Karolin Mäe*
Meril Ümarik- School of Educational Sciences, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia
With increasing global migration, multicultural classrooms have become an everyday reality for educators across the Globe. Yet many teachers report feeling unprepared to meet the needs of culturally diverse learners. Teacher multicultural self-efficacy is recognized as a key belief in effective teaching. This study examines the interplay between school culture and teachers’ multicultural self-efficacy from a qualitative perspective. Drawing on in-depth interviews with 20 basic school teachers in Estonia, a country with increased migration, where diversity is a relatively novel aspect in classrooms. Research identifies four distinct teacher profiles that vary in their levels of multicultural self-efficacy, diversity experience, teaching strategies, perceptions of collective efficacy, and experiences of school culture. Findings indicate that a collaborative school culture, characterized by cooperation between teachers and support staff, as well as the whole school’s approach to diversity, supports teachers’ multicultural self-efficacy. Study advances theoretical understandings of how systemic, cultural, and interpersonal dynamics intersect to either support or constrain effective teaching in multicultural classrooms. The article contributes practical insights for cultivating supportive school cultures that enhance teachers’ capacity to meet the needs of diverse learners.
1 Introduction
The world has experienced an increase in migration, driven by globalization, armed conflicts, and climate-induced displacement (ICMPD, 2025). This has impacted school systems, which are serving as a primary point of social integration for migrant children. As schools become multicultural, it is crucial to cultivate inclusive and equitable learning environments where all students can experience success and wellbeing. Despite urgent need, in most Western countries, migrant pupils have a significantly lower level of achievement and wellbeing than their native-born peers (OECD, 2023). Central to addressing these challenges is the preparedness of educators. However, data from TALIS reveals that only 25% of educators feel well-prepared for teaching in multicultural settings (OECD Statistics, 2018).
As teachers feel unprepared to teach culturally diverse learners, we must understand how to cultivate supportive conditions that enable them to adapt to diversity. Self-efficacy is a fundamental belief that influences human adaptation and change (Bandura, 2000). Empirical research has confirmed that teacher self-efficacy affects instructional quality and student achievement (e.g., Guo et al., 2012; Tucker et al., 2005; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2023). Previous research suggests that self-efficacy is fostered by a collaborative school culture (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2007; Wilson et al., 2018). However, little research is available on teacher self-efficacy in culturally diverse contexts (Choi and Lee, 2020). This article contributes to understanding the interplay between teachers’ multicultural self-efficacy and school culture. Different terms have been used in parallel, such as immigration-related self-efficacy (Gutentag et al., 2018), intercultural self-efficacy (Ulbricht et al., 2022) and culturally responsive self-efficacy (Siwatu, 2011). We use multicultural self-efficacy (Guyton and Wesche, 2005), which is defined as a teacher’s perceived ability to use various strategies and activities to influence learners and achieve desired outcomes in a multicultural classroom (Choi and Lee, 2020).
Previous research has shown that teacher self-efficacy varies significantly across national contexts (Schwarzenthal et al., 2023). Estonia offers a particularly compelling case, characterized by a high degree of teacher autonomy, alongside the relatively recent emergence of cultural diversity in schools due to increased migration and the influx of Ukrainian refugees. This combination makes Estonia a valuable case exploring how teachers new to diverse classrooms build up their self-efficacy beliefs and how schools support this process.
Research questions are:
• How do teachers perceive their multicultural self-efficacy?
• How do teachers experience school culture concerning diversity and collaboration?
• What is the interplay between teacher-perceived multicultural self-efficacy and school culture?
Qualitative approach adopted in this study enables an in-depth exploration of teachers’ lived experiences, offering a rich narrative that complements existing quantitative research and provides insights to school systems on how to support teachers’ multicultural self-efficacy.
2 Teacher multicultural self-efficacy and school culture
Self-efficacy is a core belief grounded in social cognitive theory. It is a foundation of human agency, affecting behavior via goals and aspirations, outcome expectations and the perception of impediments and opportunities in the social environment (Bandura, 2012). Self-efficacy beliefs are specific to particular teaching contexts (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). Teaching in culturally diverse classrooms is viewed as a separate domain of self-efficacy (Romijn et al., 2020). The following section provides an overview of the interplay between teachers’ multicultural self-efficacy and school culture.
2.1 Teacher multicultural self-efficacy
Multicultural self-efficacy (TMSE) refers to a teacher’s perception of their capability to employ diverse strategies to positively impact learners and reach desired outcomes in a multicultural classroom. By synthesizing different authors (Romijn et al., 2020; Siwatu, 2011; Guyton and Wesche, 2005), multicultural self-efficacy concept includes following dimensions: (1) teacher’s beliefs about their ability to relate experiences, knowledge and perspectives of students from different cultural backgrounds to teaching and learning; (2) teachers’ beliefs on creating a safe classroom environment, where students cooperate with peers while crossing social categorization lines (e.g., race/ethnicity, language, and nationality), and (3) teacher’s beliefs on raising awareness about diversity.
Teachers with high multicultural self-efficacy make learning more relevant and improve students’ academic self-efficacy (Garcia and Chun, 2016) and achievement (Dee and Penner, 2017). Furthermore, they promote cultural competence and sociopolitical consciousness (Thomsen, 2017).
Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2012) outlines four main influences on self-efficacy: mastery experiences (perceptions of previous experiences), vicarious experiences (success or failure of other teachers, who serve as models), verbal persuasions, and physiological and emotional arousal. Empirical research confirms that professional learning experiences (Geerlings et al., 2018; Romijn et al., 2020) and professional development in multicultural education (Choi and Lee, 2020; Schwarzenthal et al., 2023) equip teachers with multicultural self-efficacy. Furthermore, studies have revealed a positive relationship between TMSE and attitudes toward sociocultural diversity and inclusive practices (Gutentag et al., 2018).
2.1.1 School culture and teacher self-efficacy
School culture is a multifaceted concept, encompassing relationships, practices, values, norms and the school’s overall climate (Deal and Peterson, 2019). It functions as a compass for teachers, setting a vision for achievement (Sergiovanni, 2005). Studies have shown that a supportive school culture, characterized by trust, collaboration, and a focus on professional development, can enhance teacher self-efficacy (Wilson et al., 2018; Goddard et al., 2015). Bandura (2012) emphasizes that self-efficacy develops through encouraging positive social interactions. Support and feedback from colleagues and administrators are essential in developing teacher self-efficacy (Woolfolk Hoy and Burke Spero, 2005; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2023). Previous research highlights the role of school leaders in shaping and maintaining a positive school culture via demonstrating and cultivating values and behaviors and supporting teacher collaboration (Sergiovanni, 2005; Goddard et al., 2015).
As teachers operate collectively within an interactive social system, self-efficacy has a socialization effect (Bandura, 2000), shaped by the attitudes of other teachers (Goddard et al., 2015). Individual and collective efficacy influence one another reciprocally. Research suggests that collective efficacy influences teachers’ sense of efficacy in instruction (Goddard et al., 2015). Teachers working in schools with supportive social relations, shared goals, and values develop a strong collective efficacy (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2023).
An essential element of school culture is diversity climate, which refers to shared perceptions, attitudes, and diversity practices within an institution. Schools may strive to actively acknowledge students’ heritage cultures (multiculturalism or cultural pluralism) or focus on common goals and ignore cultural variations (equality or colourblindness) (Schachner, 2017). A climate of equality is often associated with positive cross-cultural relationships (Schachner et al., 2016, 2021; Civitillo et al., 2017) and less discrimination (Schwarzenthal et al., 2023; Schachner et al., 2021). However, it has been proven to lead to lower teacher self-efficacy as a strong emphasis on equality may lead to ignoring differences between cultural groups, so-called color blindness (Cadenas et al., 2021), that in turn harms student wellbeing and academic development (Murillo and Smith, 2011; Baysu et al., 2024). Cultural pluralism, emphasizing diversity as a positive resource in learning (Schachner et al., 2016; Celeste et al., 2019) and incorporating diverse identities and global issues, is associated with higher intercultural self-efficacy (Ulbricht et al., 2022). Roy et al. (2013) explain that teachers have more established practices and role models to learn from when they teach in a school that values multiculturalism.
2.1.2 Estonian schools and diversity
Estonian schools are highly autonomous in designing their curricula, hiring educators, and providing educators with the freedom to choose teaching strategies and to implement the national curricula. However, diversity is a novel aspect in classrooms. Only 10% of Estonian teachers report experience in culturally diverse classrooms (Mäe, 2023), and just 15% feel well-prepared to address diversity, which is significantly below the OECD average (OECD Statistics, 2018). School leaders view creating inclusive environments as a significant challenge (Tirri et al., 2021), as highlighted by PISA data showing achievement gaps between immigrant and non-immigrant students (Tirri et al., 2021; Estonia PISA Factsheet, 2022). While younger teachers in Estonia demonstrate more up-to-date knowledge and supportive attitudes toward diversity (Vanahans et al., 2024), over 40% of secondary teachers are aged 55 or older (Estonian Statistics Board, 2022). Teacher self-efficacy in multicultural settings is influenced not only by open, empathetic attitudes but also by experience with diversity and a collaborative school culture (Mäe and Ümarik, 2022).
3 Methodology
The study adopts a qualitative research perspective, allowing for an in-depth understanding from the subject’s perspective (Mason, 2002). The following section provides an overview of sampling, data collection, and analysis.
3.1 Sampling
The aim was to include a diverse sample of teachers (in terms of work experience, subject matter, school location, and size) teaching in lower secondary schools in Estonia who have previous experience teaching in multicultural classrooms. Purposive and snowball sampling methods (Creswell, 2014) were combined. The Estonian Ministry of Education and Science was requested to provide information about schools with newly arrived migrant students. Principals of these schools were contacted with a request to participate in the study and recommend teachers who had either minimal (recent experience with few students) or notable experience (extensive experience with at least four students) with migrant learners. The teachers were then contacted to ask for consent. They were also asked to recommend colleagues who fit the respective teacher profile. Subsequently, between March 2020 and November 2021, interviews were conducted with 20 teachers from 14 Estonian schools. Interviews were conducted by the first author, who at the time was a practicing educator, bringing an insider’s perspective that deepened understanding of the complexities of multicultural classrooms. This position enhances the analysis by grounding it in practical experience and contextual insight. Interviews were done in a supportive, nonjudgmental environment to elicit authentic challenges rather than idealized responses. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the interviewees.
Table 1. Teacher characteristics.
All participating educators identified as either Estonian or Estonian of Russian descent, with two participants (numbers 3 and 10) belonging to the latter group. The majority of teachers in the sample were female (17), and most were hired by state or municipal schools (14). Working experience ranged from 3 to 40 years. The multicultural classroom experience varied from minimal to notable. Teachers reporting having taught only a few immigrant students are categorized as having minimal experience in the sample. Conversely, those with over 2 years of teaching in multicultural classrooms and experience with more than four immigrant students are classified as highly experienced. Ten educators had experience working with students with special educational needs (SEN). The number of immigrant students per school is based on 2020 data, and not all schools have reported this information to the ministry, as it is not mandatory.
3.2 Data collection
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 teachers. A detailed interview guide was prepared; however, narration depended on the specific situation. The goal was to create a free and open interview situation where the interviewee could bring up any important topics. As the interviewees were Estonian-speaking educators, Estonian was used as the language of facilitation.
The interview consisted of 4 thematic blocks of questions. It started with a narrative-generative question: “To begin with, I would like to know more about you as a teacher. Please share with me when you started as a teacher and who you teach.” Questions of a biographical nature followed this. The second topic block concerned teaching in a multicultural classroom, involving questions about their perceptions of multicultural self-efficacy and attitudes toward diversity and education. The third topic block dealt with teachers’ strategies in a multicultural classroom. The fourth and last topic block concerned the school culture and support mechanisms introduced.
The interviews took place on the university campus or via Zoom. Before conducting the interview, teachers were introduced to the objectives and how the data would be stored and used. The interviewees were assured of confidentiality and informed that they could later withdraw from the study, in which case their data would be deleted. Interviewees signed an informed consent form. The article’s first author conducted the interviews, which lasted 45–120 min.
3.3 Data analysis
Research utilizes a dataset that was initially analysed in 2022 for an article exploring individual factors affecting Estonian teachers’ multicultural self-efficacy (Mäe and Ümarik, 2022). A subsequent analysis was conducted on the same dataset, focusing on the relationships between self-efficacy and various themes in respondents’ narratives about school culture. Analysis was based on the theoretical conceptualization of school culture and was thus deductive at this stage. Thematic analysis was conducted by applying Braun and Clarke's (2006) six-step approach. Interview transcripts were reread, and new themes (Supplementary Table 1) were added to the thematic tree based on the theory of school culture. A new category – cultural diversity climate – was introduced as part of the whole-school approach theme. This refers to the shared perceptions, attitudes, and practices within a school regarding cultural differences, encompassing approaches that either actively recognize students’ heritage cultures (multicultural climate) or emphasize equality by minimizing cultural distinctions (equality climate). A matrix of teachers’ answers within those thematic categories was constructed as the next analytical step. In the matrix, the following relationships between the personal and school culture-related themes were detected: “teacher-perceived multicultural self-efficacy,” “personal experience teaching in multicultural classroom,” “teaching strategies related to diversity,” “elements of whole school approach to diversity,” “collaborative school culture” and “collective self-efficacy” (see in Supplementary Table 2). Based on thematic mapping and identified relationships among the themes, four teacher profiles were constructed: teachers with high self-efficacy who express a multicultural climate; teachers with high self-efficacy who express an equality climate; teachers who doubt their self-efficacy; and teachers with low self-efficacy and a lack of support from the school.
4 Results
Most educators felt that diverse classrooms require a considerable investment of time in collaboration and resource preparation, challenging them to reevaluate traditional teaching strategies. All educators perceived their self-efficacy through student success, emphasizing engagement, coping with the new environment, or cultivating relationships. Four teacher profiles emerged (see Figure 1), reflecting different levels of self-efficacy and school culture.
Figure 1. Teacher profiles.
4.1 Confident educators working in collaborative schools with a multicultural climate
Educators who expressed high self-efficacy tended to have substantial experience with culturally diverse learners. They also experienced a supportive school culture with a multicultural climate, and argued that their schools had clear diversity-related strategies. They were mission-driven and expressed enthusiasm when talking about diversity and teaching. For example, one of the teachers had been an exchange student and was motivated to start a teaching career after witnessing how educators struggled with exchange students. Another educator was a school secretary fascinated by language immersion. She reflects on her journey in becoming a support teacher for immigrant learners:
I negotiated with the headteacher for an opportunity to get training in immersion. I was excited about it, and of course, I visited our school’s lessons beforehand. […] Then, completely unexpectedly, 4 years ago in August, a parent came to us and said he had brought his Ukrainian child to our school. He did not know Estonian, but all the lessons had been distributed by then. Since the principal and the head teacher knew I was enthusiastic about it and that I got along well with the children, they asked if I was interested in the position (14).
Besides the general enthusiasm and desire to teach, educators in this group express values related to multiculturalism. A secondary physics teacher emphasized that the world is multifaceted and that what’s suitable for us in Northern Europe might be different in other places. (2) A history teacher explained that lessons need to provide space to deal with individual student stories and introduce multiple perspectives.
You cannot always avoid making judgments. However, you can always emphasise that no one has to choose sides…you simply see that history is a reflection of different sources (12).
Teachers emphasize the importance of empathy and flexibility when teaching in culturally diverse classrooms. A social sciences teacher expressed that it is vital to have empathy in the sense that you want to understand them (10). Flexibility came up when discussing assessments and language immersion strategies. Several educators were familiar with CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) and language immersion methodologies, as these approaches were integral to the school’s overall strategy.
A multicultural climate was also evident in teaching strategies. Educators in this group adopted culturally sustaining teaching, emphasizing the importance of embracing multiple perspectives, creating space for diverse learners to share their stories, and integrating learners into the new culture while preserving their heritage culture. Their schools had a higher share of migrant learners, with clear admission and assessment policies and communicated an overall approach to diversity. The formation of an overall approach to diversity in schools was initiated by the influx of immigrant learners, which created a need to negotiate end goals, teaching strategies, and procedures to engage learners. One of the most common school strategies teachers discussed was an initial family interview to understand prior learning experiences, determine expectations, and provide an overview of the school. Some teachers also shared that schools have produced reading materials about the school and the Estonian education system.
Regarding assessment, individual study plans were standard, but with more flexible procedures that allowed students time to adjust to the new environment. One school had a whole-day model, allowing students to stay until 5:00 p.m. It was recommended that non-native learners participate in this informal learning environment. A study coordinator reflects that this is excellent for language development:
That is the place where he can be in the language environment. Because he might not be able to say a word in the classroom, but in the evening, he can communicate and talk with someone. Maybe he can also speak his native language. It is also essential to develop a group of friends here to have the desire to communicate (10).
When discussing their schools, teachers emphasized the positive attitude toward different cultures. Some schools had multicultural staff or volunteers, and teachers found it exciting to learn from them. They introduced their language and culture to the students, embedding diversity into classroom activities. The multicultural climate was also evident in discussions about school events and in inviting external organizations to share diverse perspectives. Many educators in this group worked in schools with strong community-building. There were examples of engaging parents in cultural workshops, school plays and cafes.
Although all educators perceived their school’s diversity climate as reflecting multiculturalism and sharing stories about how cultural diversity is valued and celebrated within the school community, three educators felt there was still room for improvement and that cultural aspects needed to be mainstreamed. A social science educator at a language immersion school criticized that most of the focus is on language aspects, with culture somewhat secondary in teaching.
The importance of culture has yet to be understood or seen. It is instead focused on language learning…but where are the considerations of the learners as individuals and their background [...] I see this in our school: diversity is valued as a fact that we are diverse, and that is it (17).
Those educators had the agency to change things within schools. They were curious and passionate about understanding different approaches, familiarized themselves with academic research and openly challenged the current strategies within the school.
Teachers in this group valued collaboration and good relationships with their colleagues and students. Teaching in diverse classrooms requires significant differentiation, and non-native learners often need additional support. There were stories of collaboration between the subject and language or support teachers. The importance of a supportive headteacher was also mentioned as a crucial factor in teacher support. Nevertheless, teachers felt this could be further enhanced with secure collaborative planning and reflection time.
All educators in this group perceived that their school was doing well at engaging culturally diverse students. However, most of them expressed that there were many difficulties at the beginning. A study coordinator stated that:
We are used to and adapted to it. If you already see that your colleague can do it, you can do it too. Maybe many years ago, some teachers said you could put as many Russian children as you want in my class. I know Russian, but do not put the others on me (multicultural learners). Everyone has had this experience of teaching these children, as we have many of them. In this sense, these fears have disappeared for teachers (10).
Her statement highlights the role of experience and emphasizes the interconnectedness of individual and collective efficacy.
4.2 Confident educators working in collaborative schools with an equality climate
The educators in this group also perceive their self-efficacy as high, have substantial experience with diverse learners and sense strong school support. However, unlike the previous category, their narratives reflect an equality climate, where the focus is on shared similarities, and teaching strategies incorporate cultural responsiveness, fostering a coherent classroom environment, and differentiation. This climate prioritizes treating all students equitably by addressing their individual learning needs rather than explicitly empowering their heritage cultures.
Teachers in this group sense their mission as assimilating learners into the new culture, and express personal responsibility and pride. One support teacher, who took a motherly role with newly arrived refugee learners, perceives that she has contributed 200 per cent. She expressed sadness when one of the families decided to move away.
Despite the excitement and pride, an underlying ethnocentric belief is visible in the teachers’ stories represented by the savage narrative and ideas supporting Western values and ideals. For example, one homeroom teacher used a phrase,’ Mowgli girl’, when talking about an Asian student. She explained that during the first year, the student went from being distant and violent to a regular student who understands the rules and dares to ask questions. This metaphor implicitly casts the student in a “savage” light, aligning with a colonial stereotype that frames non-Western individuals as needing to be “civilized” according to Western norms. Such language reinforces a narrative that valorizes Western values and ideals as the standard for behavioral and academic success.
The same educator also reflected on parents’ initial reactions to the arrival of Muslim learners, which further highlights ethnocentric tensions within the school community.
Parents saw that no one came here to wave a gun or pull their headscarves, so only the eyes were visible. In the beginning, they wore headscarves, but with time, their culture started to mix with our culture [...] Concessions have been made on both sides, and they meet us halfway, and so do we. I think this is very well settled (16).
Her statement reflects the initial fear of the unknown, coupled with stereotypes about Muslim culture and an expectation of ultimate assimilation, which, in the long term, is not an ideal route, considering the learner’s wellbeing. Similar attitudes toward cultural differences emerged in most interviews in this group, especially concerning religious practices. Given that Estonia is a secular country, where religious topics are typically excluded from School life, teachers would benefit from additional support to address these issues in a culturally sustaining manner.
This category mainly consisted of experienced educators who used diverse teaching strategies to provide equal opportunities and high expectations for all learners. For example, a natural science educator reflects that she does not allow laziness in her classes. Culturally responsive teaching and an ethnic additive approach were used. Educators with an ethnic additive approach incorporated components about different cultures, primarily focusing on holidays and traditions, into their lessons. A culturally responsive approach emerged when teachers discussed student-centred learning and considered personal details when planning lessons. For example, one homeroom teacher explains that she does not require the use of linked letters with Arabic students.
All the teachers described assessment and admissions policy for migrant students, and the majority also reflected a school vision or overall strategy related to diversity. The overall approach was centred on providing support and streamlining the acculturation process within the school. Many schools focused primarily on language. For example, a maths and sciences educator reflects that she has not studied anything special, and the reason the headteacher places migrant learners in her class is that they do not speak English, so the learners would need to start speaking Estonian. All of the schools provide language support, but the methods vary. Some combine language learning with exposure to Estonian culture and assist with subject assignments.
Teachers emphasized classroom selection as an essential aspect of student integration. Generally, students were placed based on their age. Most of the educators began working with the students from the first day, but one school initially provided a tutor who supported them with language and overall acculturation. Gradually, the students were merged with their classes. When it comes to assessment, the majority of educators stated that their school allows new learners some time to adjust before formal assessment. However, there was one educator who felt that this was not a helpful strategy and did not follow it. She explains:
I might not start giving grades in the first class, but after some time, I will begin to do so. [...] Once, when he (a Nigerian student) had text assignments in the test, and I gave him a four minus, he was very offended. In the next work, he did all the text assignments. He can do it if he works hard, and this method motivates him enormously.[...]In my experience, a child has to feel uncomfortable at some point. It makes him work (13).
Teachers in Estonia have a high degree of autonomy, allowing them to make decisions within their classrooms. In her case, the headteacher and parents also supported a stricter approach.
The teachers’ narratives about their school strategies reflected an equality climate, focusing on similarities, avoiding discussions of cultural differences and emphasising equal treatment. For example, a natural sciences teacher reflects:
Our school has the principle that we are a family and are used to children coming from abroad. We do not overly emphasise this. Well, of course, we’ll see how the atmosphere is in the class. If you are different in the class, I’ll remind the class that we are all together, and it does not matter if you come from somewhere else, that we focus more on learning (3).
Teachers felt that focusing on differences would create a space for teasing. Another teacher reflected that the school mostly celebrates Western holidays. She explains that Muslims do not celebrate Christmas; however, she was excited to see that they have taken over some traditions and did not see a need to represent Muslim holidays or traditions within the school.
Teachers valued collaboration and shared stories of how the school culture nurtured it. Discussions about migrant learners were included in the general staff meeting, and some schools had secured time for collaborative planning. For example, a language immersion coordinator explains that we expect teachers who teach in the same grade to plan lessons together, so we have a weekly work meeting to address planning or any concerns that have arisen (7). Many mentioned collaboration with special educational needs coordinators and language teachers. For example, one mathematics teacher reflects on how she took a course on engaging migrant learners with a language educator, and they had to produce a learning project as an outcome. She felt that this enhanced the collaboration, and it was a cool activity; however, it takes time, and it would be difficult to find this time during the regular school day. A few teachers also reflected on how they collaborated with institutions outside the school. For example, a maths and science teacher explained that she had a student who struggled with language, which initiated discussions with the special-needs coordinator. The coordinator found a youth centre to help with language practice after school, and the student is now doing much better.
Regarding collective efficacy, there was a diversity of beliefs, and no clear pattern emerged. Many teachers stated that engaging multicultural learners requires considerable extra effort. Not all colleagues are willing to take that challenge, or do not see the value. One language immersion coordinator believes that their school has managed multicultural learners quite well; however, she contemplates that our teachers are very different. We have very young people, as well as those who are already more experienced. The cooperation between the teachers is good (7). It is essential to note that collective efficacy develops through social interactions; therefore, providing opportunities for educators to share and interact is crucial (Goddard et al., 2015).
4.3 Doubtful educators who lack school support
Educators in this group question their ability to cope in multicultural classrooms. Most of them are experienced but new to multicultural contexts. They all reflected mixed beliefs and described different diversity climates in their schools.
These teachers lacked confidence in their strategies. They questioned what the goal should be for migrant learners – do they need to experience social success first, or should they focus on academic knowledge and skills? An experienced music teacher reflects:
I do not feel confident as their teacher at all, in the sense that no, I cannot say that it has been very successful. I feel that I should do more. My attitude is that I want them to settle into the new class, but maybe I should do more so that they will get more out of my subject (11).
In the interview with a social science teacher, similar self-doubt and criticism emerged:
I employed a wide range of different methods and techniques. […] I still have a feeling that I did not make it. It’s quite sad. I know I’m very critical of myself, and I know that perfectionism can come in (8).
All teachers in this group reflected language-learning strategies, combining content-integrated approaches with IT and gamification. They noted the significant amount of time required to prepare the materials. One mathematics teacher, who had taken an international training course to create resources for non-native speakers, questioned whether such tasks should be left solely to teachers or receive government support. Most educators in this group work in schools where migrant learners are just beginning to arrive, and the schools’ approaches to diversity are still under development. The mathematics teacher reflects that the majority of the responsibility is on the teacher’s shoulders. She states that they are thrown into a class with 20 students. The teacher is told that you can do it. Well, it’s not very pleasant for anyone. (4) It was visible that teachers need more explicit guidance and support from the school to cater for diverse classrooms effectively.
Teachers explained that collaboration is good in theory, but in reality, it is not well supported by their school. For example, an art teacher reflected that there is a lot of pressure from the management to collaborate, but there is no school support in terms of securing planning time and space for teachers. Educators in this group also emphasised the importance of having a supportive headteacher. For example, a mathematics teacher noted that a simple email from the headteacher, clarifying expectations, can sometimes make a difference.
As most educators in Estonia lack experience living or studying in a culturally diverse environment, schools are expected to provide more guidance. In general, cultural diversity is a new aspect to consider in many schools, and all educators in this group reflected the initial confusion at the school level. An art teacher describes:
When more migrant learners arrived, we experienced difficulties, and it was a bit of a headache. [...] I have always felt that the school’s general attitude was that they were not prepared for this (11).
Mathematics educator reflects on the mixed beliefs of the colleagues:
We conducted a survey, and the opinions were varied on all sides. One sees it as a challenge and makes the best of it. Another says I’m not going to change anything at all. But at one moment, he is in your class, and no one cares if you want it or not; he is just there, right, because there is a free place, and you have to manage somehow. And well, enthusiasm is a nice thing, but if it starts to interrupt your sleep hours because you have to create learning materials, then you simply have to decide (4).
School support and time for reflection are crucial for moving beyond the initial confusion. Collaborative planning time and collectively agreed-upon goals with diverse learners would ease educators’ anxiety and doubts.
4.4 Educators who feel unsupported and are struggling
This group of teachers with low multicultural self-efficacy have little experience with diverse learners. They are struggling and do not feel supported by the school. Their stories focus on challenges. For example, an experienced language teacher reflects on the feeling of being left alone and unsupported:
I have not managed at all. I understand that other teachers do not have this problem, but in my class, it’s a challenge. () Even if I make some worksheets for him because I do not have enough time to focus on him, even then, he just passively stares. And now I can see how he is demotivated. () I am not competent enough to teach him (1).
Common to this group is that they feel a lack of competencies but do not see opportunities for improvement. A science teacher (6) states that you can lead a horse to the river, but you cannot make him drink, not realizing his role in motivating learners. A German language teacher explains her struggles:
As I realised later, it was probably culture shock. He started avoiding lessons, and he was in trouble with himself, and did not seem to accept any offerings. These things got worse and worse. […] He created a wall around himself (9).
This story highlights the need to improve teachers’ psycho-social competencies, especially in supporting students in adjusting to the new culture and overcoming culture shock.
The majority of educators in this group do not employ specific strategies to engage multicultural learners. Two teachers, however, did differentiate to some extent, adjusting worksheets and incorporating CLIL elements into their classes. One science teacher explained that he helps those who are actively showing interest, and that he allows migrant students to use smartphones to translate during class. However, he feels that this is unfair to the local learners who are not permitted to use their phones.
Teachers do not sense that there is an overall approach or clear vision regarding diversity in their school. Also, no diversity climate is expressed. School strategies are connected with standard activities such as creating an individual study plan, which is a requirement for all non-traditional learners, and language support, which the government provides to all migrant learners during the first 3 years of their studies.
The teacher’s stories did not reflect collaboration but instead focused on fulfilling individual tasks. The sense of teacher affiliation and belonging was low. Most teachers stated that they have no idea what other teachers do with migrant learners and that it was not communicated in advance that they would have a non-native learner in the classroom. For example, a physics teacher states that he sees this from the student list. Although teachers in this group do not collaborate extensively, some do recognize the value of collaboration. For example, an experienced language educator suggests that observing other teachers’ lessons would help understand how they engage diverse learners.
As most of the teachers were working in schools where diversity was a new topic, their answers did not consistently express collective efficacy. However, one educator perceived it as low.
The percentage of individual study plans is already so high that no one is happy about immigrant learners, to be honest […] Everyone knows that this is a lot of extra work. This means communicating with parents who sometimes do not even know English. For example, we have parents who only speak Arabic, so we always need an interpreter. They do not fully understand our school system. […] All this takes a massive amount of energy (1).
Teachers’ stories reflect that teaching in multicultural classrooms requires the development of new competencies, a significant time commitment, and a supportive school culture. Collaboration and the development of diversity-related school strategies enable educators to reflect and understand their role in catering for diversity.
5 Discussion
The study aimed to understand how teachers perceive their multicultural self-efficacy and how self-efficacy beliefs are related to aspects of school culture, including the diversity climate, collaboration, whole-school approaches to diversity, and collective self-efficacy. Based on our previous analysis (Mäe and Ümarik, 2022), we can conclude that teacher-perceived multicultural self-efficacy is related to personal beliefs and prior experience with diversity (Geerlings et al., 2018; Romijn et al., 2020). However, the teachers’ narratives constructed contrasting pictures of the school culture regarding how diversity at school was perceived and managed, ranging from highly collaborative and systematic approaches, characterized by enthusiasm and supportive environments for both teachers and migrant students. In contrast, other narratives reflected school contexts with little to no formal strategies to support teachers, which directed our research focus toward exploring the interplay between school context and teachers’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
We have identified four teacher profiles (see Figure 1) that reflect the connection between school culture and teacher self-efficacy (Supplementary Table 2). Regardless of overall efficacy level, all educators perceived their self-efficacy as tied to student success, emphasizing student engagement, adaptation to new environments, and the cultivation of interpersonal relationships. The first and second categories of teachers express a high level of self-efficacy. Those teachers were confident in their work, had notable multicultural classroom experience, and perceived themselves as capable of shaping students’ learning and wellbeing. They were supported by a collaborative school culture, characterized by cooperation between teachers and support staff and a whole-school approach to diversity. While both categories of teachers perceived high levels of self-efficacy and strategic steps were taken to support them, the difference between these groups lies in whether the teachers’ narratives reflected a multicultural or an equality climate. Teachers who represented equality climate valued assimilation and emphasized similarities between different cultures. Their teaching strategies were either aligned with a culturally responsive or ethnic additive approach, in which culture was considered an aspect of learning, but there were no reflections on how to maintain students’ heredity cultures or incorporate diverse identities into everyday school life. Furthermore, several interviews revealed underlying ethnocentric tensions within the school community that warrant critical reflection. Cultural diversity is a vital asset that enriches the learning environment, providing diverse funds of knowledge (Ladson-Billings, 2021) and creating opportunities for enhancing students’ cultural competence and global awareness. Sustaining students’ heredity culture is essential in improving the overall wellbeing and closing the achievement gap. While assimilation may seem to provide a faster path to academic success, it has long-term implications for student wellbeing, which, in turn, affects academic success (Ulbricht et al., 2022; Cadenas et al., 2021; Baysu et al., 2024). Students must feel that their identities are affirmed (Paris and Alim, 2017), and teachers must cultivate relationships grounded in mutual respect for cultural differences. The whole school community needs to negotiate norms and cultural practices used across the school that reflect and sustain diversity (Banks and McGee Banks, 2019).
The study also identified school contexts that lack a supportive or collaborative culture, in which diversity-related challenges are either perceived as the sole responsibility of individual teachers or dismissed altogether. Teachers categorized as “doubtful” or “not supported” often reported feelings of isolation and did not perceive institutional support. They expressed lower levels of multicultural self-efficacy and highlighted a lack of school-wide strategies to address diversity, reduced collegial collaboration, and a general sense of exclusion within their professional environment. Unsupportive school cultures, characterized by a lack of cooperation and ignorant attitudes regarding diversity (Woolfolk Hoy and Burke Spero, 2005), undermine teachers’ coping and self-efficacy (Schwarzenthal et al., 2023). The individual barriers described by teachers in this group were primarily time-related or competency-based. To address these barriers, schools and educational leaders should adopt whole-school approaches that prioritize sustained professional learning in culturally responsive and sustaining practices, inclusive of religious and spiritual perspectives, and that move beyond color-blind approaches. Regarding time constraints, AI tools offer promising support by streamlining lesson planning and enabling more efficient scaffolding, language support and differentiation of learning tasks for migratory learners. Intentional strategies such as hiring diverse staff, fostering meaningful parent and community engagement, and creating safe spaces for sharing cultural narratives are essential for cultivating inclusive multicultural learning environments.
Many teachers interviewed described a shift in their self-efficacy over time, suggesting that teacher profiles may reflect a developmental trajectory from low to high multicultural self-efficacy. Understanding how this transformation occurs and how to support it is essential for fostering equitable and inclusive learning environments for all students. The process of sense-making (Spillane et al., 2002) plays a central role in how teachers adapt to changes in their professional practice. Amazan et al. (2025) emphasize the importance of communities of practice in supporting collective sense-making within culturally diverse contexts. Educators in our study frequently reported that teaching in diverse classrooms demands significant time and effort, particularly in collaborative planning and resource development. Notably, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy emphasized the value of collaboration, which was reflected in their stories when working with parents, special educational needs and language teachers, or a broader community outside of school. Although none of the participants explicitly used the term professional learning communities, many expressed a clear need for structured collaborative reflection and planning opportunities. Several teachers pointed to the role of school leadership in institutionalizing such practices by allocating a dedicated time for reflection and collaborative planning. Communities of practice could serve as reflective spaces to recognize and address implicit bias, critically examine ethnocentric beliefs, develop a deeper understanding of culturally responsive and sustaining practices, and share language-learning and differentiation strategies.
Communities of practice encourage teachers to reflect on their experiences, learn from one another, and benefit from what Bandura (2012) describes as vicarious experiences—learning through observing the successes of their peers. Babichenko et al. (2024) emphasize that positioning teachers as agents of change within professional learning communities is crucial for promoting sustainable educational change. Our research suggests that highly efficacious teachers exhibit a strong sense of agency and enthusiasm. Moreover, many educators with high self-efficacy believed that if their colleagues could succeed, they could achieve similar outcomes, reflecting a strong sense of collective efficacy. Building on Bandura’s (2000) assertion that meaningful change requires teachers to perceive value in adapting their pedagogical approaches, our findings underscore the parallel necessity of systemic support to enable teachers to implement such changes effectively and sustainably.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Ethics statement
The studies involving humans were approved by Tallinn University Ethics Board. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.
Author contributions
KM: Data curation, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal analysis. MÜ: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Supervision, Conceptualization.
Funding
The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. The Research Fund of Tallinn University School of Educational Sciences supported publishing this article.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the educators who shared their time and experiences, making this research possible.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025.1691247/full#supplementary-material
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Keywords: teacher self-efficacy, multicultural self-efficacy, school culture, migrant students, collective efficacy
Citation: Mäe K and Ümarik M (2025) Teaching migrant learners: the interplay between school culture and teacher multicultural self-efficacy. Front. Educ. 10:1691247. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1691247
Edited by:
Francesco Vittori, University of Verona, ItalyReviewed by:
Menglin Xu, The Ohio State University, United StatesSaepul Anwar, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia
Copyright © 2025 Mäe and Ümarik. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Karolin Mäe, a2Fyb2xpbi5tYWVAdGx1LmVl