From Learned Helplessness to Learned Controllability: CogniƟve and Neurobiological Aspects Involved in the Development of Trauma or Resilience

Gustavo E Tafet^*

• Texas A&M University, College Station, United States

The concept of "learned helplessness" plays a criƟcal role in clinical psychiatry and behavioral sciences. It was originally introduced to describe a phenomenon in which individuals develop the belief that they have no control over environmental stressors (Seligman & Maier, 1967). This concept emerged from a series of experiments in which animals were exposed to repeated inescapable and uncontrollable situaƟons, such as receiving electric shocks without the possibility of avoidance. Later, the same animals were placed in a situaƟon where they could avoid the shocks, but instead of aƩempƟng to escape, they simply gave up, exhibiƟng a passive response that reflected a sense of helplessness. When animals repeatedly experienced uncontrollable situaƟons, they learned that their acƟons could not influence the outcomes, leading to a state of "learned helplessness." IniƟally observed in animals, this condiƟon was subsequently described in humans, arising from the prolonged and sustained impact of environmental stressors. When these stressors are perceived as unavoidable and uncontrollable, individuals learn to believe they lack the necessary resources to cope, resulƟng in learned helplessness. Consequently, this concept has been closely associated with the onset and development of psychiatric condiƟons, such as depression (Abramson et al., 1978). In contrast, the concept of "learned controllability" was introduced more recently to describe a condiƟon in which individuals learn to recognize—or believe—they have the ability to respond effecƟvely to environmental stressors, thereby counteracƟng the deleterious effects of learned helplessness (Maier & Seligman, 1976; Maier & Watkins, 2005). Importantly, the subjecƟve percepƟon of controllability can be developed and learned, and it has been closely associated with the development of resilience. This special issue provides novel insights into the neurobiological and psychological mechanisms underlying these concepts. By examining how the percepƟon of control—or its absence—can influence pathophysiological processes in the context of both trauma and resilience, it offers perspecƟves that may help improve treatments, develop prevenƟve strategies for trauma and depression, and foster resilience. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these processes from cogniƟve and neurobiological perspecƟves provided essenƟal resources for the advancement of psychiatric treatments. Modern neuroscience has revealed how the brain responds to experiences of helplessness and controllability, demonstraƟng cogniƟve and emoƟonal processing as well as neurobiological pathways involved in neuroplasƟcity and psychoplasƟcity, which can be modulated to promote resilience or alleviate the effects of chronic stress. In this context, the arƟcles in this special issue provide valuable contribuƟons that enrich our theoreƟcal understanding and pave the way for more precise and personalized therapeuƟc intervenƟons. A deeper understanding of how individuals perceive control could lead to the development of more effecƟve strategies targeƟng the modulaƟon of cogniƟve funcƟons and neurobiological circuits involved in learned helplessness and learned controllability. By intervening in these mechanisms, it may be possible to regulate the effects of chronic stress while enhancing resilience, providing a strong foundaƟon for more precise and personalized therapeuƟc approaches. In this regard, therapeuƟc approaches aimed at improving the subjecƟve percepƟon of control may help paƟents restructure their emoƟonal and cogniƟve responses, facilitate recovery, and improve stress-coping abiliƟes. Moreover, this special issue emphasizes mechanisms that facilitate posiƟve adaptaƟon to stress, resilience, and recovery. This perspecƟve has the potenƟal to contribute to clinical pracƟce by guiding the development of intervenƟons aimed at promoƟng learned controllability. These arƟcles collecƟvely illuminate the mulƟfaceted nature of stress and resilience, with parƟcular aƩenƟon to the role of control—both perceived and learned—across various contexts. Several common themes emerge, including the criƟcal role of neural structures such as the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, and diverse neurotransmiƩer pathways, such as the serotonergic system, in mediaƟng responses to stress. These contribuƟons provide insights into how resilience can be culƟvated and how the effects of stress can be regulated. Exploring learned controllability as a modifiable factor opens new avenues for intervenƟons aimed at enhancing resilience, parƟcularly in individuals who have experienced significant stress, empowering them with a sense of control and agency. As research in this area progresses, it is crucial to conƟnue invesƟgaƟng the neurobiological, cogniƟve, and emoƟonal mechanisms underlying trauma and resilience. Future studies should also explore how early-life stress and other developmental factors interact with the neurobiological pathways of resilience. Finally, the findings in this issue highlight the need for personalized approaches to treatment that consider the unique neurobiological and psychological factors influencing each individual's response to adverse condiƟons. Cross-disciplinary collaboraƟon between neuroscienƟsts and clinicians is essenƟal to bridge the gap between basic research and clinical pracƟce. By integraƟng insights from mulƟple fields, more effecƟve, evidence-based strategies can be developed to prevent and treat stress-related disorders, ulƟmately fostering greater controllability and resilience in individuals exposed to chronic stressful condiƟons.