Abstract
The dried root and rhizome of Alpinia officinarum Hance (A. officinarum) have been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years to alleviate pain, promote digestion, warm the stomach, and disperse cold. This review aims to comprehensively and in-depth summarize the most recent research on the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacology of A. officinarum. By searching various databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Elsevier, Springer, ScienceDirect, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) for literature on “A. officinarum Hance,” as well as relevant textbooks and digital documents, an overall and critical review of the subject was conducted. The traditional uses of A. officinarum were summarized, and 337 compounds from A. officinarum were summarized, including flavonoids, diarylheptanoids, volatile oils, and other compounds. Studies have found that the crude extract of A. officinarum and its compounds has a wide range of biological activities, such as improving gastrointestinal function, anti-inflammatory properties, anti-tumor activity, antibacterial properties, memory enhancement, and analgesic effects. Modern pharmacological studies have provided strong evidence and explanations for the traditional medicinal uses of A. officinarum, which brings a broad prospect for its medicinal use. However, more research is needed to explore the structure-activity relationship and potential mechanisms of action of its bioactive chemicals. Furthermore, it is essential to conduct more clinical trials in order to accelerate research and development of the drug.
1 Introduction
With the development of the times, people are increasingly focusing on their wellbeing. The advancement of medical technology has also begun to attract attention. While new drugs for various diseases are constantly being developed, people are actively exploring alternative therapies and natural products due to the toxic side effects of chemical drugs and the uncontrollable risks of biological agents. Alpinia officinarum Hance (A. officinarum), native to China, is one of the most important species of the Zingiberaceae family, which is widely distributed in Fujian, Taiwan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, and other provinces in China (Sun et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2024). The detailed description of the medical applications of A. officinarum can be traced back to the book “Ming Yi Bie Lu,” which was written during the Han Dynasty (Tao, 1986). As a medicinal part, the aromatic rhizome of A. officinarum mainly belongs to the spleen and stomach meridians and was widely used in the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases in ancient China (Tushar et al., 2010; Al Garni et al., 2024).
Botanical drugs have been widely used to treat many diseases for centuries due to their obvious effectiveness, fewer side effects, and relatively low cost. A. officinarum is known for its extensive clinical applications because it contains a variety of bioactive substances, including flavonoids, diarylheptanoids, volatile oils, phenylpropanoids, and glycosides (Pillai et al., 2018; Wen et al., 2024). Flavonoids and diarylheptanoids are its main components and have been proven to have a variety of pharmacological effects (Abubakar et al., 2018). In this paper, the traditional uses, chemical components, and biological activities of A. officinarum were reviewed comprehensively, which provide better guidance for the rational utilization of it.
2 Traditional efficacy and application of A. officinarum
A. officinarum, which is also known as “Liangjiang” and “Xiaoliangjiang,” was first recorded in the “Ming Yi Bie Lu” during the Han Dynasty (Tao, 1986). As shown in Table 1, the properties of A. officinarum have mainly been described as pungent and warm, while in some ancient books, there have been occasional records of “bitter”. It has been recorded in ancient books that A. officinarum mainly enters the two meridians of the spleen and stomach, but rarely enters the heart, liver and Danzhong meridians. The records of A. officinarum in modern works on herbal all belong to the spleen and stomach meridians. Through the analysis of the records of the efficacy of A. officinarum in ancient and modern Chinese botanical drug, it was found that its common features in terms of efficacy are warming the stomach, dispelling cold, relieving pain, regulating qi, stopping vomiting, and alleviating diarrhea. And, A. officinarum is commonly used to treat epigastric cold pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and food stagnation.
TABLE 1
| Dynasty | Book title | Author | Property and taste | Meridian tropism | Efficacy and application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Han Dynasty | Ming Yi Bie Lu | Hongjing Tao | Hot | Violent cold, coldness in the stomach, abdominal pain caused by cholera | Tao (1986) | |
| Northern and Southern Dynasties | Ben Cao Jin Ji Zhu | Hongjing Tao | Hot | The same as the record of “Ming Yi Bie Lu” | Tao (1994) | |
| Sui and Tang Dynasties | Xin Xiu Ben Cao | Jing Su | Hot | The same as the record of “Ming Yi Bie Lu” | Su (1981) | |
| Ben Cao Shi Yi | Zangqi Chen | Pungent, warm | Spleen and stomach meridians | Exsufflation, dysentery and cholera | Chen (1983) | |
| Song, Jin and Yuan Dynasties | Kai Bao Ben Cao | Han Liu, Zhi Ma | Hot | The same as the record of “Ming Yi Bie Lu” | Liu and Ma (1998) | |
| Ming Dynasty | Classified materia medica | Shenwei Tang | Hot | The same as the record of “Ming Yi Bie Lu” | Tang (1982) | |
| Tang Ye Ben Cao | Haogu Wang | Pungent, hot | Coldness in the stomach, abdominal pain caused by cholera, nausea, diarrhea, exsufflation and digestion | Wang (1998) | ||
| Dian Nan Ben Cao | Mao Lan | Pungent, warm | Spleen and stomach meridians | Stomachache caused by qi or cold | Lan (1975) | |
| Ben Cao Meng Quan | Jiamo Chen | Pungent, bitter, hot | Invigorating spleen to promote digestion, cholera, diarrhea, nausea, coldness and pain of the abdomen | Zhang (1998) | ||
| Compendium of materia medica | Shizhen Li | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Invigorating the spleen and stomach, relieving dysphagia, breaking cold addiction, malaria | Li (2008) | |
| Ben Cao Hui Yan | Zhumo Ni | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Dispelling cold and dampness, warming spleen and stomach | Ni (2015) | |
| Jing Yue Quan Shu | Jingyue Zhang | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Stomach cold, vomiting, cholera, abdominal pain, antialcoholic | Zhang (2006) | |
| Ben Cao Tong Xuan | Zhongzi Li | Pungent, warm | Spleen and stomach meridians | Stop vomiting, diarrhea, eliminating malaria, elimination of overeating | Li (2015) | |
| Qing Dynasty | Ben Cao Yi Du | Renan Wang | Pungent, bitter, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Promoting digestion, invigorating the spleen, Cold abdominal pain, vomiting | Wang (1987) |
| Ben Jing Feng Yuan | Lu Zhang | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Warming the spleen and stomach, stomach cold, cholera, abdominal pain | Zhang (2007) | |
| Ben Cao Ze Yao Gang Mu | Jiefan Jiang | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold reflux in the stomach, cholera, abdominal pain | Jiang (1985) | |
| Ben Cao Xin Bian | Shiduo Chen | Pungent, hot | Heart, dan zhong, spleen and stomach meridians | Invigorating the spleen and stomach, stomach cold, diarrhea, abdominal pain | Chen (2008) | |
| Yu Qiu Yao Jie | Yuanyu Huang | Pungent, warm | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold dampness of spleen and stomach, vomiting, cholera, malaria, dysentery, choking, malaria | Huang (2017) | |
| Ben Cao Cong Xin | Yiluo Wu | Pungent, hot | Warm the stomach and dissipate cold, cold pain in stomach duct | Wu (2001) | ||
| De Pei Ben Cao | Jie Yan | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold pain in stomach duct, cholera, diarrheum, malaria | Yan (1997) | |
| Ben Cao Qiu Zhen | Gongxiu Huang | Pungent, hot | Stomach meridian | Warming the stomach and eliminating food, treating cholera and diarrhea, vomiting and malaria | Huang (2012) | |
| Ben Cao Hai Li | Huan Ling | Pungent, warm, hot | Spleen, stomach, and liver meridians | Warming the stomach to remove choking diaphragm, heartache, malaria | Ling (1982) | |
| Ben Cao Bian Du | Bingcheng Zhang | Pungent, warm | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold pain in the stomach and vomiting | Zhang (1958) | |
| Modern | Chinese pharmacopoeia 2015 | National pharmacopoeia committee | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold abdominal pain, stomach cold vomiting, belching acid | Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission (2015) |
| Chinese materia medica | Liren Song, Yigu Wu, lie Hu | Pungent, hot | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold abdominal pain, vomiting, belching | Song (1999) | |
| Great dictionary of chinese medicine | Mingsan Miao, Yuxin Sun, Xiaotian Wang | Pungent, warm | Spleen and stomach meridians | Cold spleen and stomach, cold abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, food stagnation, malaria | JiangsuNewMedicalCollege (1999) | |
| National compendium of chinese herbs | Zongwan Xie, Cuisheng Fan, Zhaoyi Zhu | Pungent, warm | Cold stomach pain, acute gastroenteritis, sweat stain | CGONCHM. Compilation (1996) | ||
| Zhong Yao Zhi | Pharmaceutical institute of the academy of medical science of china | Pungent, warm | Cold spleen and stomach, chest and abdomen pain, vomiting, choking, dyspepsia, diarrhea | Sciences (1959) |
Medicinal properties, meridian tropism, and efficacy of A. officinarum.
A. officinarum has been widely used in clinics due to its compatibility in many prescriptions, as shown in Table 2. A. officinarum is mainly used to warm the spleen and stomach, such as in Er Jiang Pill (Liu, 2017), which can nourish the spleen and stomach, remove cold, and eliminate phlegm, and cure all injuries caused by cold. Such prescriptions also include Wenzhong Liangjiang Pill (Liu, 2017) and Qing Zao San (Zhu, 2003). A. officinarum is a pungent and hot substance that is a pure yang product. It enters the spleen and stomach meridians, which can warm the stomach, reduce reflux and stop vomiting, and strengthen the spleen and stop diarrhea. For example, Ding Qi San (Zhao, 2018) is suitable for vomiting induced by typhoid. This type of prescription also includes Bi Cheng Qie San (Dou, 2015). A. officinarum can also enter the heart and Dan zhong, so it can enter the heart and pericardial meridian to warm and circulate qi. The prescriptions suitable for these kinds of conditions are Liang Fu Pill (Xie, 1990) and Gao Liang Jiang Decoction (Sun, 1955). With its fragrant and warm properties, A. officinarum can dissipate the cold, relieve pain, and promote qi. For example, Tian Tai Wu Yao San (Li, 1959) is applicable to the syndrome of cold coagulation and qi stagnation in the liver meridian. A. officinarum also has the effect of dispelling wind and relieving pain. The Qun Xun San, composed of A. officinarum and scorpion, has significant therapeutic effects on wind-induced toothache and swelling and pain in the cheek (Wang, 2003). In addition, A. officinarum has certain effects of warming the kidney and enhancing Yang. A. officinarum is compatible with Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) T. G. Hartley, which can warm the kidneys and dispel cold, and treat kidney deficiencies and waist pain. This type of prescription also includes Baji Pill (Liu, 2017).
TABLE 2
| Book title | Prescription name | Composition | Therapeutic application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tai Ping Hui Min He Ji Ju Fang | Er Jiang Pill | A. officinarum, Zingiber oj-jicinale Rosc | Nourish the spleen and warming the stomach, removing cold and eliminating phlegm, treating the pain of heart and spleen, and all injuries caused by cold | Liu (2017) |
| Wen Zhong Liang Jiang Pill | A. officinarum, Rhizoma Zingiberis Preparata, Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz., Cinnamomum cassia (L.) D. Don, Glycyrrhizae Praeparata cum Melle Radix et Rhizoma | Cold phlegm gathering, Qi stagnation, vomiting after eating, vomiting, cold diarrhea, colic and tingling lateral thorax | ||
| Ba Ji Pill | A. officinarum, Kadsura longipedunculata Finet and Gagnep., Morinda officinalis F. C. How, Cinnamomum cassia (L.) D. Don, Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) T. G. Hartley | Deficiency of Yuan Qi, heavy waist and crotch, night sweat, chronic uterine coldness, irregular menses, leucorrhea, leukorrhea with bloody discharge | ||
| Zhu Shi Ji Yan Fang | Qing Zao San | A. officinarum, Zingiber oj-jicinale Rosc, Citrus reticulata Blanco, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch | Diarrhea, swelling and pain in the chest and abdomen | Zhu (2003) |
| Sheng Ji Zong Lu | Ding Qi San | A. officinarum, Alpinia katsumadai Hayata, Aucklandia lappa Decne., Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch | Vomiting during typhoid fever | Zhao (2018) |
| Bian Que Xin Shu | Bi Cheng Qie San | A. officinarum, Piper cubeba L.f., Cinnamomum cassia (L.) D. Don, Syringa oblata Lindl., Magnolia officinalis Rehd.et Wils., Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC, Citrus reticulata Blanco, Sparganium stoloni erum, Buch. -Ham., Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., Cyperus rotundus L | Deficiency of spleen and stomach, stabbing pain of chest and abdomen, dilatation of both sides of the chest, dizziness, fatigued cumbersome limbs, fever, diarrhea | Dou (2015) |
| Liang Fang Ji Ye | Liang Fu Pill | A. officinarum, Cyperus rotundus L | liver depression and Qi stagnation, stomach cold coagulation, epigastric pain | Xie (1990) |
| Bei Ji Qian Jin Yao Fang | Gao Liang Jiang Decoction | A. officinarum, Magnolia officinalis Rehd.et Wils., Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, Guixin | A sudden cramp in the chest and abdomen, the unbearable boredom of both costal branches | Sun (1955) |
| Yi Xue Fa Ming | Tian Tai Wu Yao San | A. officinarum, Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm., Aucklandia costus Falc., Foeniculum vuLgare Mill., Citrus reticulata Blanco, Areca catechu L., MeLia toosendanSieb.et Zucc., Croton tiglium L | Cold coagulation and Qi stagnation of liver meridian | Li (1959) |
| Shi Zhai Bai Yi Xuan Fang | Qun Xun San | A. officinarum, Buthus martensii Karsch | Wind-toothache, swelling and pain of cheek | Wang (2003) |
| Sheng Ji Zong Lu | Wa Na Qi San | A. officinarum, Callorhimus ursinus Linnaeus, Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) T. G. Hartley, Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC., Citrus reticulata Blanco | Deficiency of the kidney, Qi deficiency of heart and spleen, intolerable cold pain of small intestine | Zhao (2018) |
Prescription name, composition and therapeutic application of A. officinarum.
3 Chemical composition
Up to now, 337 chemical compounds have been extracted from A. officinarum, mainly including flavonoids, diarylheptanoids, phenylpropanes, glycosides, volatile oil, and other compounds.
3.1 Flavonoids
Flavonoid is one of the main components in A. officinarum. A large number of flavonoids were isolated from A. officinarum, which are also the main active components in it. Until now, 21 flavonoids have been isolated, including 18 flavones, 2 flavanones, and 1 flavanol, as shown in Figure 1 and Table 3.
FIGURE 1
TABLE 3
| NO. | Compound | Reference | NO. | Compound | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Galangin | An et al., 2006a; An (2008), Guo et al. (2010) | 12 | Kaempferide-4′-methylether-3-glucopyranoside | An (2008) |
| 2 | Kaempferol | Bu et al. (2000) | 13 | Isoquercitrin | Wei et al. (2018) |
| 3 | Galangin-3-O-methylether | An et al. (2006a) | 14 | Rutin | Tan et al. (2015) |
| 4 | Quercetin | An (2008) | 15 | Kaempferide-4′-O-methylether | Bu et al. (2000) |
| 5 | Apigenin | Zhao et al. (2007) | 16 | Quercetin-3-O-methylether | Guo et al. (2010) |
| 6 | Chrysin | Tan et al. (2015) | 17 | Rhamnocitrin | Bleier and Chirikdjian (1972), Shen et al., 1998; An (2008) |
| 7 | Acacetin | Tan et al. (2015) | 18 | 7-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyflavone | Guo et al. (2010) |
| 8 | Tectochrysin | Tan et al. (2015) | 19 | Pinocembrin | An et al. (2006a) |
| 9 | Kaempferide | Tan et al. (2015) | 20 | Dihydrogalanginol | Tushar et al. (2010) |
| 10 | Isorhamnetin | Bleier and Chirikdjian (1972) | 21 | Catechin | Zhao (2018) |
| 11 | Galangin 3-O-glucoside | An (2008) |
The flavonoids of A. officinarum.
3.2 Diarylheptanoids
Diarylheptanoid is a group of compounds that contain a 1,7-disubstituted aromatic ring and a heptane skeleton and is an important chemical component of A. officinarum. At present, 49 diarylheptanoid compounds have been isolated from A. officinarum, including 42 chain diarylheptanoids, six cyclic diarylheptanoids, and one polymer of diarylheptanoid and flavonoid, as shown in Figure 2 and Table 4.
FIGURE 2
TABLE 4
| NO. | Compound | Reference | NO. | Compound | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 22 | 1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Hideji et al. (1985) | 47 | 1-(4′,5′-dihydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-phenyl 3,5-heptanediol | An (2008) |
| 23 | 1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Kiuchi et al. (1992) | 48 | (3R,5R)-1-(3′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4″-hydroxyphenyl)-3,5-heptanediol | An (2008) |
| 24 | 5-hydroxy-1,7-bisphenyl-3-heptanone | Sun et al. (2008) | 49 | (3R,5R)-1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-(3″,4″-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5-heptanediol | Tian et al. (2009) |
| 25 | 5-hydroxy-1-phenyl-7 - (4″-hydroxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | An et al. (2006b) | 50 | 1,7-bis-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-heptanediol | Tian et al. (2009) |
| 26 | 5-hydroxy-1-phenyl-7 - (3″, 4″-dihydroxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Sawamura et al. (2010) | 51 | 3,5-diacetoxy-1-(4′,5′-dihydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-(3″,4″- dihydroxyphenyl)-heptane | An (2008) |
| 27 | 5-hydroxy-1-phenyl-7-(4″- hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Matsuda et al. (2009) | 52 | 1,7-diphenyl-4-hepten-3-one | An (2008) |
| 28 | 5-hydroxy-1-phenyl-7-(4″,5″-dihydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Tian et al. (2009) | 53 | 1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one | Sun et al. (2008) |
| 29 | 5-hydroxy-1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-(4″-hydroxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Sun et al. (2008) | 54 | 1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one | Sun et al. (2008) |
| 30 | 5-hydroxy-1-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Shin et al. (2002) | 55 | 1-phenyl-7-(4″,5″-dihydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one | Sawamura et al. (2010) |
| 31 | 5-hydroxy-1,7-bis - (4′- hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Hideji et al. (1985) | 56 | 1-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one | Sawamura et al. (2010) |
| 32 | 5-hydroxy-1-(3′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″- methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Tian et al. (2009) | 57 | 1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-(3″,4″-dihydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one | Tian et al. (2009) |
| 33 | 5-hydroxy-1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-(4″,5″-dihydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | An (2008) | 58 | 5-hydroxy-1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one | An (2008) |
| 34 | 1,7-diphenyl-3,5-heptanedione | An (2008) | 59 | 1,7-diphenyl-5-hepten-3-one | Zhang et al. (2010) |
| 35 | 1- (4′-hydroxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-3,5-heptanedione | An (2008) | 60 | 5-hydroxy-1,7-bisphenyl-4,6-heptadien-3-one | An et al. (2006b) |
| 36 | 1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-3,5-heptanedione | An (2008) | 61 | 5-hydroxy-1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-4,6-heptadiene-3-one | An et al. (2006b) |
| 37 | 5-methoxy-1,7-bisphenyl-3-heptanone | Tian et al. (2009) | 62 | 1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-1-hepten-3-one | Kiuchi et al. (1992) |
| 38 | 5-methoxy-1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Tian et al. (2009) | 63 | 4-phenethyl-1,7-bisphenyl-1-heptene-3,5-dione | Zhang et al. (2010) |
| 39 | 5-methoxy-1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Tian et al. (2009) | 64 | 2-hydroxy-1,7-bisphenyl-4-hepten-3-one | Sun et al. (2008) |
| 40 | 5-methoxy-1-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-7-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | Tian et al. (2009) | 65 | officinarumane A | An (2008) |
| 41 | 5-acetoxy-1-phenyl-7-(4″-hydroxyphenyl)-3-heptanone | An (2008) | 66 | officinarumane B | An (2008) |
| 42 | 5-ethoxy-1-phenyl-7- (4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)-3 heptanone | Liu and Liu (2016) | 67 | officinarumane C | An (2008) |
| 43 | 1,7-diphenyl-3,5-heptanediol | Matsuda et al. (2009) | 68 | 2-benzyl-5-phenylethyl furan | Shen et al. (1998) |
| 44 | (3R,5R)-1-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-3,5-heptadiol | Uehara et al. (1987) | 69 | officinin | Wei et al. (2016) |
| 45 | (3R,5R)-1,7-bis-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-3,5-heptanediol | Tian et al. (2009) | 70 | (5R,5′R)-7,7'-(6,6′-dihydroxy-5,5′-dimethoxy [1,1′-biphenyl]-3,3′-diyl)bis [5-methoxy-1-phenylheptan-3-one] | Sun et al. (2008) |
| 46 | 1-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-7-phenyl-3,5-heptanediol | Tian et al. (2009) |
The structure of diarylheptanoids in A. officinarum.
3.3 Volatile oil
A. officinarum is a type of pungent and warm botanical drugs with a high content of volatile oil. Its spicy scent is one of the indicators used to judge the quality of this herbal medicine. At present, 241 volatile oils have been separated from A. officinarum, mainly including terpenoids (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenoids), aldehydes, ketones, ethers, alcohols, phenols, and other compounds, as shown in Table 5.
TABLE 5
| NO. | Compound name | Reference | NO. | Compound name | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 71 | 1,8- Eucalyptol | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) | 192 | isopentyl isovalerate | Zhai et al. (2014a), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 72 | camphene hydrate | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) | 193 | 2-methylbutyl valerate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 73 | (+)-borneol | Gao et al. (2012),Zhai et al. (2014a) | 194 | 2-methylbutyric acid-3-methylbutyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 74 | Isoborneol | Zou et al. (2018) | 195 | linalyl acetate | Gao et al. (2012) |
| 75 | alpha-terpineol | Yuan et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2018) | 196 | isobutyl 2-methylbutyrate | Zhai et al. (2014a), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 76 | Borneol | Zou et al. (2018) | 197 | cis-3-hexenyl acetate | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 77 | β-pinene | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) | 198 | bornyl acetate | Gao et al. (2012), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 78 | camphene | Zhai et al. (2014a), Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) | 199 | benzaldehyde | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 79 | terpinolene | Dong and Cai (2015), Yuan et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2018) | 200 | phenylpropanal | Dong and Cai (2015), Tang et al. (2021) |
| 80 | alpha-fenchene | Dong and Cai (2015) | 201 | 5-hydroxymethylfurfural | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 81 | gamma-terpinene | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015), Yuan et al. (2016) | 202 | uronic acid | Zou et al. (2018), Tang et al. (2021) |
| 82 | Pinene | Zou et al. (2018) | 203 | sweet neral | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 83 | (R)-(+)-limonene | Zou et al. (2018) | 204 | 1,1-diethoxyethane | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 84 | (+)-3-carene | Zou et al. (2018) | 205 | p-methylphenyl isopropanol | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 85 | alpha-terpinene | Gao et al. (2012), Zhai et al. (2014a), Yuan et al. (2016) | 206 | 4-phenyl-2-butanol | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 86 | 3-carene | Zou et al. (2018) | 207 | 1-methyl-4-(1-methylvinyl)cyclohexanolc | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 87 | tricyclo [2.2.1.0 (2,6)]heptane,1,7,7-trimethyl- | Zhai et al. (2014a),Zou et al. (2018) | 208 | octatriacontyl trifluoroacetate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 88 | phellandrene | Zou et al. (2018) | 209 | (−)-4-terpineol | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 89 | (−)-α-pinene | Zhai et al. (2014a), Yuan et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2018) | 210 | cuminol | Gao et al. (2012), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 90 | 3,7-dimethyl-1,3,6-octatriene | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) | 211 | 2,6,6-trimethyl-bicyclo [3.1.1]heptane-2,3-diol | Gao et al. (2012) |
| 91 | limonene | Gao et al. (2012), Yuan et al. (2016) | 212 | 2,3-butanediol | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 92 | beta-phellandrene | Gao et al. (2012) | 213 | alpha-juniperol | Gao et al. (2012), Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 93 | (−)-camhene | Zou et al. (2018) | 214 | linalool | Yuan et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 94 | α-thujene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 215 | trans-rosinol | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 95 | β-pinene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 216 | (Z)-linalool oxide | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 96 | β-myrcene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 217 | L-linalool | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 97 | 2, 6-dimethyl-1, 3, 7-octadiene | Zhai et al. (2014a) | 218 | 2,3-butanediol | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 98 | (+)-M-mentha-1.8-diene | Zhai et al. (2014a) | 219 | camphor | Dong and Cai (2015), Yuan et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 99 | (+)-4-carene | Zou et al. (2018) | 220 | benzyl acetone | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018), Tang et al. (2021) |
| 100 | O-cymene | Zou et al. (2018) | 221 | methylheptenone | Zhai et al. (2014a), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 101 | valencia orangeene | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015) | 222 | 5-hydroxymethyl-2(5H)-furanone | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 102 | 1-caryophyllene | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015), Yuan et al. (2016) | 223 | (1S)-(−)-camphor bicyclo [2.2.1]heptan-2-one,1,7,7-trimethyl-, (1S) | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 103 | γ-elemene | Dong and Cai (2015) | 224 | 4-methyl-5-nonanone | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 104 | (+)-fumene | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015) | 225 | 3-butylene-1(3H)-isobenzofuranone | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 105 | α-farnesene | Dong and Cai (2015), Yuan et al. (2016) | 226 | 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 106 | (−)-β-huperene | Tang et al. (2021) | 227 | 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 107 | longifolene | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015) | 228 | paeonol | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 108 | phenylethanol | Tang et al. (2021) | 229 | 2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 109 | γ-muurolene | Yuan et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2018) | 230 | 2,2′-methylenebis (6-tert-butyl-p-cresol) | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 110 | naphthalene,1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-4a,8-dimethyl-2-(1-methylethenyl)-, [2R-(2α,4aα,8aβ)] | Zou et al. (2018) | 231 | naphthalene,1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-7-methyl-4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (1α,4aβ,8aα) | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 111 | γ-selinene | Gao et al. (2012), Zou et al. (2018) | 232 | 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol | Gao et al. (2012) |
| 112 | (E)-alpha-bergamotene | Zou et al. (2018) | 233 | hirsutene | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 113 | 1,6-cyclodecadiene,1-methyl-5-methylene-8-(1-methylethyl)-, [S-(E,E)] | Zou et al. (2018) | 234 | (1,7,7-trimethylnorbornane-2-YL) acetate bicyclo [2.2.1]heptan-2-ol,1,7,7-trimethyl-, 2-acetate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 114 | (−)-alpha-piperolene | Yuan et al. (2016),Zou et al. (2018) | 235 | AR-curcumene | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 115 | α-elemene | Zou et al. (2018) | 236 | 3,5-dimethoxytoluene | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 116 | 2,6-dimethyl-6-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl) bicyclo [3.1.1]hept-2-ene | Zou et al. (2018) | 237 | safrole | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 117 | (−)-alpha-gurenene | Gao et al. (2012), Dong and Cai (2015) | 238 | palmitic acid | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 118 | α-amorphene | Zou et al. (2018) | 239 | acetamic acid | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 119 | α-caryophyllene | Dong and Cai (2015), Yuan et al. (2016) | 240 | 3,6-dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7a-hexahydrobenzofuran | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 120 | α-Ilanolene | Gao et al. (2012) | 241 | 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 121 | (−)-isosativene | Gao et al. (2012) | 242 | anethole | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 122 | isoflavene | Gao et al. (2012) | 243 | octadecane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 123 | α-longleaf pinene | Gao et al. (2012) | 244 | nonadecane | Dong and Cai (2015), Zou et al. (2018) |
| 124 | α-guaiene | Gao et al. (2012) | 245 | eicosan | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 125 | γ-gurenene | Gao et al. (2012) | 246 | hecosane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 126 | beta-juniperene | Gao et al. (2012) | 247 | docosane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 127 | aristolochene | Gao et al. (2012) | 248 | pentacosane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 128 | (+)-hornene | Gao et al. (2012) | 249 | trisane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 129 | epizonarene | Gao et al. (2012) | 250 | tetracosane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 130 | β-cedrene | Gao et al. (2012) | 251 | hexadecane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 131 | delta-juniperene | Gao et al. (2012), Yuan et al. (2016) | 252 | 1-docosene | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 132 | calamene | Gao et al. (2012) | 253 | cholesta-3,5-diene | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 133 | alpha-elemene | Gao et al. (2012) | 254 | 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran | Tang et al. (2021) |
| 134 | (−)-isoprene | Gao et al. (2012) | 255 | 2,4-cyclohexadien-1-one,3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-hydroxy- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 135 | neosyringatricyclone | Gao et al. (2012) | 256 | 2,4-dimethylbenzo[h]quinoline | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 136 | ylangene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 257 | toluene | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 137 | α-copaene | Zhai et al. (2014a), Yuan et al. (2016) | 258 | 2,4-dimethylstyrene | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 138 | β-elemene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 259 | (1R,2S,3S)-1,2-dimethyl-3-isopropenylcyclopentanol | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 139 | santalene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 260 | t-cadinol | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 140 | trans-bergamotene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 261 | β-santalol | Gao et al. (2012) |
| 141 | fragranene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 262 | pentanoic acid,2-ethylhexyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 142 | geranene D | Yuan et al. (2016) | 263 | decane, 3,3,6-trimethyl- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 143 | cyclic isofolene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 264 | 2-dodecen-1-yl succinic anhydride | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 144 | beta-selinene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 265 | 2-octylcyclopropaneoctanal | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 145 | β-bisabolene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 266 | 3-methyloctadecane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 146 | β-panasinsene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 267 | 1H-pyrrole, 1-butyl- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 147 | γ-cadinene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 268 | bergamotenol | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 148 | selina-3,7 (11)-diene | Yuan et al. (2016) | 269 | methyl eugenol | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 149 | germacrene B | Yuan et al. (2016) | 270 | 2-hydroxy-1,8-cineole | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 150 | allomanerene | Zhai et al. (2014a) | 271 | (E)-linalool oxide (furanoid) | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 151 | α-amorphene | Zhai et al. (2014a) | 272 | (cis)-2-methyl-2-vinyl-5-isopropyl-tetrahydrofuran | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 152 | caryophyllene oxide | Dong and Cai (2015),Yuan et al. (2016) | 273 | juniper camphor | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 153 | 2-methyl-1-propanol butyrate | Dong and Cai (2015) | 274 | α-bergamotol | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 154 | bornyl L-acetate | Zhai et al. (2014a),Dong and Cai (2015) | 275 | 5-hydroxy-1,7-diphenyl-3-heptanone | Yuan et al. (2016) |
| 155 | acetate-(4-phenyl)-2-butyl ester | Dong and Cai (2015) | 276 | (E,E)-2,6-dimethyl-2,6-octadienedial | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 156 | methyl cinnamate | Dong and Cai (2015) | 277 | 3-methylene-6-hepten-2-one | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 157 | methyl isovalerate | Dong and Cai (2015) | 278 | 1-cmethylene-6-hepten-2-one | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 158 | isobutyl isobutyrate | Zhai et al. (2014a),Zou et al. (2018) | 279 | 1-nonyne | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 159 | fenugreek acetate | Dong and Cai (2015),Zou et al. (2018),Tang et al. (2021) | 280 | 4-(2-oxopropyl) cycloheptan-1-one | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 160 | 2-phenylethyl isobutyrate | Yuan et al. (2016),Zou et al. (2018) | 281 | longanine | Zhai et al. (2014a) |
| 161 | methyl myristate | Zou et al. (2018) | 282 | benzoic acid,2,4-bis [(trimethylsilyl) oxy]-, teimethysilyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 162 | phenethyl butyrate | Zou et al. (2018) | 283 | octadecylcyclononane siloxane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 163 | ethylene glycol dimethacrylate | Zou et al. (2018) | 284 | borneol chloride | Gao et al. (2012) |
| 164 | isobutyl isovalerate | Yuan et al. (2016),Zou et al. (2018) | 285 | 1-chlorodocosane behenyl chloride | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 165 | isoamyl isobutyrate | Zhai et al. (2014a),Yuan et al. (2016),Zou et al. (2018) | 286 | butyl isothiocyanate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 166 | amyl valerate | Zou et al. (2018) | 287 | 2-bromo-4,5-dimethoxycinnamic acid | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 167 | isobutyl benzoate | Yuan et al. (2016),Zou et al. (2018) | 288 | 2-benzylimidazoline | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 168 | 2-phenylethyl isovalerate | Zhai et al. (2014a),Yuan et al. (2016),Zou et al. (2018) | 289 | cyclopentacarbazide | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 169 | 2-methylbutyric acid-2-phenethyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) | 290 | 4-amino-5-cyano-7-(beta-d-ribofuranose) pyrrolo [2,3-day] pyrimidine toyocamycin | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 170 | N-phenylacetamide | Gao et al. (2012) | 291 | 10S,11S-cedar-3 (12)-diene | Dong and Cai (2015) |
| 171 | isocineole | Gao et al. (2012) | 292 | androst-5,15-dien-3ol acetate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 172 | 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-1,3-cyclohexadiene | Gao et al. (2012) | 293 | borneol, trifluoroacetate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 173 | aminobenzyl alcohol | Gao et al. (2012) | 294 | benzamide,2,3,4-trifluoro-N-methyl-N-phenyl- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 174 | Seselene | Gao et al. (2012) | 295 | bicyclo [2.2.1]heptane,2-chloro-1,7,7-trimethyl-, (1R-endo)- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 175 | trans-1,3-diphenylcyclobutane | Gao et al. (2012) | 296 | 1,3,5,7,9-pentaethylbicyclo [5.3.1] pentasiloxane | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 176 | β-chlorophylene | Gao et al. (2012) | 297 | silane, (2-ethynylphenyl) trimethyl- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 177 | 1,4-bis [methyl (tetramethylene)silyloxy]butane | Gao et al. (2012) | 298 | 1-cyano-N-fluoroformimidoyl fluoride (anti) | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 178 | citronella | Gao et al. (2012) | 299 | 3,6-dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7a-hexahydrobenzofuran | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 179 | 3,7 (11)-epipindiene | Gao et al. (2012) | 300 | ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl) propan-2-yl carbonate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 180 | thornene | Gao et al. (2012) | 301 | 3-quinolinecarboxylic acid,6,8-difluoro-4-hydroxy-, ethyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 181 | spiroterpene alcohol | Gao et al. (2012) | 302 | trimethylsilyl 3-methyl 4-[(trimethylsilyl) oxy] benzoate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 182 | (1α,4aα,8aα)-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-7-methyl-4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-naphthalene | Gao et al. (2012) | 303 | oxirane,2-methyl-3-phenyl- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 183 | 3,8-dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-1,2-naphthalenedione | Gao et al. (2012) | 304 | cyclobutanecarboxylic acid,2-phenylethyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 184 | (4aR-trans)-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-4a,8-dimethyl-2-(1-methylethylene)-naphthalene | Gao et al. (2012) | 305 | 4-nitrobenzoylmethyl-β-phenylpropionate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 185 | γ-longleaf pinene | Gao et al. (2012) | 306 | di-epi-α-ccedrene-(Ⅰ) | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 186 | alpha-santalol | Gao et al. (2012) | 307 | ar-tumerone | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 187 | 1,4-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethyl)-chamomile | Gao et al. (2012) | 308 | tetrapentacontane,1,54-dibromo- | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 188 | decane,5,6-bis(2,2-dimethylpropylidene)-(Z,Z) | Zou et al. (2018) | 309 | e−8-methyl-9-tetradecen-1-ol acetate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 189 | 1,1,6-trimethyl-3-methylene-2 (3,6,9,13-tetramethyl-6-ethenye-10,14-dimethylene-pentadec-4-enyl)cyclohexane | Zou et al. (2018) | 310 | hexadecanediniteile | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 190 | sulfurous acid, butyl heptadecyl ester | Zou et al. (2018) | 311 | octacosyl trifluoroacetate | Zou et al. (2018) |
| 191 | cyclohexane,1,2-dimethyl-3-pentyl-4-propyl | Zou et al. (2018) |
Volatile oil from A. officinarum.
3.4 Other compounds
In addition, A. officinarum contains 7 phenylpropanoids, 11 glycosides, 5 organic acids, 2 sterols and their glycosides, and 1 lactone, as shown in Figure 3 and Table 6.
FIGURE 3
TABLE 6
| NO. | Compound | Category | Reference | NO. | Compound | Category | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 312 | p-hydroxyphenylpropenol | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 325 | 1,2-bis-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-4-allylbenzene | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) |
| 313 | p-hydroxyphenylpropene methyl ester | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 326 | N-butyl-β-D-fructopyranoside | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) |
| 314 | (4E)-1,5-bis-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methoxy-2-(methoxy)-phenyl-4-pentene (2a,2b) | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 327 | 4′-hydroxy-2′-methoxyphenol | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) |
| 315 | (4E)-1,5-bis-(4-hydroxy)-phenyl-2-(methoxymethyl)4-penten-1-ol (2a,2b) | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 328 | 1-O-(6-Oα-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl)-4-allylbenzene | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) |
| 316 | (4E)-1,5bis-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-ethoxy-2-(methoxymethyl)-4-pentene (2a,2b) | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 329 | 1-O-(6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl)-2-hydroxy-4-allylbenzene | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) |
| 317 | (4E)-1,5-bis-(4-hydroxy)-phenyl-2-(hydroxy)-phenyl-4-penten-1-ol (2a,2b) | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 330 | p-hydroxybenzoic acid | organic acid | An (2008) |
| 318 | (4E)-1,5-bis-(4-hydroxy)-phenyl-1-[(2E)-3-(4-acetoxyphenyl)-2-propenyloxy]-2-diethyl ether-4-pentene | phenylpropanoid | Ly et al. (2003) | 331 | p-methoxybenzoic acid | organic acid | An (2008) |
| 319 | (1R,3S,4S)-trans-3-hydroxy-1,8-cineole-β-D-glucopyranoside | glycoside | An et al. (2006c) | 332 | 3,4 dihydroxybenzoic acid | organic acid | An (2008) |
| 320 | benzyl-β-D-glucopyranoside | glycoside | An et al. (2006c) | 333 | 8-hydroxy-3-methoxyisochroman-1-one | organic acid | An (2008) |
| 321 | 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-4-allylbenzene | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) | 334 | behenic acid | organic acid | An (2008) |
| 322 | 3-methyl-2-butene-β-D-glucopyranoside | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) | 335 | atractylide Ⅰ | lactone | An (2008) |
| 323 | 1-hydroxy-2-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-4-allylbenzene | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) | 336 | beta-sitosterol | sterol | An (2008) |
| 324 | 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-2-hydroxy-4-allylbenzene | glycoside | Ly et al. (2002) | 337 | carotene | terpenoid | An (2008) |
Other compounds in A. officinarum.
4 Pharmacokinetic study of the active compounds of A. officinarum
As one of the main active compounds of A. officinarum, galangin (3,5,7-trihydroxyflavone) has a variety of biological activities. Once galangin is consumed, it is metabolized in the intestine and liver, where it undergoes glucuronidation, methylation, and sulfation reactions. The pharmacokinetics of galangin-3-O-β-D-glucuronic acid (GG-1) and galangin-7-O-β-D-glucuronic acid (GG-2), two metabolites of A. officinarum, were studied in vivo. It was found (Liu et al., 2021) that, after oral administration of A. officinarum extract (0.3 g/kg) in rats, the peak concentrations (Cmax) of GG-1 and GG-2 were 6069.6 ± 1140.6 and 10596.0 ± 2395.7 ng/mL, respectively, reaching their peak concentrations at 0.2 ± 0.1 h. Area under curve (0-t) (AUC0-t), mean residence time (0-t) (MRT0-t), and t1/2 of GG-1 were 2390.9 ± 678.0 h μg/L, 1.4 ± 0.8 h, and 2.2 ± 0.7 h, respectively, while the corresponding values of GG-2 were 4554.9 ± 884.9 h·μg/L, 1.6 ± 0.7 h, and 3.3 ± 0.2 h, respectively. Obviously, the most significant difference between GG-1 and GG-2 is the AUC0-t and Cmax, where the parameter values of GG-2 are almost twice those of GG-1.
In addition, a previous study (Xin Zhang et al., 2021) found that microemulsion can promote the absorption of galangin and improve its bioavailability. The blood concentration of galangin in Liangfu Pill could not be detected after the rabbits were given Liangfu Pill by gavage once. For Liangfu micromilk, the absorption half-life (t1/2ka) of galangin was 0.29 h, the peak time (tpeak) was 0.75 h, the elimination half-life (t1/2ke) was 1.47 h, Cmax was 38.46 μg/L, and the AUC was 129.42 (μg·h)/L. In another study (Xianhua Du et al., 2008), it was found that a self-microemulsion of galangin was absorbed throughout the entire intestinal tract of rats. The absorption rate constants (Ka) in the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and colon were 2.37, 1.70, 2.29, and 3.98 times higher than those of the galangin suspension, respectively. Additionally, the apparent absorption coefficients (Papp) were 3.58, 2.56, 3.57, and 5.16 times higher than those of the galangin suspension, respectively. The relative bioavailability of the self-microemulsion of galangin was 220%, compared to the galangin suspension.
5 Pharmacological effects of A. officinarum
A. officinarum is an important traditional Chinese medicine, and its main chemical components are flavonoids, volatile oils, and diarylheptanoids. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that A. officinarum has various pharmacological effects, including anti-ulcer, inhibition of gastrointestinal motility, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, antioxidant, anti-tumor, antibacterial, and hypoglycemic properties, as shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7
| Pharmacological effects | Extracts/compounds | Model | Dosage/concentration | Effects/mechanisms | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antiulcer | Supercritical extract of A. officinarum | SD rat, model of restraint water immersion stress ulcer | High and low dose group 100, 50, 25 mg/(kg·d), administration for 4 days, once a day | Reducing the ulcer index of rats with restraint water immersion stress ulcer and reducing the gastric juice secretion, serum GAS level and pepsin activity of the model rats, the gastric mucosal SS level increased significantly, approaching the normal level | Peng et al. (2008) |
| Supercritical extract of A. officinarum | SD rat, model of restraint water immersion stress ulcer | High and low dose group 100, 50, 25 mg/(kg·d), administration for 5 days, once a day | Reduce the ulcer index of the model rats and significantly increase the levels of serum IL-2 and EGF in the model rats, bring them close to normal levels | Wu et al. (2004a) | |
| Galangin | SD male rats, pylorus ligated gastric ulcers model, indomethacin gastric ulcers model, ICR male mice, ethanol gastric ulcers model | Pylorus ligation gastric ulcers model: 100 mg/kg, once a day for 5 days, indomethacin and ethanol gastric ulcers models: 50, 100, 200 mg/kg, once a day for 6 days | Galangin has an obvious effect on gastric ulcers in mice with alcoholic gastric ulcers induced by pylorus ligation, but it has no effect on the indomethacin gastric ulcers model in rats | Li (2007) | |
| Different extracts of A. officinarum | Kunming mice, SD rats; ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury model in mice; gastric ulcers model in rats induced by aspirin and indomethacin | 0.75, 3.00, 12 g/kg body weight, ethanol model for 7 days, aspirin model for 15 days, indomethacin model for 10 days, once a day | The mechanism of the anti-ulcer effect of A. officinarum may be through inhibiting inflammatory factors to decrease GAS and increase COX-2 and PGE2, thereby improving the protective effect of gastric mucosa and reduce the injury of the gastric ulcers | Wei (2019) | |
| A. officinarum | BALB/c mice; animal model of Helicobacter pylori associated gastritis | Low, medium and high dose: 0.09 g/kg, 0.18 g/kg, 0.36 g/(kg·day), 21 days | A. officinarum may inhibit H. pylori--associated gastritis by inhibiting the activation of MAPK and its catalysis of NF-κB phosphorylation | Ma (2019) | |
| A. officinarum oil | ICR mice, reserpine to mouse gastric ulcers model | High, middle and low dose groups: 8, 4 and 2 mL/kg, once a day, for 6 days | A. officinarum oil can increase the activity of serum SOD and decrease the level of MDA to play a role in antioxidant stress and achieve the purpose of anti-GU | Wang et al. (2011) | |
| A. officinarum oil | ICR mice, reserpine to mouse gastric ulcers model | High, middle and low dose groups: 8, 4 and 2 mL/kg, once a day, for 6 days | A. officinarum oil can relieve spasms of gastrointestinal smooth muscle in mice with gastric ulcers induced by reserpine and reduce tension in gastrointestinal muscles and exert its antispasmodic and analgesic effects | Wang Haiyan et al. (2011) | |
| diphenylheptane extract of A. officinarum | Female BALB/c mice, the model of gastric injury induced by ethanol | High, middle and low dose: 126.8 mg/kg, 63.4 mg/kg, 31.7 mg/kg, given for 7 days | DPHs increased the activity of superoxide dismutase, decreased the levels of inflammatory mediators, malondialdehyde, motilin, and gastrin, decreased the activities of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, and inhibited the expression of Toll-like receptor 4, myeloid differentiation factor 88 and nuclear factor-κ B on protein and mRNA | Lin et al. (2021) | |
| Total flavonoids of A. officinarum | In vivo: BALB/c mice; ethanol-induced gastric ulcers model in vivo and in vitro; gastric mucosal epithelial cells in vitro | High, middle, and low dose: 126.8 mg/kg, 63.4 mg/kg, 31.7 mg/kg | The total flavonoids of A. officinarum effectively decreased the ulcer index, decreased the release of inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF- α and PGE2), increased the content of nitric oxide, and improved the secretion of GAS and MTL | Lin et al. (2020) | |
| Inhibition of gastrointestinal motility | A. officinarum decoction and its different parts | Kunming mouse; New Zealand rabbit | High and low dose: 8 g/kg and 4 g/kg for 7 days | The main antispasmodic and analgesic components of A. officinarum are flavonoids and diarylheptanoids, in which the gastrointestinal spasmolysis is stronger than that of flavonoids, and the analgesic effect of diarylheptanoids is stronger | Gui et al. (2021) |
| Different active parts of A. officinarum | Ten New Zealand rabbits, both male and female | 0.05 g/L | The active components of A. officinarum extract could inhibit the spontaneous movement of intestinal muscle in a dose-dependent manner and each active component could inhibit intestinal spasm induced by acetylcholine | Cheng et al. (2015) | |
| A. officinarum | New Zealand rabbit; NIH mouse; SD rat | 0.2 mL/10 g | The supercritical extract of A. officinarum can inhibit the excitation of intestinal smooth muscle induced by neostigmine and antagonize muscarinic receptors | Wu et al. (2004b) | |
| Analgesic and anti-inflammatory | Total flavonoids of A. officinarum | NIH mouse; SD rat | Low, medium, and high doses: 16.6, 33.2, and 66.4 g/kg | The total flavonoids of A. officinarum had an obvious inhibitory effect on the acute inflammation model and pain in mice induced by acetic acid and heat stimulation | Chen et al. (2009) |
| Total flavonoids of A. officinarum | SD rats, NIH mice; acetic acid-induced IBS model rats | High, middle, and low dose: 2, 1, 0.5 g/kg, for two consecutive weeks, once a day | The total flavonoids of A. officinarum can effectively reduce the visceral sensitivity of IBS rats induced by acetic acid and inhibit the pain induced by heat stimulation, acetic acid, and formaldehyde in mice | Liang et al. (2013) | |
| Galangin | KM mouse; NRK-52E cell; mouse UAN model | Low, medium and high doses: 100, 200, 400 mg/kg, once a day for 15 days | Galangin can significantly inhibit the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes and the release of inflammatory factors IL-1β and IL-18 in NRK-52E cells | Lu et al. (2020) | |
| Galangin | Female BALB/c mice; asthma model | 15.5 mg/kg, once a day for 4 days | Galangin can exert its anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the activity of NF-κB and down-regulating the expression of MCP-1, Eotaxin, CXCL10, and VCAM-1 mRNA in human airway smooth muscle cells induced by TNF-α | Cha (2015) | |
| Galangin | Female BALB/c mice; establishment of mouse asthma model sensitized and challenged by ovalbumin | 10 mg/kg | Galangin can reduce the expression of TNF-α and decrease airway inflammation in asthmatic mice | Gu and Wu (2017) | |
| A. officinarum | Male SD rats; Kunming mice, half male and half female | Alcohol extract of A. officinarum 20 g/kg, 10 g/kg, 5 g/kg, water extract 30 g/kg, 15 g/kg | A. officinarum has a certain effect on fever and inflammation, and the 75% ethanol extract has a stronger effect than the water extract | Yan et al. (2013) | |
| Galangin | Adult male ICR mice; BV2 microglial cell line | 50 mg/kg, once a day for 4 days | Galangin inhibits the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), COX-2 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, and enhances the anti-inflammatory IL-10 in poly (ipurc)-stimulated microglia | Choi et al. (2017) | |
| Water extract of A. officinarum | Male NC/Nga mice | 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg | The anti-inflammatory effect of A. officinarum water extract is related to its inhibitory effect on mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, and signal transduction pathway 1 | Song et al. (2021) | |
| Bioactive components of A. officinarum | RAW 264.7 mice; macrophages | 0, 12.5, 25, and 50 mM | Galangin has an anti-inflammatory effect on endotoxin-activated macrophages by inhibiting the expression of ERK, NF-kB-p65, and pro-inflammatory genes | Li et al. (2021) | |
| Antioxidant | Total flavonoids of A. officinarum (TFAO) | Male ICR mice | Determination of GSH-Px activity: 5,10,20 mg/L, TFAO 40 μL, determination of MDA content: 10,20,40 mg/L, TFAO 0.2 mL; erythrocyte oxidative hemolysis: 0.2 mL 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/L TFAO | TFAO can effectively scavenge O2-, ·OH and DPPH·, and its ability of scavenging O2- is stronger than that of the traditional antioxidant VC; It can significantly enhance the activity of GSH-Px in mouse liver and brain homogenate, effectively inhibiting the production of MDA, maintaining the integrity of cell membranes, inhibiting erythrocyte oxidative hemolysis induced by H2O2, and reducing tissue oxidative damage | Xia et al. (2009) |
| Total flavonoids of A. officinarum | Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans | 2.5 mL, purity over 98% | In terms of antioxidation, quercetin showed good antioxidant activity, while galangin had the lowest antioxidant activity. However, but the activity of galangin was similar to that of kaempferol and kaempferol in the ABTS radical scavenging test | Wang et al. (2017) | |
| Total flavonoids of A. officinarum | 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.20 mg/mL | The scavenging rate of total flavonoids of A. officinarum on DPPH radical increased with the increase in concentration. The scavenging rate was lower than that of Vc, with an IC50 of 0.05 mg/mL, which was equivalent to the IC50 of BHT | Shi et al. (2012) | ||
| Total flavonoids of A. officinarum | Male ICR mice | Low, medium and high dose: 100, 100, 300, and 500 mg/kg | TFAO can significantly increase the activities of antioxidant enzymes (GSH-Px, SOD, CAT) and the content of GSH in lead-poisoned mice, improving lipid peroxidation and providing significant protection against lead poisoning-induced oxidative stress | Xia et al. (2013) | |
| Galangin | C57 male mice | 25 mg/kg lasted until 4 weeks after operation | Galangin attenuates cardiac fibrosis induced by AB by reducing cardiac oxidative stress and inhibiting the transformation of cardiac fibroblasts into myofibroblasts | Yang et al. (2020) | |
| Galangin | Male KM mice; NRK-52E cells | Low, medium, and high doses: 100,200,400 mg/kg | Galangin can significantly inhibit the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes and the release of IL-1β and IL-18 in NRK-52E cells | Lu et al. (2020) | |
| Galangin | Female Spraguee-Dawley rats; bilateral ovariectomy model | 300 mg/(kg·d), last for 12 weeks | The ethanol extract of AOH can significantly reverse bone loss, in part by increasing bone formation and inhibiting bone resorption associated with its antioxidant effect | Su et al. (2016) | |
| A. officinarum oil | Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae | 0.02 g/mL | The peroxide value (POV) and acid value (AV) of peanut oil of A. officinarum volatile oil were lower | Huang et al. (2015) | |
| Different components of A. officinarum extract | HepG2 hepatoma cell line; HepG2 oxidative damage model induced by H2O2 in human hepatoma cell line | High, medium, and low doses: 300, 200 and 100 mg, administered continuously for 30 days | The diphenylheptane fraction of A. officinarum extract showed antioxidant-related activity in vitro and in vivo, followed by flavonoids | Lin et al. (2017) | |
| Anti-liver injury | A. officinarum | Kunming mice, half male and half female; alcohol-induced acute alcoholic liver injury model in mice | Low, medium, and high dose: 1, 2, and 4 g/kg | A. officinarum may have a protective effect on alcoholic liver injury in mice by scavenging free radicals and providing antioxidant effect. However, its active components and specific mechanism need to be further studied | Zhou et al. (2012) |
| Galangin | C57BL/6 mice; concanavalin A (ConA)-induced hepatitis model | 25 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg | Galangin inhibits NF-κB and STAT1 signal transduction, resulting in a decrease in the expression and secretion of many inflammatory mediators | Luo et al. (2015) | |
| Hypoglycemic | A. officinarum | ICR male mice | 200 mg/kg | An 80% ethanol elution site can significantly reduce the blood glucose level of acute hyperglycemic mice | C et al. (2017) |
| A. officinarum and its extract | Male New Zealand White Rabbit | 4 g/kg | After oral administration of 3 and 4 g/kg A officinarum root powder for 4–8 h, the blood glucose level of normal rabbits decreased significantly | Akhtar et al. (2002) | |
| A. officinarum extract | Male Wistar rats; type 2 diabetic rats induced by nicotinamide/streptozotocin as model | 100, 200, and 500 mg/kg for 28 days | The rhizome extract of A. officinarum exhibits antidiabetic effects in rats with type 2 diabetes | Heidari et al. (2022) | |
| Hypolipidemic | Total flavonoids of A. officinarum (TFAO) | Male SD rats | Low, medium, and high doses: 100, 200, 200, and 300 mg | TFAO has significant effects on regulating blood lipids, antioxidation and protecting liver, and can regulate the expression of obesity-related factors, which may be the mechanism of its slimming and lipid-lowering effect | Fang et al. (2015) |
| Anticoagulant | A. officinarum and its main components | Wistar rat model of left carotid artery thrombosis | The water extract of A. officinarum is 10, 20 g/kg, and the ether extract of A. officinarum is 0.2 and 0.4 g/kg | The water extract of A. officinarum and the volatile oil of A. officinarum have obvious inhibitory effect on thrombosis in rats and have certain anticoagulant effect, which mainly participate in the endogenous coagulation system to improve the blood flow state | Xu et al. (1991) |
| Antibacterial | A. officinarum flavonoids | VVISA standard strain Mu50; methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus standard strains N315 and ATCC25293 | 0, 4, 8, and 16 μg/mL | Galangin can effectively inhibit the activity of murein hydrolase and the growth of VISA strain Mu50 | Ouyang et al. (2018) |
| Quercetin | Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 | 125–256 μg/mL | Quercetin is an effective drug for inhibiting the formation of bacterial biofilm and virulence factors | Ouyang et al. (2016) | |
| Diarylheptanoid | Candida albicans (SC5314) | 5 mg/mL | The chloroform extract of A. officinarum has the strongest antibacterial activity | Zhao et al. (2007) | |
| Effective components of volatile oil | 16 strains of bacteria | Seven concentrations of 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.13, 1.56, and 0.78 μL/mL | The activity of A. officinarum volatile oil against the above-mentioned superficial dermatophytes is mainly by inhibiting their growth | Gui et al. (2005) | |
| A. officinarum extract | Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Acinetobacter, E. coli | Four concentrations of 0.5 g/ml, 0.25 g/mL, 0.125 g/mL, and 0.0625 g/mL | The extract of A. officinarum has good bacteriostatic effect on Staphylococcus aureus, but has no bacteriostatic effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Acinetobacter and Escherichia coli | Qin et al. (2015) | |
| Improve memory ability | Different extracts of A. officinarum | Kunming mice; model of memory acquisition impairment induced by scopolamine in mice | 3.33 mg/kg | Improve the ability of scavenging free radicals, reduce the levels of free radicals, and enhance the function of the central cholinergic nervous system | Liu et al. (2010a) |
| Galangin | Kunming mice | Low and high dose 10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg for 2 weeks, once a day | Galangin may play a role in delaying aging by increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes and reducing the production of free radicals | Fu et al. (2012) | |
| Galangin | APP/PS1 double transgene mice; C57BL/6 mice | Low, medium and high dose 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg | Galangin may improve learning and memory impairment in mice by regulating the Akt/MEF2D/Beclin-1 signaling pathway | Huang et al. (2022) | |
| A. officinarum extract | PC12 Cell | 1, 10, 20, and 50 μg | The extract of A. officinarum could significantly reduce the leakage rate of intracellular lactate dehydrogenase, decrease the content of intracellular MDA and increase the activities of SOD and GSH-Px in a concentration-dependent manner | Zhai et al. (2014b) | |
| A. officinarum extract | Kunming mouse; model of memory consolidation disorder induced by sodium nitrite in mice | 6.66, 3.33, 1.67 mg/kg (all in terms of crude drug quantity), once a day for 13 consecutive days | The mechanism may be related to improving the scavenging ability of free radicals and reducing the levels of free radicals | Liu et al. (2010b) | |
| A. officinarum extract | Kunming mice; model of memory acquisition impairment induced by scopolamine in mice | 6.66, 3.33, 1.67 mg/kg (all in terms of crude drug quantity) | Both the water extract and ethanol extract of A. officinarum could significantly improve the histological changes in the hippocampus of mice with memory acquisition impairment | Zhao et al. (2010) | |
| A. officinarum extract | Kunming mouse; mouse model of acute cerebral ischemia; mouse model of memory acquisition impairment induced by berberine | 6.66, 3.33, 1.67 mg/kg (all calculated by 3.33 mg/kg) | The water extract of A. officinarum can effectively reduce the brain water content and cerebral vascular permeability after acute cerebral ischemia | Chen (2012) | |
| Anti-tumor | Galangin | Human hepatocellular carcinoma SMMC-7721 | MTT method: 5.4, 10.8, 21.6, 43.2, 86.4 μg/mL; flow cytometry to analyze cell cycle/apoptosis: 10.8, 21.6, 43.2 μg/mL | Galangin may play a role in inducing apoptosis of the human hepatoma cell line SMMC-7721 through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway | Liu et al. (2014) |
| Galangin | Seven kinds of tumor cells | 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 μmol/L | The inhibitory effect of galangin on different tumor cells was time-and concentration-dependent | Luo and Liu (2020) | |
| Galangin | Human osteosarcoma MG-63 cells | 20, 40, 80, and 100 mM | Galangin can inhibit the proliferation and induce apoptosis of human osteosarcoma MG-63 cells, and its mechanism is related to the mitochondrial pathway | Song et al. (2012) | |
| Galangin | Cervical cancer SiHa cells | 150, 125, 100, 75, 50, and 25 μg/mL | Galangin can induce apoptosis by increasing the transcription level of the apoptosis executive on factor caspase 3 and promoting the degradation of intracellular structural proteins | Abudula (2016) | |
| Galangin | Hepatoma cell | 134, 87.3, and 79.8 μmol/L | Galangin induces apoptosis in HCC by activating the cysteine aspartate protease 8/t-Bid mitochondrial pathway | Zhang et al. (2012) | |
| Kaempferol | HCCLM3 and Huh7 cells | 40, 80, and 120 μM | Kaempferol induces cell cycle arrest in HCC cells by regulating the ATM/CHEK2/KNL1 signaling pathway | Li et al. (2024) | |
| A. officinarum extract | MCF-7, LNCaP, and fibroblast cells | 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μg/mL | A. officinarum extract induces apoptosis in two types of cancer cells | Kazemi et al. (2022) |
Study on pharmacological effects of A. officinarum.
5.1 Effects on gastrointestinal function
A. officinarum is an essential medicine for treating deficiency-cold of the spleen and stomach, as well as epigastric cold pain in traditional Chinese medicine. It is mainly used in the treatment of digestive tract diseases such as dyspepsia, acid reflux, and gastric ulcers. Wei (2019) used anhydrous ethanol and aspirin to induce two types of gastric ulcers models to study the effects of different extracts of A. officinarum on mice with gastric ulcers. The results showed that the aqueous extract of A. officinarum had a good anti-ulcer effect and decreased the ulcer index. It was inferred that the mechanism of the anti-ulcer effect of A. officinarum may be through inhibiting inflammatory factors, reducing gastrin (GAS), increasing cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), thereby enhancing the protective effect of the gastric mucosa and reducing gastric injury. Wang et al. (2011) studied the therapeutic effect of the volatile oil of A. officinarum on gastric ulcers. The results showed that the volatile oil of A. officinarum could reduce the gastric ulcer index and increase the ulcer inhibition rate in mice. A. officinarum reduces the levels of serum motilin (MOT) and substance P (SP), while increasing the levels of serum somatostatin (SS) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in order to exert its anti-ulcer effect. In addition, the study found that the volatile oil of A. officinarum can increase the levels of serum nitric oxide (NO), expand the blood vessel walls, improve the microcirculation of the gastric mucosa, strengthen the mucosal barrier, scavenge oxygen free radicals, and protect the normal function of the gastric mucosa.
A. officinarum has an obvious gastrointestinal spasmolytic effect, and its decoction can inhibit gastrointestinal propulsive movement. Gui et al. (2021) observed the effect of the total flavonoids of A. officinarum on the propulsive movement of the small intestine in normal rats using the charcoal powder method. The results showed that the total flavonoids of A. officinarum not only significantly inhibited the intestinal motility of normal rats, but also antagonized the hyperfunction of the small intestine induced by neostigmine. The mechanism may be that it affects the secretion and release of gastrointestinal hormones, such as somatostatin and vasoactive intestinal peptide, thus relaxing the smooth muscle. Cheng Yuan et al. (Cheng et al., 2015) studied the effects of various active components of A. officinarum on intestinal spasms induced by acetylcholine and on normal intestinal muscles in isolated rabbits. The results showed that the active components of A. officinarum extract could inhibit the spontaneous movement of intestinal muscles in a dose-dependent manner. Among these components, flavonoids and diphenylheptanes were the most prominent, and they were stronger than anisodamine. The mechanism of A. officinarum in improving gastrointestinal function is shown in Figure 4.
FIGURE 4
5.2 Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect
A. officinarum is hot and pungent, which has the effect of dispelling cold and relieving pain. As the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for long-term treatment of inflammation can cause obvious side effects, plants are constantly being developed as potential anti-inflammatory agents. Chen et al. (2009) used the carrageenan rat foot swelling model, the xylene mouse ear swelling model, and a capillary permeability experiment to study the anti-inflammatory effect of the total flavonoids extracted from A. officinarum. The mouse hot plate method and torsion test were used to observe the analgesic effect of the total flavonoids extracted from A. officinarum. The results showed that the total flavonoids extracted from A. officinarum had a significant inhibitory effect on acute inflammation models, such as toe swelling induced by carrageenan, auricle swelling induced by xylene, and an increase in celiac capillary permeability induced by acetic acid in mice. The total flavonoids of A. officinarum can inhibit pain induced by acetic acid and heat stimulation in mice. Liang et al. (2013) studied the therapeutic and analgesic effects of total flavonoids from A. officinarum (GLJ) on acetic acid-induced visceral hypersensitivity in rats with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The results showed that GLJ had a certain inhibitory effect on pain induced by heat stimulation, acetic acid, and formaldehyde in mice. Zha Wangjian et al. (Cha, 2015) found that galangin can inhibit airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness to some extent in a mouse model of asthma. In addition, A. officinarum and its main compounds have anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 cells. This may be related to the inhibition of NF-κB activation. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of the total flavonoids of A. officinarum is shown in Figure 5A.
FIGURE 5
5.3 Antioxidant effect
An antioxidant is a type of active substance that can eliminate the inhibition of lipid peroxidation by free radicals. It can prevent the damage caused by lipid peroxidation to organisms. In a comparative study on the antioxidant activity of various components of A. officinarum extract, Lin et al. (2017) discovered that the diphenylheptanes exhibited antioxidant activity both in vitro and in vivo. Xia et al. (2009) found that the total flavonoids of A. officinarum can act as antioxidants by inhibiting reactive oxygen free radicals and decreasing the catalytic activity of metal ions in vitro. In the HepG2 oxidative damage model induced by H2O2, diphenylheptane in A. officinarum showed significant antioxidant activity. The extract of A. officinarum could potentially prevent oxidative stress damage by activating the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway. The antioxidant mechanism of the extract of A. officinarum is shown in Figure 5B.
5.4 Antibacterial effect
The in vitro antibacterial experiment conducted by Zhao et al. (2007) showed that the chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts of A. officinarum exhibited anti-Candida albicans activity. The chloroform extract of A. officinarum, at a concentration of 20 mg/mL, demonstrated strong activity. Qin et al. (2015) showed that both the alcohol extract and water extract of A. officinarum had a good inhibitory effect on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, but had no significant inhibitory effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Acinetobacter, or Escherichia coli. Flavonoids are the most important antibacterial components of A. officinarum. Ouyang et al. (2018) studied the impact of galangin on the antibacterial activity against vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus. The study results showed that galangin had significant inhibitory activity against ATCC25293, N315, and Mu50, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 32 mg/L. The results of further studies showed that galangin inhibited the growth of bacteria by inhibiting the activity of cell wall hydrolase. At the same time, the effect of quercetin on P. aeruginosa PAO1 was also studied (Ouyang et al., 2016). The results showed that 16 mg/L of quercetin could significantly inhibit the biofilm formation, the quorum sensing system, and independent factors of P. aeruginosa. This suggests that quercetin may have the potential to treat biofilm-associated infections.
5.5 Improve memory ability
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic degenerative disease of the central nervous system in middle-aged and elderly individuals. Its main clinical manifestation is cognitive dysfunction. Huang Liping (Huang et al., 2022) has shown that galangin can improve learning and memory impairment in APP/PS1 mice. It may inhibit the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the brain through the cholinergic pathway, increasing the level of ACh and improving learning and memory function. On the other hand, it may play a role in protecting hippocampal neurons by regulating the Akt/MEF2D/Beclin-1 signaling pathway and clearing abnormal proteins in hippocampal neurons through autophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). This can reduce the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) and the formation of tau protein. It can be concluded that galangin may improve the learning and memory impairment of APP/PS1 mice by regulating the Akt/MEF2D/Beclin-1 signaling pathway. In the PC12 cell injury model stimulated by H2O2, A. officinarum extract can significantly reduce the lactate dehydrogenase leakage rate, decrease the content of MDA, and increase the activities of SOD and GSH-Px (Zhai et al., 2014b).
5.6 Anti-tumor effect
The anti-tumor mechanism of A. officinarum can be reflected in regulating the cell cycle, inducing tumor cell apoptosis and autophagy, inhibiting tumor cell migration and invasion, and reversing drug resistance in tumors. Luo and Liu (2020) found that galangin has a broad-spectrum anti-tumor effect. Its inhibitory effect on different tumor cells varies and depends on time and concentration. Galangin can strongly inhibit the genotoxicity of chemical toxic substances in vivo and in vitro, making it a potential preventive drug for cancer. Zhang et al. (2012) found that A. officinarum can induce apoptosis by activating mitochondrial apoptosis, caspases, and causing changes in the levels of Bcl-2 in various liver cancer cell lines. Additionally, kaempferol derived from A. officinarum has the ability to induce apoptosis in HCCLM3 and Huh7 cells by controlling the ATM/CHEK2/KNL1 signaling pathway.
5.7 Other functions
In addition to the above pharmacological effects, A. officinarum has anti-liver injury, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and anticoagulant effects. Zhou et al. (2012) showed that A. officinarum can protect the function of hepatocytes in mice after an acute alcoholic liver injury. The results showed that A. officinarum could significantly reduce the concentrations of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) in the serum of mice after injury, indicating that A. officinarum has a certain hepatoprotective effect. Its pharmacological mechanism may be to protect liver cells by scavenging free radicals and reducing the degree of damage caused by alcohol. Akhtar et al. (2002) showed that the extract of A. officinarum has a significant hypoglycemic effect. In the hypoglycemic experiment on normal male New Zealand rabbits, oral A. officinarum powder at a dose of 3 g/kg significantly reduced blood glucose levels. The methanol and water extracts showed even more pronounced hypoglycemic effects. When the oral dose was increased to 4 g/kg, there was a significant decrease in blood glucose levels of rabbits after 8 h. However, A. officinarum powder and its extract had no effect on rabbits with diabetes induced by alloxan. Therefore, its hypoglycemic effect may be achieved by promoting insulin secretion from the pancreas in the body. Obese patients are often accompanied by abnormal fat metabolism, which can lead to high blood total cholesterol (TC) and/or triglyceride (TG) levels. Fang et al. (2015) showed that middle and high doses of total flavonoids from A. officinarum play a significant role in controlling body mass, fat accumulation, and cholesterol metabolism, as well as reducing the levels of serum leptin and plasma neuropeptide Y in nutritionally obese rats with hyperlipidemia. A study (Luo et al., 2015) has shown that galangin has an obvious inhibitory effect on thrombosis in rats, demonstrating a certain anticoagulant effect. The potential mechanism may be to improve the blood flow state of rats by participating in the endogenous coagulation system.
6 Conclusion and prospection
A. officinarum is an important traditional Chinese medicine for both medicine and food. Using modern research methods, the pharmacological effects of its active compounds have been clearly described, and the mechanisms of anti-gastric ulcer, inhibition of gastrointestinal motility, antioxidant effect, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesia have been gradually clarified. The treatment of traditional digestive tract diseases has been expanded to a certain extent, broadening its scope of clinical application. So far, 337 compounds have been isolated from A. officinarum. Among them, galangin is a very important active compound extracted from A. officinarum. The pharmacological effects of galangin are very extensive. However, most pharmacological effects are currently only verified in cell and animal models, and there is a lack of clinical study data to support them. In addition, the mechanism of pharmacological action of galangin is not fully understood. Most studies are limited to the pharmacodynamic level or a few specific targets or pathways, and are unable to elucidate the general mechanism of action or the connection between the various targets and pathways. In the future, based on existing research, network pharmacology, bioinformatics, and multi-omics analysis can be used to comprehensively and deeply analyze the molecular mechanisms, genes, and signaling pathways of galangin. Further studies are needed to explore the extracts of A. officinarum for any potential toxicities, side effects, and contraindications. With the continuous discovery of the structure of the active components of A. officinarum and the in-depth study of its pharmacological activity, its pharmacodynamic mechanism is gradually becoming clear. The research scope of the pharmacological activity of A. officinarum has been continuously expanded by the vast number of scientific research works, and its medicinal value will be further developed and applied.
Statements
Author contributions
XL: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. JW: Software, Writing–original draft. KZ: Writing–original draft. TX: Writing–original draft. JZ: Writing–review and editing. XX: Writing–original draft. QL: Writing–original draft. XL: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing–review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The study was supported by the Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (819QN230), the Top Talent Support Program for young and middle-aged people of Wuxi Health Committee (BJ2022072), Jiangsu CM Clinical Innovation Center of Degenerative Bone & Joint Disease, Natural Science Foundation project of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine (XZR2023091).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Abbreviations
AD, Alzheimer’s disease; AUC, area under the curve; AchE, acetylcholinesterase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate transaminase; Cmax, peak concentration; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; CMA, chaperone-mediated autophagy; DIC, disseminated intravascular coagulation; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; GG-1, galangin-3-O-β-D-glucuronic acid; GG-2, galangin-7-O-β-D-glucuronic acid; IBS, irritable bowel syndrome; Ka, absorption rate constants; MDA, malondialdehyde; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; MOT, motilin; NO, nitric oxide; GAS, gastrin; Papp, apparent absorption coefficients; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; SOD, superoxide dismutase; SP, substance P; SS, serum somatostatin; tpeak, peak time; t1/2ke, elimination half-life; t1/2ka, absorption half-life; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides; VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide; TLR4, toll-like receptor 4; NGF, nerve growth factor; CGRP, calcitonin gene-related peptide; GU, gastric ulcer.
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Summary
Keywords
Alpinia officinarum Hance, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetic
Citation
Lei X, Wang J, Zuo K, Xia T, Zhang J, Xu X, Liu Q and Li X (2024) Alpinia officinarum Hance: a comprehensive review of traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacokinetic and pharmacology. Front. Pharmacol. 15:1414635. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1414635
Received
09 April 2024
Accepted
01 August 2024
Published
16 August 2024
Volume
15 - 2024
Edited by
Laiba Arshad, Forman Christian College, Pakistan
Reviewed by
Verena Spiegler, University of Münster, Germany
Sabi Ur Rehman, Forman Christian College, Pakistan
Updates
Copyright
© 2024 Lei, Wang, Zuo, Xia, Zhang, Xu, Liu and Li.
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*Correspondence: Xiaoliang Li, lixiaoliang-1984@163.com
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