ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Energy Res.
Sec. Energy Efficiency
Volume 13 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2025.1579617
This article is part of the Research TopicEnergy Management, Energy Efficiency Policies, and Energy System StudiesView all 9 articles
Energy and Greenhouse Effect Emission Analysis in Small-Scale Rice Cultivation : A Case Study in Tulungagung, Indonesia
Provisionally accepted
Musthofa Lutfi Lutfi1*
Nining Pambudi Astuti1Ary Mustofa Ahmad1Siti Asmaul Mustaniroh1Asaduddin Luqman2Lely Indah Mindarti1- 1University of Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia
- 2Islamic Institute, Ponorogo, Indonesia, Ponorogo, Indonesia
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Small-scale rice farming is vital for Indonesia's food security but presents environmental challenges due to inefficient energy use and high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study examined energy inputs and GHG emissions in smallholder rice farms in Tulungagung, East Java, to identify inefficiencies and propose sustainable solutions. Data were collected from 16 farms across four subdistricts during the second planting season through surveys. Energy inputs from fertilizers, machinery, fuel, and labor were quantified using standardized coefficients, while GHG emissions were calculated from fertilizers, pesticides, and fuel use. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis assessed energy efficiency, productivity, and emission drivers.Fertilizers accounted for 96.6% of energy inputs (18,270.96 MJ/ha), with nitrogen-based fertilizers dominating. Average GHG emissions reached 21,431.6 kg CO2-eq/ha, primarily from pesticides (31.8%) and fertilizers. Methane emissions from flooded fields and nitrous oxide from fertilizer overuse further elevated the environmental impact. Energy efficiency was low at 0.61%, with specific energy consumption of 127 MJ/kg, revealing significant inefficiencies in small-scale farming.The findings emphasize the urgent need for integrated nutrient management, tailored mechanization, and renewable energy adoption to enhance sustainability. This study contributes to the discourse on sustainable agriculture by providing localized insights into energy and emission dynamics in smallholder systems. Future research should explore precision agriculture technologies and biofertilizers to mitigate environmental impacts while boosting productivity. These results offer actionable guidance for policymakers and practitioners seeking to balance productivity and environmental sustainability in small-scale rice farming.
Keywords: Energy analysis, greenhouse gas emission effect, Small Scale, Rice cultivation, Input energy
Received: 19 Feb 2025; Accepted: 28 Jul 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Lutfi, Astuti, Ahmad, Mustaniroh, Luqman and Mindarti. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Musthofa Lutfi Lutfi, University of Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia
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