment theoretical understanding.

Institutional innovations demonstrate sophisticated approaches to structural integration, faculty development, and industry engagement, though commercialization pressures and scope limitations constrain full potential realization. Effectiveness research indicates positive outcomes across multiple dimensions while highlighting measurement challenges and the need for comprehensive evaluation frameworks.

The identified gaps necessitate integrated approaches that address historical tensions, disciplinary fragmentation, institutional challenges, and effectiveness measurement limitations simultaneously. This study's cognitive simulation modeling approach offers a novel framework for addressing these complex interactions while providing practical guidance for optimization strategies.

The subsequent methodology section details how cognitive simulation modeling can address these literature gaps while providing actionable insights for improving PBL implementation across diverse institutional and cultural contexts.

3 Methodology

This study employs a mixed-methods approach combining retrospective comparative analysis with cognitive simulation modeling to examine project-based learning (PBL) implementation and effectiveness across institutional and regional contexts. The methodology integrates qualitative historical analysis, quantitative institutional data, and systems modeling to address the complex, multi-level nature of PBL impacts on educational outcomes and regional development.

3.1 Research design and philosophical foundation

The research adopts a pragmatic paradigm that combines interpretive analysis of historical and institutional contexts with positivist modeling of systemic relationships (Gorelova et al., 2006). This approach recognizes that educational phenomena operate within complex adaptive systems where traditional linear analysis proves insufficient for capturing dynamic interactions between pedagogical processes, institutional structures, and socio-economic outcomes.

The study's epistemological foundation draws from systems theory and complexity science, acknowledging that PBL effectiveness emerges from interactions among multiple variables rather than from isolated factors (Gorelova et al., 2006). This perspective necessitates analytical approaches capable of modeling non-linear relationships, feedback loops, and emergent properties characteristic of educational systems.

3.2 Sample selection and justification

3.2.1 Institutional sample

The study examines six leading Russian universities selected for their pioneering PBL implementations and diverse institutional characteristics. The purposive sampling strategy ensures representation across institutional types, geographic regions, and implementation approaches while maintaining focus on institutions with sufficient PBL experience for meaningful analysis.

Higher School of Economics (HSE) represents comprehensive university-wide PBL integration with sophisticated structural mechanisms and extensive industry partnerships. HSE's leadership in institutionalizing PBL across multiple disciplines provides insights into scaling challenges and success factors (Evstratova et al., 2018).

Southern Federal University (SFedU) exemplifies regional university engagement with interdisciplinary industry projects, particularly through its online project portal and seed funding programs. SFedU's focus on regional economic development illustrates PBL's potential for addressing local socio-economic challenges.

Moscow Polytechnic University demonstrates excellence in faculty development initiatives, particularly through Agile/Scrum certification programs that achieved 92% competency improvement over 2 years. This institution provides insights into effective teacher training mechanisms essential for PBL success (Evstratova et al., 2018).

Far Eastern Federal University (FEFU) represents geographically peripheral institutions adapting PBL to regional development needs, particularly in the context of Far East economic initiatives. FEFU's experience illuminates implementation challenges in resource-constrained environments.

Ural Federal University (UrFU) and Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod (UNN) provide additional perspectives on industry-academia collaboration models and regional adaptation strategies, completing the institutional diversity necessary for comprehensive analysis.

3.2.2 Temporal scope

The historical analysis encompasses PBL evolution from fifteenth-century origins through contemporary implementations, providing comprehensive context for understanding current challenges and opportunities. The institutional analysis focuses on the period 2015–2024, capturing recent innovations while ensuring data availability and relevance.

The cognitive modeling component utilizes current institutional data while projecting scenarios across 6–10 cycle periods to capture both immediate and medium-term impacts of PBL interventions.

3.3 Data collection methods

3.3.1 Primary data sources

Expert Judgments: Structured interviews and questionnaires with over 120 practitioners across the six case universities provided essential input for defining cognitive map vertices and relationships. Expert selection employed snowball sampling beginning with senior administrators responsible for PBL implementation, extending to faculty members with extensive project supervision experience and industry partners engaged in university collaboration.

The expert consultation process followed established protocols for cognitive modeling research (Gorelova et al., 2006), including multiple rounds of validation to ensure consensus on key relationships and parameter estimates. Experts provided both qualitative insights regarding PBL implementation challenges and quantitative assessments of relationship strengths between system variables.

Institutional Documentation: Comprehensive collection of policy documents, project reports, assessment data, and promotional materials from each case university provided objective indicators of implementation approaches, outcomes, and institutional commitments to PBL (Chen et al., 2020).

Project Output Analysis: Systematic examination of student project deliverables, including prototypes, business plans, research reports, and creative works, provided empirical evidence of learning outcomes and quality indicators across different project types and institutional contexts (Guo et al., 2020).

3.3.2 Secondary data sources

Statistical Indicators: Regional socio-economic metrics including human capital indices, innovation outputs, employment data, and economic development indicators were obtained from official statistical agencies and research institutions. These data validate the quantitative aspects of cognitive models linking PBL to regional development outcomes (Gorelova et al., 2006).

Literature Synthesis: Comprehensive review of historical sources, pedagogical research, and institutional studies provided comparative baseline data for gap analysis and theoretical framework development. This synthesis encompasses international literature to contextualize Russian experiences within global PBL development patterns (Guo et al., 2020; Shukshunov and Ovsyannikov, 1998).

Archival Research: Historical documents, educational policy archives, and institutional records provided essential context for understanding PBL evolution and cultural adaptation processes across different educational systems and time periods (Barak and Yuan, 2021).

3.4 Cognitive simulation modeling approach

3.4.1 Theoretical foundation

Cognitive modeling represents a specialized approach to analyzing complex, weakly-structured systems where traditional statistical methods prove insufficient due to incomplete data, non-linear relationships, and emergent properties (Gorelova et al., 2006). This methodology enables integration of qualitative expert knowledge with quantitative data to model cause-effect relationships in socio-economic systems.

The approach draws from graph theory, systems dynamics, and complexity science to represent system structure through signed directed graphs where vertices represent system variables and edges represent causal relationships (Gorelova and Pankratova, 2018). This representation enables analysis of system stability, identification of critical pathways, and scenario testing under different intervention conditions.

3.4.2 Model development process

The cognitive modeling process follows established protocols developed by Gorelova et al. (2011) and implemented through the CMCS (Cognitive Modeling of Complex Systems) software package (State Registration No. 2018661506).

Stage 1: Conceptual Model Development

The initial stage involves defining system boundaries, identifying key variables (vertices), and establishing causal relationships (edges) based on literature review, expert judgment, and empirical evidence. The process employs structured workshops with domain experts to achieve consensus on model structure and parameters.

Stage 2: Formal Model Specification

The conceptual model is formalized as a signed directed graph in Equation 2.

Stage 3: Structural Analysis

Structural analysis examines system stability through identification of feedback loops and analysis of cycle structure. System stability requires an odd number of negative cycles, with the ratio of positive to negative cycles indicating system resilience and adaptability (Gorelova et al., 2006).

Path analysis identifies critical causal chains linking intervention points to desired outcomes, enabling optimization of intervention strategies. The analysis reveals both direct effects and indirect effects propagating through multiple causal pathways.

Stage 4: Dynamic Simulation

Dynamic behavior is modeled through impulse processes using the differential equation system in Equation 3.

3.4.3 Model architecture

The cognitive model employs a hierarchical two-level structure reflecting the multi-scale nature of PBL impacts (Salari et al., 2018; Brady and Cronin, 2001):

Upper Level (Regional System): Variables V₁–V₁₃ represent regional-scale factors including technological sovereignty (V₁), human capital quality (V₂), regional sustainability (V₃), economic state (V₄), and regional risks (V₁₃).

Lower Level (Educational Institution): Variables V₁₄–V₂₉ represent institutional-scale factors including socio-economic effects (V₁₄), student engagement (V₁₇), teacher competence (V₁₉), PBL technologies (V₂₅), grant support (V₂₄), and PBL risks (V₂₈).

Cross-level interactions E1,2 represent the mechanisms through which institutional PBL implementations influence regional development outcomes, capturing the multi-scale nature of educational impacts.

3.4.4 Critical pathways and relationships

The model identifies several critical pathways linking PBL interventions to desired outcomes:

Human Capital Development Pathway: V₂₅ (PBL Methods) → V₁₇ (Student Engagement) → V₁₁ (Education Status) → V₂ (Human Capital) → V₃ (Regional Sustainability)

Risk Mitigation Pathway: V₂₄ (Grant Support) ↔ V₂₈ (PBL Risks) [inverse relationship, r = −0.87]

Innovation Pathway: V₂₅ (PBL Methods) → V₁₉ (Teacher Competence) → V₁₆ (Research Activity) → V₁ (Technological Sovereignty)

These pathways represent hypothesized mechanisms through which PBL implementation generates broader socio-economic impacts, providing testable propositions for scenario analysis.

3.5 Scenario testing and analysis

3.5.1 Scenario design

Scenario testing examines system responses to various intervention combinations, enabling evaluation of policy alternatives and optimization strategies. Scenarios are designed based on realistic intervention possibilities identified through institutional analysis and expert consultation (Gillis et al., 2021).

Scenario #1 (Enhanced PBL Investment): Simultaneous increases in PBL methods (g25 = +1), grant support (g24 = +1), teacher training (g21 = +1), and economic investment (g4 = +1). This scenario tests the hypothesis that coordinated investment in PBL infrastructure generates synergistic effects on regional development.

Scenario #2 (Commercial Focus): Emphasis on industry partnerships (g27 = +1) and economic outcomes (g4 = +1) while maintaining current levels of pedagogical support. This scenario examines the effects of prioritizing commercial outcomes over educational objectives.

Scenario #3 (Pedagogical Focus): Enhanced teacher training (g21 = +1) and student support (g17 = +1) with limited commercial emphasis. This scenario tests the effectiveness of education-centered approaches to PBL implementation.

Additional scenarios examine combinations of these factors, sensitivity to parameter variations, and robustness under different assumption sets.

3.5.2 Output indicators and analysis

Primary output indicators include:

Regional Development Outcomes: Changes in technological sovereignty (V1), human capital (V2), and regional sustainability (V3) over six-cycle simulation periods.

Educational Effectiveness: Student engagement (V17), learning outcomes, and competency development measures derived from institutional data and expert assessments.

Risk Indicators: Regional risks (V13) and PBL implementation risks (V28) provide measures of intervention sustainability and potential negative consequences.

System Stability: Convergence behavior, oscillation patterns, and steady-state characteristics indicate model reliability and intervention feasibility.

3.6 Validation and reliability

3.6.1 Model validation

Model validation employs multiple approaches to ensure reliability and accuracy:

Expert Validation: Iterative review with domain experts to verify model structure, parameter estimates, and scenario realism. This process includes formal validation workshops and structured feedback collection.

Historical Validation: Comparison of model predictions with known historical outcomes where data permits, particularly regarding institutional development patterns and regional impact indicators.

Cross-Case Validation: Comparison of model predictions across different institutional contexts to assess generalizability and identify context-specific factors.

Sensitivity Analysis: Systematic testing of model responses to parameter variations, ensuring robustness under different assumption sets and uncertainty conditions.

3.6.2 Reliability measures

Reliability is assessed through multiple indicators:

Internal Consistency: Correlation analysis among related variables and logical consistency of predicted relationships.

Stability Analysis: Examination of model behavior under repeated simulations with slight parameter variations.

Convergence Testing: Analysis of scenario outcomes across different starting conditions and parameter sets.

3.7 Ethical considerations and limitations

3.7.1 Ethical considerations

The research adheres to established ethical standards for educational research, including informed consent for expert participation, confidentiality protection for institutional data, and responsible reporting of findings that may influence policy decisions.

Particular attention is given to avoiding institutional identification in potentially critical findings while maintaining sufficient detail for analytical purposes. Expert participants were informed of research objectives and publication intentions prior to data collection.

3.8 Research hypotheses

3.8.1 Primary hypothesis

The study tests the central hypothesis that PBL-trained specialists enhance regional human capital quality, thereby enabling sustainable regional development and technological sovereignty. This hypothesis is operationalized through the causal pathway V₂₅ → V₁₇ → V₂ → V₃ in the cognitive model, with quantitative testing through scenario analysis.

3.8.2 Supporting hypotheses

H1: Institutional support mechanisms reduce PBL implementation risks. This hypothesis examines the inverse relationship between grant support (V24) and PBL risks (V28), tested through correlation analysis and scenario modeling.

H2: Customer-centric PBL approaches outperform customer-focused models in developing critical thinking capabilities. This hypothesis is tested through comparative analysis of institutional approaches and outcomes measurement.

H3: Multi-level investment in PBL infrastructure generates synergistic effects exceeding the sum of individual interventions. This hypothesis is examined through scenario comparison and interaction analysis.

3.9 Data analysis procedures

Data analysis follows a sequential mixed-methods approach:

Phase 1: Qualitative analysis of historical and institutional data using thematic coding and comparative analysis techniques to identify patterns, challenges, and success factors.

Phase 2: Quantitative analysis of institutional outcomes and regional indicators using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and trend identification.

Phase 3: Cognitive model development and validation using expert input, statistical validation, and sensitivity testing procedures.

Phase 4: Scenario simulation and outcome analysis using dynamic modeling techniques and comparative evaluation across intervention alternatives.

Phase 5: Integration and synthesis of findings across analytical approaches, with triangulation to enhance validity and reliability of conclusions.

The analysis employs specialized software including CMCS for cognitive modeling, SPSS for statistical analysis, and qualitative analysis software for thematic coding and pattern identification.

This comprehensive methodological approach enables systematic investigation of PBL effectiveness while addressing the complex, multi-level nature of educational impacts on individual, institutional, and regional outcomes.

3.10 Equation specification

a. Cognitive map structure (Equations 1, 2; Gorelova, 2022)

$\begin{array}{ll}G=\left[V,E\right]& (1)\end{array}$

V = {Vi} 29 vertices (e.g., V₂₅ = PBL methods).

E = {eij}: Signed arcs (e.g., e25,17 = +1e25,17 = +1).

This is the framework for cause-effect representation (Figure 1).

$\begin{array}{ll}{R}_G={\left[a_{ij}\right]}_{k*k}& (2)\end{array}$

Figure 1

Figure 1. Cognitive map of the IG “regional development, project-based learning,” in the author's interpretation.

Adjacency matrix encoding arc weights/directions which enables matrix-based path/cycle analysis (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Figure 2. An example of a negative path from vertex V₂₅ to vertex V₃, in the author's interpretation.

b. Impulse modeling

Dynamical system:

$\begin{array}{ll}{x}_i(t+1)=x_i(t)+{\sum }_{{j\in I}_i}{a}_{ij}(x_{ij}(t)-x_j(t-1))+g_i(t)& (3)\end{array}$

x_i: Value of vertex V_i at time t.

gi(t): Disturbance impulse (e.g., g₂₅ = +1).

Equation 3 simulates cascading impacts of PBL interventions (Scenario #1; Table 7).

c. Stability analysis

Criterion: System stability if odd number of negative cycles (91 confirmed).

Justification: Explains resilience of “Teacher-Learner” and regional systems (Gorelova, 2022).

4 Findings

This section presents the empirical results from the retrospective comparative analysis and cognitive simulation modeling of project-based learning (PBL) implementation across the six case universities. The findings are organized thematically to address the research questions and hypotheses, providing evidence for the effectiveness of different implementation approaches and their impacts on regional development outcomes.

4.1 Institutional implementation mechanisms and project typologies

4.1.1 Structural integration approaches

Analysis of the six case universities presented in Table 4 reveals distinct approaches to institutional PBL integration, each reflecting different priorities and resource constraints. The Higher School of Economics (HSE) demonstrates the most comprehensive integration model, implementing PBL across all degree programs with dedicated administrative support structures (Evstratova et al., 2018). This university-wide approach contrasts with more selective implementations at institutions like Ural Federal University (UrFU) and Southern Federal University (SFedU), which focus PBL integration within specific specialties and departments.

Table 4

Table 4. Project classification by leading activity.

Moscow Polytechnic University exemplifies the faculty development approach, creating separate PBL oversight divisions and implementing systematic training programs that achieved 92% competency improvement over 2 years (Evstratova et al., 2018). This emphasis on human resource development appears critical for sustained implementation success, as evidenced by higher project completion rates and improved student satisfaction scores compared to institutions with limited faculty preparation (see Table 5).

Table 5

Table 5. Project classification by product results.

4.1.2 University-business integration models

The analysis in Figure 3 reveals sophisticated integration mechanisms between universities and industry partners that extend beyond traditional consultation relationships.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Integration of the traditional model of interaction between the university and business and students' project work, compiled by the authors based on the source: Evstratova et al. (2018, p. 57).

Figure 3, illustrates the hybrid framework developed by leading institutions, combining linear industry consultation with cyclical PBL collaboration.

The Higher School of Economics' “Project Fair” portal represents the most successful implementation of this model, generating over 120 industry adoptions annually through systematic matching of student teams with corporate challenges. This platform demonstrates how digital infrastructure can facilitate authentic industry engagement while maintaining educational objectives and quality standards. Southern Federal University's approach emphasizes regional development through interdisciplinary laboratories combining economics and information technology expertise. These laboratories have produced regional infrastructure optimization models that demonstrate PBL's capacity to address complex, multi-stakeholder challenges while providing students with authentic learning experiences.

4.1.3 Assessment and evaluation innovations

Universities have developed diverse approaches to assessing PBL outcomes, moving beyond traditional examination-based evaluation toward competency-based assessment through project deliverables and portfolio evaluation as presented in Figure 4. HSE and Far Eastern Federal University (FEFU) have replaced conventional exams with European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) credits for project outputs, requiring substantial faculty retraining and institutional policy development.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Cognitive map G “teacher—learned” (Gorelova et al., 2006).

The effectiveness of these assessment innovations varies significantly across institutions, with more comprehensive implementations showing higher student satisfaction and employer recognition. Moscow Polytechnic University's systematic approach to faculty certification in assessment methodologies correlates with more consistent evaluation standards and improved student learning outcomes.

4.2 Cognitive modeling results and system analysis

4.2.1 Structural analysis of the teacher-learner system

The cognitive modeling analysis in Figure 4, reveals important structural characteristics of the teacher-learner system that influence PBL effectiveness. The system demonstrates stability through 91 negative cycles that function as stabilizers and 1,073 positive cycles that serve as signal amplifiers (Gorelova et al., 2011). This balance between stabilizing and amplifying forces provides essential system resilience while enabling responsiveness to interventions.

The structural analysis confirms that the teacher-learner system exhibits characteristics of complex adaptive systems, with multiple feedback loops and emergent properties that cannot be predicted from individual component analysis (see Figures 1, 2). This finding validates the cognitive modeling approach as appropriate for understanding PBL dynamics and supports the study's systems-oriented theoretical framework.

4.2.2 Regional development cognitive map analysis

The regional development cognitive map in Figure 1 encompasses 29 vertices representing key variables across institutional and regional levels, with critical pathways linking PBL interventions to broader socio-economic outcomes. Tables 6A, 6B presents the complete vertex structure and classification system employed in the model.

Table 6A

Table 6A. Vertices of the cognitive map “regional development, project-based learning.”

Table 6B

Table 6B. Vertices of the cognitive map “regional development, project-based learning.”

4.2.3 Critical pathway analysis

The cognitive model identifies several critical pathways linking PBL interventions to desired outcomes. The primary pathway connecting PBL methods to regional sustainability follows the sequence: V₂₅ (PBL Methods) → V₁₇ (Student Engagement) → V₁₁ (Education Status) → V₂ (Human Capital) → V₃ (Regional Sustainability). This five-step causal chain demonstrates how institutional-level educational interventions can generate regional-scale impacts through human capital enhancement in Figure 2.

A significant negative pathway emerges through the sequence V₂₅ → V₁₀ (Educational Requirements) → V₂₈ (PBL Risks) → V₃ (Regional Sustainability), indicating that poorly aligned PBL implementations can increase regional instability. This finding emphasizes the importance of careful implementation planning and stakeholder alignment to avoid unintended negative consequences.

Conversely in Figure 5, positive feedback cycles enhance system performance through reinforcing mechanisms. The pathway V₂₅ → V₁₉ (Teacher Competence) → V₁₇ (Student Engagement) → V₂₅ creates a self-reinforcing loop where improved PBL methods enhance teacher competence, which increases student engagement, thereby further improving PBL implementation quality.

Figure 5

Figure 5. An example of one of the positive cycles, in the author's interpretation.

4.3 Scenario testing results

4.3.1 Enhanced PBL investment scenario (scenario #1)

Scenario #1 tests the effects of coordinated investment in PBL infrastructure through simultaneous increases in PBL methods (g₂₅ = +1), grant support (g₂₄ = +1), teacher training (g₂₁ = +1), and regional economic investment (g₄ = +1). The results demonstrate substantial positive impacts across multiple system dimensions over six simulation cycles as presented in Table 7.

Table 7

Table 7. Computational experiment results—enhanced PBL investment scenario.

The results in Table 7 indicate dramatic improvements in human capital (V₂) with a 2,100% increase by Cycle 6, primarily driven through the pathway linking enhanced PBL methods to increased student engagement. Technological sovereignty (V₁) demonstrates a 1,500% improvement, suggesting that PBL-trained specialists significantly enhance regional innovation capacity and technical self-reliance.

Risk reduction outcomes prove equally impressive, with regional risks (V₁₃) decreasing by 800% and PBL-specific risks (V₂₈) declining by 500%. These findings suggest that coordinated investment in PBL infrastructure not only generates positive outcomes but also mitigates potential negative consequences associated with implementation challenges.

4.3.2 Temporal dynamics and delayed effects

The temporal analysis in Figure 6, reveals important insights regarding the timing of PBL impacts. Cycles 1–3 demonstrate relatively modest changes, representing what can be characterized as a knowledge transfer and capacity building phase. Dramatic acceleration occurs during Cycles 4–6, indicating an innovation implementation phase where accumulated capabilities translate into measurable outcomes.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Graphs of impulse processes, Scenario No. 1, in the author's interpretation.

This temporal pattern suggests that PBL investments require sustained commitment over multiple years before generating substantial returns. The delayed effect pattern has important implications for policy planning and institutional strategic development, indicating that premature evaluation of PBL programs may underestimate their ultimate potential.

4.3.3 System stability and convergence analysis

The graphical analysis in Figures 7A, B confirms system stability and convergence toward positive outcomes under the enhanced investment scenario. The stack diagram demonstrates the relative contributions of different variables to overall system performance, while the histogram reveals the distribution of positive vs. negative effects across the system.

Figure 7

Figure 7. (A) Stack and histogram of processes at the 6th cycle of simulation, Scenario No. 1, in the author's interpretation. Red, Technical Practices; Orange, Human Capital; Yellow, Economic State; Green, Labor Market; Teal, Transport; Blue, Student Aspects; Purple, Project Learning; Dark Orange, Tech Sovereignty; Dark Gray, Development Efficiency; Dark Purple, Education System; Dark Teal, Infrastructure; Dark Green, Finance; Dark Blue, Educational IT. (B) Stack and histogram of processes at the 6th cycle of simulation, Scenario No. 1, in the author's interpretation. Red, Technical Practices; Orange, Human Capital; Blue, Economic State; Purple, Labor Market; Teal, Transport; Dark Orange, Student Aspects; Green, Project Learning; Yellow, Tech Sovereignty; Dark Purple, Development Efficiency; Dark Green, Education System; Dark Teal, Infrastructure; Dark Blue, Finance; Gray, Educational IT.

The dominance of positive outcomes by Cycle 6 validates the model's prediction that coordinated PBL investment generates net benefits that outweigh implementation costs and risks. This finding provides empirical support for the study's primary hypothesis regarding PBL's capacity to enhance regional development through human capital improvement.

4.4 Comparative analysis of implementation approaches

4.4.1 Commercial vs. pedagogical orientation

The findings reveals significant tensions between commercially-oriented and pedagogically-centered approaches to PBL implementation. Current data indicate that 78% of projects across the case universities prioritize profitability over competency development, raising concerns about educational mission drift (Bukrina et al., 2023; Research Ed Market, 2022).

Institutions emphasizing commercial outcomes, such as certain programs at Southern Federal University focused on government consulting projects, demonstrate higher short-term revenue generation but show weaker performance on critical thinking development and ethical reasoning capabilities. These programs produce graduates with enhanced technical skills but limited capacity for independent analysis and innovation.

Conversely, programs maintaining stronger pedagogical focus, exemplified by selective HSE initiatives and Moscow Polytechnic's faculty development programs, generate lower immediate commercial returns but demonstrate superior outcomes in student motivation, critical thinking capabilities, and long-term career adaptability.

4.4.2 Customer focus vs. customer centricity analysis

The distinction between customer focus and customer centricity emerges as critical for understanding PBL effectiveness. Customer-focused approaches, which adjust educational content to immediate market demands, characterize approximately 80% of current implementations across the case universities (Gulakova, 2021).

Customer-centric models, which empower students as autonomous decision-makers and co-creators of educational value, remain limited to approximately 20% of programs but demonstrate significantly superior outcomes. Research indicates that customer-centric approaches correlate with 3.2 times higher critical thinking scores compared to customer-focused implementations (Boldina, 2023; Peña et al., 2024).

This finding validates the study's second hypothesis regarding the superior effectiveness of customer-centric approaches and suggests substantial opportunities for improvement through paradigm reorientation across the higher education sector.

4.4.3 Institutional success factors

The comparative analysis identifies several factors consistently associated with successful PBL implementation across the case universities. Teacher training initiatives emerge as particularly critical, with Moscow Polytechnic University's systematic Agile/Scrum certification program serving as an exemplar that other institutions are beginning to replicate.

Grant support systems demonstrate strong correlation with positive outcomes, as evidenced by Southern Federal University's seed funding programs that generated threefold increases in commercialized student startups. The cognitive modeling confirms this relationship through the strong inverse correlation (r = −0.87) between grant support (V₂₄) and PBL risks (V₂₈).

Industry-academia partnership quality proves more important than quantity, with HSE's selective “Project Fair” approach generating higher-quality outcomes than institutions with broader but less systematically managed industry relationships. This finding suggests that strategic partnership development may be more effective than comprehensive industry engagement.

4.5 Hypothesis testing results

4.5.1 Primary hypothesis validation

The study's primary hypothesis—that PBL-trained specialists enhance regional human capital quality, thereby enabling sustainable regional development and technological sovereignty—receives strong empirical support from the cognitive modeling results. Scenario #1 demonstrates that 89% of tested scenarios show V₂ (Human Capital) → V₃ (Regional Sustainability) amplification effects, with 262 distinct causal paths linking PBL interventions to regional growth outcomes.

The pathway analysis confirms the hypothesized mechanism: enhanced PBL methods increase student engagement, which improves education status and intelligence indicators, leading to human capital quality improvements that ultimately enhance regional sustainability and technological sovereignty. This finding provides empirical validation for theories linking educational investment to regional economic development.

4.5.2 Supporting hypothesis results

Hypothesis H1 (Institutional support mechanisms reduce PBL implementation risks) receives strong confirmation through the scenario analysis. Grant support (V₂₄) demonstrates consistent inverse correlation with PBL risks (V₂₈), with risk reduction ranging from 37% to 52% across different scenario configurations. This finding validates institutional investment in support infrastructure as an effective risk mitigation strategy.

Hypothesis H2 (Customer-centric approaches outperform customer-focused models) is supported through comparative analysis showing 3.2 times higher critical thinking development in customer-centric implementations. However, the limited prevalence of customer-centric approaches (less than 20% of programs) constrains the generalizability of this finding and suggests substantial implementation challenges.

Hypothesis H3 (Multi-level investment generates synergistic effects) receives partial support through the scenario analysis. Enhanced PBL investment scenarios demonstrate non-linear improvement patterns that exceed additive effects of individual interventions. However, the magnitude of synergistic effects varies significantly depending on implementation context and timing factors.

4.6 Challenges and implementation barriers

4.6.1 Systematic implementation challenges

Despite positive outcomes in optimal scenarios, the analysis reveals persistent challenges that limit PBL effectiveness across the case universities. Only 22% of programs successfully balance commercial and pedagogical objectives, indicating that most implementations face significant tensions between market pressures and educational goals (Pevnaya et al., 2024).

Regional disparities emerge as another significant challenge, with UrFU branch programs demonstrating 37% lower effectiveness compared to HSE implementations. This disparity appears related to weaker industry databases (V₂₇) and limited access to grant support mechanisms, suggesting that geographic and resource constraints significantly influence PBL outcomes.

4.6.2 Digital literacy and contemporary skill gaps

The analysis reveals that less than 15% of PBL programs adequately address digital literacy development, particularly regarding resistance to manipulative marketing and critical evaluation of digital information sources (Valdman et al., 2024). This gap represents a significant limitation given contemporary students' exposure to digital manipulation and the importance of critical digital citizenship for democratic participation.

Traditional PBL forms, represented in the cognitive model through sub-vertices V₂₅₁–V₂₅₄ (student teams, group PBL, distance learning, and Olympiads), show minimal growth across scenarios, suggesting that established approaches require substantial redesign to address contemporary challenges and opportunities.

4.7 Best practices and innovation examples

4.7.1 Institutional innovation examples

Several case universities demonstrate innovative approaches that provide models for broader implementation. HSE's “Project Fair” portal represents a sophisticated matching system that has facilitated over 120 commercialized projects annually while maintaining educational quality standards. The platform's success stems from systematic project screening, mentor training, and outcome tracking that ensures both commercial viability and educational value.

Southern Federal University's interdisciplinary laboratories combining economics and information technology expertise illustrate effective approaches to complex, multi-stakeholder challenges. These laboratories have produced regional infrastructure optimization models that demonstrate PBL's capacity to address authentic policy challenges while providing students with meaningful learning experiences.

Moscow Polytechnic University's faculty certification programs provide a replicable model for systematic teacher development in PBL methodologies. The program's 92% competency improvement outcome over 2 years demonstrates that systematic faculty investment generates measurable returns in implementation quality and student satisfaction.

4.7.2 Regional impact examples

The analysis identifies several examples of measurable regional impacts from PBL implementations. UrFU-Nizhny Tagil's industry co-funded metallurgy projects generated three patented smelting technologies between 2022 and 2024, demonstrating direct contributions to regional technological capacity and industrial competitiveness.

SFedU's regional development initiatives contributed to infrastructure optimization models that influenced government policy decisions regarding Far East development priorities. These examples illustrate PBL's potential for generating impacts beyond individual student learning to encompass broader regional development outcomes.

The findings presented in this section provide comprehensive evidence regarding PBL implementation effectiveness, challenges, and optimization opportunities. The results support the study's primary hypotheses while revealing important nuances regarding implementation context, temporal dynamics, and success factors that inform the subsequent discussion and recommendations.

5 Discussion

The findings from this comprehensive analysis of project-based learning implementation across Russian universities reveal both significant opportunities and persistent challenges that have implications for educational theory, institutional practice, and regional development policy. This discussion synthesizes key insights, addresses their theoretical and practical significance, and examines the broader implications for higher education reform.

5.1 Theoretical implications and paradigmatic tensions

5.1.1 Validation of systems thinking in educational research

The cognitive modeling results provide empirical validation for systems theory approaches to educational research, demonstrating that PBL effectiveness emerges from complex interactions among institutional, pedagogical, and socio-economic factors rather than from isolated interventions (Gorelova et al., 2006). The identification of 262 causal paths linking PBL to regional development outcomes illustrates the multi-level, interconnected nature of educational impacts that traditional linear analysis fails to capture.

The finding that human capital improvements (V₂) increased by 2,100% in coordinated investment scenarios supports human capital theory's predictions about education's role in economic development (Lider et al., 2021). However, the delayed effect pattern—with minimal changes during Cycles 1–3 followed by exponential growth in Cycles 4–6—suggests that human capital formation requires sustained investment over multiple years before generating measurable returns. This temporal dynamic has important implications for educational policy evaluation and funding decisions.

5.1.2 Resolution of commercial-pedagogical tensions

The research reveals fundamental tensions between commercial utility and pedagogical integrity that reflect broader challenges facing contemporary higher education systems. The finding that 78% of current PBL projects prioritize profitability over competency development validates concerns raised by educational philosophers regarding the commodification of higher education (Bukrina et al., 2023; Pevnaya et al., 2024).

However, the cognitive modeling results suggest that this tension may be false dichotomy. Scenario analysis demonstrates that customer-centric approaches—which empower students as autonomous decision-makers—achieve both superior critical thinking outcomes (3.2 times higher scores) and sustainable commercial viability through enhanced innovation capacity (Boldina, 2023; Peña et al., 2024). This finding suggests that the resolution lies not in choosing between commercial and pedagogical goals but in redefining commercial success to align with deeper educational objectives.

5.1.3 Cultural and historical context in educational innovation

The comparative analysis confirms that historical and cultural factors continue to shape contemporary PBL implementation approaches, validating cultural-historical activity theory's emphasis on contextual influences in educational development (Kazun and Pastukhova, 2018). The persistence of collective-oriented approaches in Russian institutions vs. individualized models in Western implementations reflects deeper philosophical differences regarding education's social role and individual agency.

These cultural variations suggest that successful PBL implementation requires careful adaptation to local contexts rather than universal standardization. The finding that Russian institutions excel in systemic integration while Western models emphasize individual autonomy indicates opportunities for cross-cultural learning and hybrid model development that combines the strengths of different traditions.

5.2 Institutional strategy and implementation insights

5.2.1 Critical success factors for scaled implementation

The analysis identifies teacher training as the most critical factor for successful PBL implementation, with Moscow Polytechnic University's systematic approach achieving 92% competency improvement over 2 years (Evstratova et al., 2018) his finding contradicts assumptions that technological infrastructure or industry partnerships represent the primary implementation barriers. Instead, human resource development emerges as the fundamental prerequisite for sustained PBL effectiveness.

The strong inverse correlation (r = −0.87) between grant support (V₂₄) and PBL risks (V₂₈) demonstrates that institutional financial commitment significantly influences implementation success. However, the research reveals that grant effectiveness depends on strategic alignment with pedagogical objectives rather than simply funding magnitude. Southern Federal University's seed funding programs succeeded because they supported both commercial viability and educational value creation, while less successful programs emphasized only commercial outcomes.

5.2.2 Organizational structure and governance models

The comparative analysis reveals that successful PBL implementation requires sophisticated organizational innovations that extend beyond traditional academic department structures. HSE's university-wide integration model demonstrates the importance of dedicated administrative support systems, while SFedU's interdisciplinary laboratories illustrate effective approaches to cross-disciplinary collaboration challenges.

The finding that only 22% of programs successfully balance commercial and pedagogical objectives suggests that current governance models inadequately address the complex stakeholder relationships inherent in authentic PBL implementations (Pevnaya et al., 2024). This governance challenge requires new frameworks that integrate academic quality assurance with industry partnership management and student development support.

5.2.3 Assessment and quality assurance implications

The shift from examination-based to competency-based assessment represents a fundamental challenge for institutional quality assurance systems. The research indicates that institutions implementing comprehensive assessment innovations, such as HSE's ECTS credit system for project outputs, demonstrate higher student satisfaction and employer recognition compared to institutions maintaining traditional evaluation approaches.

However, the analysis also reveals significant variation in assessment quality and consistency across institutions, suggesting that competency-based evaluation requires more systematic faculty development and standardization efforts than initially anticipated. The finding that assessment innovation correlates with improved learning outcomes validates educational measurement theory while highlighting implementation complexity.

5.3 Regional development and policy implications

5.3.1 PBL as regional innovation system component

The cognitive modeling results provide empirical evidence for PBL's role in regional innovation systems, with technological sovereignty (V₁) improving by 1,500% in coordinated investment scenarios. This finding supports innovation system theory's emphasis on human capital and institutional capacity as drivers of regional competitiveness (Gusev et al., 2024). However, the research also reveals that PBL's regional impact depends on systematic coordination between educational institutions, industry partners, and government agencies.

The identification of negative pathways—where poorly implemented PBL increases regional risks—illustrates that educational interventions can generate unintended consequences without careful planning and stakeholder alignment. This finding has important implications for regional development policy, suggesting that educational investment requires comprehensive systems thinking rather than isolated institutional support.

5.3.2 Human capital development and economic impact

The dramatic human capital improvements demonstrated in scenario modeling (2,100% increase by Cycle 6) support arguments for substantial public investment in PBL infrastructure. However, the delayed effect pattern suggests that regional development benefits require sustained commitment over multiple electoral cycles, creating challenges for political sustainability and policy continuity.

The finding that customer-centric approaches generate superior long-term outcomes compared to customer-focused models has important implications for regional workforce development strategies. Rather than simply aligning education with current industry demands, regions may achieve better long-term competitiveness by developing graduates capable of independent innovation and critical analysis of market needs.

5.5 Practical recommendations and optimization strategies

5.5.1 Institutional implementation guidelines

Based on the research findings, successful PBL implementation requires systematic attention to several critical factors. Institutions should prioritize comprehensive faculty development programs, following Moscow Polytechnic University's systematic certification model that achieved measurable competency improvements. Teacher training should emphasize both pedagogical innovation and industry collaboration skills to address the dual nature of effective PBL implementation.

Grant systems should be designed to balance commercial viability with educational objectives, avoiding the over-commercialization that characterizes 78% of current programs. Southern Federal University's seed funding model provides a replicable framework that supports student innovation while maintaining educational integrity and quality standards.

Industry partnerships require careful management to ensure authentic learning experiences while avoiding the customer-focus trap that limits student autonomy and critical thinking development. HSE's “Project Fair” approach demonstrates how systematic project screening and mentor training can maintain both commercial relevance and educational value.

5.5.2 Policy and regulatory framework development

Regional and national education policies should recognize PBL's potential for economic development while establishing quality assurance frameworks that protect educational objectives. The finding that only 22% of programs successfully balance commercial and pedagogical goals suggests the need for regulatory guidance and institutional accountability mechanisms.

Funding formulas should account for PBL's delayed impact patterns, providing sustained support over multiple years rather than expecting immediate returns on educational investment. The temporal dynamics revealed in scenario analysis suggest that premature evaluation may underestimate program effectiveness and lead to discontinuation of promising initiatives.

Digital literacy integration should be mandated as a core component of PBL programs, addressing the current gap where less than 15% of programs adequately prepare students for critical evaluation of digital information sources (Valdman et al., 2024). This requirement becomes increasingly important given contemporary challenges regarding misinformation and manipulative digital marketing.

5.5.3 Quality assurance and assessment innovation

Institutions should develop comprehensive competency-based assessment frameworks that capture both technical skills and critical thinking capabilities. The finding that customer-centric approaches correlate with superior critical thinking outcomes suggests that assessment should emphasize student autonomy and innovative problem-solving rather than compliance with predetermined solutions.

Assessment innovations should be accompanied by systematic faculty development in evaluation methodologies, addressing the consistency challenges revealed in comparative analysis across institutions. Standardized competency frameworks may be necessary to ensure quality while allowing institutional flexibility in implementation approaches.

6 Conclusion

This comprehensive investigation of project-based learning implementation provides critical insights into the challenges, opportunities, and optimization strategies necessary for effective educational reform in higher education. Through integration of historical analysis, institutional case studies, and cognitive simulation modeling, the research addresses fundamental questions regarding PBL's role in bridging educational objectives with regional development needs.

This study demonstrates cognitive simulation modeling's potential as a research methodology for complex educational phenomena, providing a framework for integrating qualitative expert knowledge with quantitative data analysis (Gorelova et al., 2011). The successful validation of hypotheses through scenario analysis suggests that this approach can address limitations of traditional educational research methods that struggle with multi-level, non-linear relationships.

However, the methodology's complexity and reliance on expert judgment create potential limitations regarding replicability and generalizability. The finding that model predictions align with observed institutional outcomes provides validation, but broader application requires careful adaptation to different cultural and institutional contexts. The combination of retrospective historical analysis with contemporary cognitive modeling provides a comprehensive framework for understanding educational innovation processes. The identification of persistent cultural influences on contemporary implementation approaches validates the importance of historical context in educational research and policy development. This integrated approach reveals patterns that neither historical analysis nor systems modeling alone could capture, suggesting methodological innovations that may have broader applications in educational research. However, the geographic specificity of the case study institutions limits direct generalizability to other national contexts.

The geographic specificity of this study's focus on Russian institutions creates opportunities for comparative research examining PBL implementation across different cultural and educational system contexts. Such research could test the generalizability of identified success factors while revealing cultural adaptations necessary for effective international transfer of best practices. Comparative studies should examine how different cultural values regarding individual autonomy vs. collective responsibility influence PBL effectiveness, building on this study's identification of persistent historical influences on contemporary implementation approaches.

The delayed effect patterns revealed in scenario analysis highlight the need for longitudinal research examining PBL's long-term impacts on graduate career trajectories, innovation capacity, and regional economic development. Such research requires multi-year data collection and sophisticated analytical approaches capable of distinguishing educational effects from other influences on regional development. Longitudinal research should particularly examine the sustainability of customer-centric vs. customer-focused approaches over extended time periods, testing whether superior critical thinking outcomes translate into long-term career success and regional innovation capacity.

Future research should examine how emerging technologies and digital transformation influence PBL implementation and effectiveness. The finding that traditional PBL forms show limited growth in scenario analysis suggests the need for substantial redesign to address contemporary challenges and opportunities. Research should particularly focus on developing frameworks for integrating digital literacy, critical evaluation of online information, and resistance to manipulative marketing into PBL curricula, addressing the gap identified in current program implementations.

The focus on Russian institutional contexts limits the direct applicability of findings to other national and cultural contexts. While the cognitive modeling framework and institutional analysis provide valuable insights, implementation strategies require careful adaptation to different educational systems, regulatory environments, and cultural values. The selection of six case universities, while providing rich detail and diverse perspectives, may not capture the full range of implementation approaches and challenges across the broader higher education landscape. Additional research examining different institutional types and geographic regions would enhance generalizability.

The cognitive modeling approach, while innovative and comprehensive, relies on expert judgment and simplified representations of complex relationships. While validation through institutional outcome comparison provides confidence in model accuracy, real-world implementation involves numerous factors that cannot be fully captured in formal models.

The scenario analysis projects outcomes across six-cycle periods, providing valuable insights for medium-term planning but potentially missing longer-term evolutionary changes in educational systems and regional development patterns. Extended longitudinal research would provide important validation and refinement of model predictions.

Some aspects of PBL implementation and impact remain difficult to quantify precisely, particularly regarding critical thinking development, ethical reasoning, and long-term innovation capacity. While this study provides important advances in measurement approaches, continued methodological development is necessary for comprehensive evaluation of educational interventions. The reliance on institutional self-reporting for some data elements creates potential bias in outcome assessment. Independent validation through employer surveys, graduate tracking, and objective performance measures would strengthen future research in this area.

This discussion illuminates both the significant potential and persistent challenges associated with project-based learning implementation in higher education contexts. The integration of historical analysis, institutional case studies, and cognitive modeling provides a comprehensive framework for understanding PBL effectiveness while identifying specific strategies for optimization and improvement. The findings have important implications for educational theory, institutional practice, and regional development policy, suggesting that successful PBL implementation requires systematic attention to cultural context, stakeholder alignment, and long-term strategic commitment.

6.1 Key research contributions

6.1.1 Theoretical contributions

The study advances educational theory through empirical validation of systems thinking approaches to complex educational phenomena. The identification of 262 causal pathways linking institutional PBL interventions to regional development outcomes demonstrates that educational effectiveness emerges from multi-level interactions rather than isolated factors. This finding supports complexity theory applications in educational research while providing practical frameworks for implementation planning.

The resolution of commercial-pedagogical tensions through customer-centricity paradigms represents a significant theoretical contribution. Rather than viewing market relevance and educational integrity as opposing forces, the research demonstrates that approaches empowering students as autonomous co-creators achieve both superior critical thinking outcomes and sustainable commercial viability. This insight reframes fundamental debates about higher education's purpose and market orientation.

6.1.2 Methodological innovations

Cognitive simulation modeling's successful application to educational research provides a replicable methodological framework for analyzing complex, multi-stakeholder educational interventions. The integration of qualitative expert knowledge with quantitative modeling addresses longstanding limitations of traditional educational research methods that struggle with non-linear, emergent phenomena.

The hierarchical two-level modeling approach demonstrates how institutional-scale interventions generate regional-scale impacts through human capital development mechanisms. This methodological innovation has applications beyond PBL research to broader questions of educational policy effectiveness and regional development strategy.

6.1.3 Empirical evidence and policy insights

The research provides robust empirical evidence supporting substantial public investment in PBL infrastructure, with scenario analysis demonstrating dramatic improvements in human capital (2,100%), technological sovereignty (1,500%), and regional sustainability (1,200%) under coordinated investment conditions. These findings have important implications for educational funding priorities and regional development strategies.

The identification of critical success factors—particularly teacher training effectiveness and grant support mechanisms—provides actionable guidance for institutional leaders and policymakers. The finding that systematic faculty development programs achieve 92% competency improvement over 2 years offers specific benchmarks for implementation planning and resource allocation.

6.2 Practical implications and recommendations

6.2.1 For educational institutions

Universities implementing PBL should prioritize comprehensive faculty development programs that address both pedagogical innovation and industry collaboration skills. The research demonstrates that teacher training represents the most critical factor for implementation success, with systematic approaches achieving measurable improvements in both faculty competency and student outcomes.

Institutional governance structures must evolve to address the complex stakeholder relationships inherent in authentic PBL implementations. Only 22% of current programs successfully balance commercial and pedagogical objectives, suggesting the need for new frameworks that integrate academic quality assurance with industry partnership management and student development support.

Assessment systems should transition from examination-based to competency-based evaluation while maintaining rigorous quality standards. The research indicates that institutions implementing comprehensive assessment innovations demonstrate higher student satisfaction and employer recognition, though implementation requires careful attention to consistency and standardization challenges.

6.2.2 For regional development policy

Regional development strategies should recognize PBL's potential as a component of innovation systems while providing sustained investment over multiple policy cycles. The delayed effect patterns revealed in scenario analysis—with minimal changes during initial years followed by exponential growth—require long-term commitment that extends beyond typical electoral cycles.

Policy frameworks should encourage customer-centric rather than customer-focused approaches to educational-industry collaboration. Rather than simply aligning education with current market demands, regions achieve better long-term competitiveness by developing graduates capable of independent innovation and critical analysis of societal needs.

Digital literacy integration should be mandated as a core component of PBL programs, addressing the current gap where less than 15% of programs adequately prepare students for critical evaluation of digital information sources and resistance to manipulative influences.

6.2.3 For national education policy

National education policies should establish quality assurance frameworks that protect educational objectives while enabling authentic industry collaboration. The finding that 78% of current programs prioritize commercial outcomes over competency development suggests the need for regulatory guidance and accountability mechanisms that ensure balanced implementation.

Funding formulas should account for PBL's temporal dynamics, providing sustained support over multiple years rather than expecting immediate returns on educational investment. Premature evaluation may underestimate program effectiveness and lead to discontinuation of promising initiatives that require extended development periods.

6.3 Limitations and future research directions

6.3.1 Study limitations

The geographic focus on Russian institutional contexts limits direct generalizability to other national and cultural contexts, though the cognitive modeling framework and institutional analysis provide valuable insights for international adaptation. The selection of six case universities, while providing rich detail and diverse perspectives, may not capture the full range of implementation approaches across broader higher education landscapes.

The cognitive modeling approach, while innovative and comprehensive, relies on expert judgment and simplified representations of complex relationships. While validation through institutional outcome comparison provides confidence in model accuracy, real-world implementation involves numerous factors that formal models cannot fully capture.

Temporal constraints limit the analysis to medium-term projections across six-cycle periods, potentially missing longer-term evolutionary changes in educational systems and regional development patterns. Some aspects of PBL impact, particularly critical thinking development and innovation capacity, remain challenging to quantify precisely.

6.3.2 Future research priorities

Cross-cultural comparative research should examine PBL implementation across different educational systems and cultural contexts, testing the generalizability of identified success factors while revealing necessary cultural adaptations. Such research could build on this study's identification of persistent historical influences on contemporary implementation approaches.

Longitudinal research examining PBL's long-term impacts on graduate career trajectories, innovation capacity, and regional economic development would provide important validation of scenario analysis predictions. Multi-year data collection and sophisticated analytical approaches are necessary to distinguish educational effects from other influences on regional development.

Research addressing digital integration and contemporary challenges should focus on developing frameworks for integrating critical digital literacy into PBL curricula. The finding that traditional PBL forms show limited growth suggests substantial redesign needs to address contemporary challenges and opportunities.

Investigation of scaling mechanisms for successful PBL approaches across diverse institutional contexts would provide practical guidance for broader implementation. Research should examine how successful models like HSE's “Project Fair” or Moscow Polytechnic's faculty development programs can be adapted to different resource environments and institutional cultures.

6.4 Concluding reflections

This research contributes to educational theory and practice in several ways. Theoretically, it provides the first comprehensive framework integrating historical, institutional, and systemic perspectives on PBL effectiveness. Methodologically, it demonstrates the application of cognitive simulation modeling to educational research, offering a replicable approach for analyzing complex educational phenomena. Practically, it delivers evidence-based recommendations for universities seeking to optimize PBL implementation while maintaining pedagogical integrity.

The study's regional focus on Russian universities offers valuable insights for educational systems worldwide, particularly those balancing market pressures with broader societal educational objectives. The cognitive modeling framework provides a unifying analytical tool for resolving paradigm conflicts and maximizing PBL's potential for sustainable socio-economic impact.

This research demonstrates that project-based learning represents both a significant opportunity and a complex challenge for higher education reform. The potential for generating substantial improvements in human capital development, regional innovation capacity, and technological sovereignty is clearly evident from scenario analysis and institutional case studies. However, realizing this potential requires sophisticated approaches to implementation that address cultural contexts, stakeholder alignment, and long-term strategic commitment.

The identification of customer-centricity as a resolution to commercial-pedagogical tensions provides an important conceptual framework for educational reform that extends beyond PBL to broader questions of higher education's role in contemporary society. Rather than viewing market relevance and educational integrity as opposing forces, institutions can develop approaches that empower students as autonomous innovators capable of creating both economic value and societal benefit.

The cognitive modeling methodology demonstrated in this research offers a powerful tool for educational policy analysis that could have broad applications in understanding complex educational interventions. The ability to integrate qualitative expert knowledge with quantitative modeling provides a framework for evidence-based policy development that addresses the multi-level, non-linear nature of educational change processes.

6.5 Final recommendations for practice

Educational leaders and policymakers should approach PBL implementation as a comprehensive institutional transformation rather than a discrete curricular innovation. Success requires systematic attention to faculty development, assessment innovation, industry partnership management, and quality assurance frameworks that maintain educational integrity while enabling authentic practical engagement.

The research strongly supports prioritizing teacher training as the foundation for effective PBL implementation, with systematic faculty development programs generating measurable returns in both competency development and student outcomes. Institutions should invest in comprehensive certification programs that address both pedagogical innovation and industry collaboration skills.

Grant support mechanisms should be designed to balance commercial viability with educational objectives, avoiding the over-commercialization that characterizes most current implementations while providing sufficient resources for meaningful project development and student support.

Finally, the temporal dynamics revealed through scenario analysis emphasize the importance of sustained commitment over multiple years, with recognition that educational interventions require extended development periods before generating substantial returns. Premature evaluation and policy discontinuation represent significant risks that can undermine otherwise promising initiatives.

The transformation of higher education through project-based learning requires courage, patience, and systematic commitment to both educational excellence and societal benefit. This research provides evidence that such transformation is not only possible but essential for developing graduates capable of addressing contemporary challenges while creating sustainable prosperity for individuals, institutions, and regions.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

GA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. GG: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. LM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CO: Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used DeepSeek AI solely to check grammatical correctness and language fluency. After using this tool, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed. The author(s) take full responsibility for the integrity, accuracy, and originality of the research presented herein, including all interpretations, data, and conclusions.

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