Farida Shaheed- United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, Geneva, Switzerland
This essay is from the perspective of the mandate of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to education, established to promote and protect universal access to education as a fundamental human right. Reflecting on 25 years of progress, it highlights that while there is global consensus on education as a driver of individual and societal well-being, there is less agreement on the content and purpose of education, and challenges of exclusion and discrimination. It reflects on some key issues relating to privatization, digitalization and education in crises, underscoring the risks they pose to equity and inclusivity. It emphasizes the need for robust governance and collaborative efforts to address these challenges while safeguarding education as a public and common good. The essay endorses calls for a reimagined vision of education, rooted in global solidarity and human rights that fosters critical thinking, creativity and social cohesion, addresses inequalities and prepares learners to navigate our complex changing world. It suggests that by prioritizing dignity, justice and equity, education can serve as a transformative force for sustainable inclusive futures. It urges strengthened international frameworks to protect education during crises, ensure inclusive policies and address emerging concerns like the ethical use of digital technologies and artificial intelligence.
Introduction
I assumed the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the right to education in late 2022. The 25th anniversary of the mandate in 2023 was an apt moment to review progress on the right to education, to celebrate achievements and to flag some critical issues in my first report (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2023). There is much to be celebrated. The global consensus to respect, protect and promote the right to education remains strong, underpinned by significant advancements in legal frameworks. Education is increasingly recognized as an empowering right, and educational spaces and processes as crucial for the well-being of children, their families and society at large. Yet, this consensus is fragile, often only surface deep, breaking down when deeper issues are scrutinized, especially around critical issues, such as privatization, digitalization and emergency situations, as discussed during the Fourth Geneva Dialogue on the right to education conducted in June 2024 (Swiss Commission for UNESCO 2024).
For one, questions about what is taught and how remain deeply contested. Also, while progress has certainly been achieved, discrimination, exclusion and segregation persist. Millions remain excluded due to gender, religion, ethnicity, race, language, disabilities, location, economic status and social origin. Diversity and cultural rights are not always respected and education is sometimes used for assimilation. Disagreements endure regarding the respective obligations and responsibilities of States and families in education, as well as in terms of the respect due to children’s rights while upholding parents’ rights.
Inequalities from the past still haunt us, embodied in discrimination and exclusions, compounded by violations of international law that deprive children—and other learners—of reaching their full potential. This also robs the world of their potential creativity and contributions. Ongoing challenges, such as privatization, digitalization and education in crises remain pervasive, while at the same time evolving in terms of their impact on education. Addressing these challenges demands a rethinking of how education is conceived, governed and delivered in our rapidly changing and multicultural world. In our complex multicultural, constantly and rapidly changing world we need to agree on how and what we teach, including values, and how best to assess learning in a contextualized manner, as a “one-size fits all” will not work.
A vision for the future of education
First and foremost, we must understand education as a nursery for ideas: as a process that fosters reflection, creativity and critical thinking, that provides spaces for free expression, discussion and debate. It should encourage questioning of established ideas or what is considered and “received wisdom” from the past, institute norms for how to engage with others with differing viewpoints—especially those who disagree with our own perspectives—and equip learners with the skills to navigate a dynamic interconnected world. The UN Secretary-General’s call for a renewed social contract rooted in human rights provides an opportunity to rebuild trust, enhance global solidarity and collaborate for the common good.
In 2021, UNESCO facilitated the work of the International Commission on the Futures of Education. The groundbreaking report of the Commission, Reimagining Our Futures Together: A New Social Contract for Education (the “Futures of Education” report) (UNESCO, 2021) stresses that this renewed social contract must be firmly grounded in two guiding principles: the right to education throughout life and a commitment to education as a public, societal endeavor and common good. Education must be an interactive, co-creative process that contributes to humanity’s shared cultural heritage while addressing inequalities and promoting social cohesion. Crucially, education must be understood to extend beyond formal schooling to encompass non-formal and informal learning, recognizing the roles of families and communities that play vital roles.
Secondly, international human rights law stipulates that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Further, that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace (United Nations, 1996). Education should empower individuals to reach their fullest potential while fostering dignity, human rights and respect for others. It must redress past injustices (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2019a), prepare learners for unfolding environmental, technological, and social challenges, and help shape sustainable futures, anchored in social, economic, and environmental justice.
Addressing persistent challenges
From the perspective of everyone’s human right to enjoy and benefit from education, several critical issues persist. A prevailing concern is the tendency of many educational systems to focus on individual achievement, competition, and economic outcomes, often at the expense of fostering a sense of solidarity, mutual respect, and collective responsibility for the well-being of our communities and the planet. This narrow focus can inhibit critical thinking, promote assimilation and serve political or religious agendas or commercial interests, undermining academic freedom, participation and attaining one’s full potential. Addressing inequalities can only be addressed by prioritizing the most vulnerable, understanding what the right to education means for them, and taking steps to incorporate their needs and perspectives in the educational process.
Three pressing concerns in education today are privatization, digitalization and education in crises.
Privatization
The issue of the creeping privatization of education has been flagged by the right to education mandate holders several times. An overriding principle for the human right to education is that education is understood, planned for and implemented as a public common good. States bear primary responsibility for ensuring equitable access to quality education through, inter alia, efficient management and financing (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2014, 2015a,b, 2019b).
Inadequate funding for public education undermines its quality, creating opportunities for for-profit private education to fill the gap (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2011). The increasing involvement of commercial entities in education is deeply troubling as their profit-driven agendas often conflict with the human rights principle of prioritizing the most marginalized and ensuring no one is left behind. There is a concern about the growing and disproportionate voice of the private sector in educational matters. This shift risks amplifying inequalities and diminishing the public nature of education.
States must fulfill their responsibility to ensure that all educational institutions, whether public or private, adhere to human rights standards. (The Abidjan Principles, 2019). offer critical guidance in this regard. In particular, robust monitoring and regulatory frameworks are essential to uphold these standards and prevent education from becoming a tool for profit at the expense of equity and inclusion.
Digitalization
The right to education mandate has already highlighted issues related to digitalization in education (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2022, 2016, 2024). I am deeply concerned by the view that digitalization is a panacea for all that ails our educational systems. It is vital to remember that while beneficial in many ways, digital technology is just that: a technology. What matters is who develops the technology with what aim in mind, who owns it, who has access, how it is used and governed, how it affects people and the planet as well as how the data is stored, processed and used.
While digital technologies offer opportunities, their inappropriate use or misuse carries significant risks for access to education, privacy and mental health of learners and teachers. Digitalization can exacerbate inequalities, widening the gap between individuals, communities and countries with reliable connectivity and access to devices and those without. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed these vulnerabilities with the so-called “free” digitalization coming at the cost of data mining and increased disparities in access (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2020). It was also not free: students, their friends and families paid the price through the invasion of their privacy and data mining. Moreover, the educational institutions could not use the data for analytics and were excluded from decision-making (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2024, 2022, paras. 4 and 97 (d), 2023, para. 41). In the rush to embrace digital technologies, we must not overlook their potential impact on students’ well-being, including feelings of isolation and adverse effects on physical health as pointed out by UNESCO’s ED-Tech Tragedy? Report (UNESCO 2023).
To fully realize the right to education in the digital age, the focus must be on empowering educators and learners to effectively utilize digital tools for self-expression, knowledge acquisition and creative engagement. All users, including in the educational process, must be facilitated to master digital tools to express themselves, benefit from what they offer and use these in self-determined and empowering ways, while being protected from the possible risks entailed.
Digitalization should complement and support schools, learners and teachers, but it must never replace in-person learning. Most importantly, it should never be used as an excuse to neglect the creation of inclusive and accessible physical learning spaces for all at all levels and ages. The use of digital technology must be grounded in the universal right to free, quality public education, aligned with States’ obligations under international human rights law and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.
Closing the digital divides is vital. Digital literacy, access and competencies must be recognized as integral components of the right to education, as emphasized by the Futures of Education report. Yet, bridging these divides is not enough. Digital technology cannot magically address foundational challenges: it will not eliminate illiteracy, boost school enrolment for the 244 million children currently out of school or eradicate entrenched biases, such as those denying girls their right to education. Furthermore, studies reveal that the quality of education does not necessarily correlate with the extent of technology integration.
Effective governance of digitalization in education requires the meaningful participation of teachers’ organizations, parents, children (in age-appropriate ways) and civil society. This engagement must be substantive and collaborative, not a superficial or box-ticking exercise; benefits and risks must be independently assessed prior to adoption of any technology in education.
The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI), including generative AI, introduces new complexities and challenges (Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, 2024). It is critical to address questions about the ownership and use of technology and the data generated by users and collected and processed through AI, as well as who profits from it. Generative AI poses risks such as undermining the originality of academic work and devaluing new insights. While posting ideas online aims to amplify visibility, there is a risk of inadvertently feeding the insatiable demand of the AI industry. The use of generative AI by students – and educators – also raises fundamental questions about assessing learning outcomes and ensuring genuine educational progress while adhering to academic integrity.
Reliance on AI for decision-making is particularly troubling. Algorithms are shaped by the biases of their programmers, while available digital data excludes the marginalized communities who have no or little digital footprints and therefore fails to account for their diverse realities. This exclusion perpetuates inequalities and can have harmful impacts on learning when AI is the basis for standardized testing, for example. If diverse realities are ignored or sidelined, education will be forcing children to choose between answering according to their lived experiences and worldviews on the one hand and the AI-generated reality on the other, which defeats the purpose of education. It is therefore essential that policymakers and all users recognize and address these biases.
In an era of automation and disappearing professions, fostering interpersonal skills, critical thinking and creativity becomes more vital than ever. These uniquely human capacities, such as imagining and thinking beyond known facts, cannot be replicated by AI. Education must prioritize nurturing these abilities to prepare individuals for a rapidly evolving future while safeguarding their dignity and agency.
Education in crises
It is difficult to overstate the urgent imperative of ensuring education during crises, especially armed conflict. In 2024, UNICEF estimated that over 473 million children were living in or fleeing from conflict zones. In such emergencies, as well as in situations of climate disasters and forced displacements, priorities tend to focus on immediate survival needs such as food, shelter and healthcare, sidelining education. Yet, education is a lifeline, essential for providing hope and shaping the future of affected children and their families.
While international norms to protect the right to education in emergencies are evolving, existing frameworks need to be strengthened and implementation assured. While the endorsement of the Safe Schools Declaration by 120 countries is a significant step forward, the practical impact of these commitments is very disappointingly. States and stakeholders must be reminded of their binding obligations under international law to respect, protect and fulfill the right to education, a right that cannot be suspended, even in times of crisis.
For example, in collaboration with other UN special procedure mandate holders, I have consistently raised alarm over the devastating situation in Palestine. The relentless attacks on schools, universities, teachers and students in Gaza, as well as archives holding 100 years of heritage, have effectively destroyed the Palestinian education system, a tragic phenomenon amounting to what can only be described as “scholasticide” [Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), 2024]. Such violations not only undermine the right to education but also erode the fundamental principles of international humanitarian and human rights law. Addressing these atrocities is not just a moral imperative but a legal one, demanding urgent and sustained action from the global community.
Strengthening mechanisms for the right to education
Human rights mechanisms supporting the right to education remain underdeveloped. UNESCO’s Initiative on the Evolving Right to Education (UNESCO, n.d.) is a critical step forward, but monitoring and implementation need strengthening. It is important to learn from regional mechanisms, such as the human rights bodies of the European Union and the Council of Europe, African Union, Organization of American States, League of Arab States, Association of Southeast Asian Nations and their interpretative practice and jurisprudence over the years. The international community must work together to assess existing frameworks, ensure their effectiveness and foster accountability to uphold education as a universal human right.
The journey ahead is complex, but the right to education remains a beacon of hope, guiding us toward a more just, inclusive and sustainable future for all. This is a shared responsibility of states, learners and educators, institutional authorities and the public at large.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
FS: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
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Keywords: right to education, digitalization, armed conflict, international human rights, artificial intelligence
Citation: Shaheed F (2026) The right to education: progress, challenges and the road ahead. Front. Educ. 10:1708336. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1708336
Edited by:
Peter Larsen, Université de Genève, SwitzerlandReviewed by:
Elvis Fokala, University of Pretoria, South AfricaCopyright © 2026 Shaheed. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Farida Shaheed, aHJjLXNyLWVkdWNhdGlvbkB1bi5vcmc=